Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.21 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 4 55 2409113 2394493 2022-07-24T22:56:18Z Eyoungstrom 1933979 /* Support staff directory */ added self (Eyoungstrom) to staff list wikitext text/x-wiki {{Shortcut|WV:STAFF}}<br /> {{Wikiversity organization}} Wikiversity staff are trusted Wikiversity users who volunteer as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They would be happy to assist you and answer any of your questions. You may also request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]. ; Curator : A user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, such as the ability to [[Wikiversity:Deletions|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[Wikiversity:Page_protection|protect]]. ; Custodians : Known as administrators or sysops on other projects, these users are able to perform maintenance-related tasks including protecting and deleting pages and images, blocking other users and editing the user interface text. See [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]]. ; Bureaucrats : Users who can promote other users to custodian status, grant and revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot rights]]. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]]. ; Checkusers : Users who have access to the [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]], used to investigate situations where a disruptive user may be using multiple accounts. See: [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]. Currently has no members. ; Bots : Bots are accounts used by other Wikiversity users to perform repetitive automated or semi-automated tasks such as fixing links, eliminating typos, changing categories, etc. See [[Wikiversity:Bots]]. __NOTOC__ == Help == '''If you need help you can [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request assistance]] from a custodian'''. {{clear}} == Support staff directory == Listed below are the Wikiversity support staff. For a automatically-generated list of staff, please see the [[Special:ListUsers/curator|curator list]], [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|custodian list]], and the [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat list]]. <div style="text-align: center;">'''Custodians who have been active in the last three months (as of December 2020 based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold.<br> Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance.'''</div> {|class="sortable" cellspacing="3" style="width:100%" |- style="background-color:#ccccee;" ! User ! Role ! Appointed ! Time Zone ! Babel ! Logs |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|December 18 2015}} | | en, de-2 |[[Special:Log/Atcovi|Atcovi]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|August 22 2017}} | | de, en-3 | [[Special:Log/Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Cody naccarato|Cody naccarato]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|February 19 2021}} | EST (UTC-5) | en, it-2, es-1, ar-1 | [[Special:Log/Cody naccarato|Cody naccarato]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:CQ|CQ]] | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|April 24 2007}} | CST (UTC-6) | en, [[Wikiversity:Interlingual Beta Club|beta]] | [[Special:Log/CQ|CQ]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Cromium|Cromium]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|April 25 2017}} | | | [[Special:Log/Cromium|Cromium]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|October 20 2019}} | | | [[Special:Log/DannyS712|DannyS712]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] & [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|September 4 2013}} | CST (UTC-6) | en | [[Special:Log/Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|October 30 2017}} | AEDT (UTC+11) | en | [[Special:Log/Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|July 24 2022}} | EST (UTC-5) | en | [[Special:Log/Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:Faendalimas|Faendalimas]] | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|November 11 2019}} | | en, pt | [[Special:Log/Faendalimas|Faendalimas]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|March 5 2015}} | EST (UTC-5) | en, ru-2 | [[Special:Log/Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|April 28 2007}} | | en | [[Special:Log/HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Hasley|Hasley]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|November 8 2019}} | UTC-4 | es, en-3, ca-2, it-1, pt-1, gl-1 | [[Special:Log/Hasley|Hasley]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] & [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|April 16 2008}} | AEST (UTC+10:00) | en | [[Special:Log/Jtneill|Jtneill]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Juandev|Juandev]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|January 1 2009}} | UTC+1 | cs, en-3, es-3, pl-1 | [[Special:Log/Juandev|Juandev]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|October 21 2016}} | | | [[Special:Log/Koavf|Koavf]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | '''[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]''' | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|February 29 2016}} | | en | [[Special:Log/Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|October 24 2009}} | NZST (UTC+12) | en | [[Special:Log/Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]] | {{dts|January 29 2016}} | | en | [[Special:Log/Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:Mu301|Mu301]] | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] & [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|January 7 2008}} | EST/EDT (UTC-5/-4) | en | [[Special:Log/Mu301|Mu301]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" | [[User:RadiX|RadiX]] | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] | {{dts|October 30 2011}} | | pt, en-3, es-2, fr-2, it-2, gl-1, sk-1, (sq, ms, hi)-0.5 | [[Special:Log/RadiX|RadiX]] |- style="background-color:#eeeeff;" |[[User:SB Johnny|SB Johnny]] |[[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] & [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] |{{dts|August 27 2006}} | |en, de-2, fr-2, es-1 |[[Special:Log/SB Johnny|SB Johnny]] |} == Candidates == '''If you would like to help out as a custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]].''' You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a custodian. See [[Wikiversity:Catalyst]] for example. ==See also== *[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]] **[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]] **[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Sysops]] **[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]] *[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]] *[[Wikiversity:Administrator Creation and Behavioral Criteria Guidelines and Policy]] - historical interest only; there is a newer page *[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] - information for custodians *[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] *[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity] [[Category:Wikiversity administration]] [[Category:Wikiversity custodians| ]] [[Category:Wikiversity support staff]] hsipzdig3rw2cytz8gysh6ujecqthk7 0 2936 2409096 1575302 2022-07-24T18:55:25Z 97.103.133.150 smoothed out the grammar wikitext text/x-wiki Higher algebra studies the algebraic structures that arise in higher mathematics and unifies various themes that run throughout mathematical experience. Physicists may be most familiar with groups, but group theory pervades many parts of mathematics and arose to solve a primarily mathematical problem. Category theory is a relatively new topic that arose from the study of cohomology in topology but quickly broke free of its shackles to that area and became a powerful tool that currently challenges set theory as a foundation of mathematics, although category theory requires more mathematical experience to appreciate and cannot in its current state be reasonably used to introduce mathematics. It has also found many applications in the physical sciences. == Readings == * [[Wikipedia: Group theory]] * [[Wikipedia: Ring theory]] * [[Wikipedia: Field theory]] * [[Wikipedia: Category theory]] * [[Wikipedia: Representation theory]] * [[Wikipedia: Non-associative algebra]] * [[Wikipedia: Multilinear algebra]] == Resources == * [[Group theory]] * [[Category theory]] * [[Representation theory]] [[Category:Mathematics]] gfzc3tbtgsg90c0q047edgi9a8md1v2 0 12738 2409073 1119900 2022-07-24T15:20:09Z 103.211.18.174 added content wikitext text/x-wiki Χɴ= Drosophila Sex Determination = In Drosophila, sex is determined by the X:autosome ratio and is independent of the Y chromosome. XX:AA = female X:AA = male XX:AAA = intersex; these individuals are sexual mosaics; individual cells are either fully female or fully male sex index ratio =1 , normal demale =o.5 , male >1 , super female or meta female <0.5 , super male or meta male between 0.5 to 1 , intersex these are points to remember == Pathway Deduction from Genetics == Phenotype examination of double mutants establish the sex determination pathway: ''dsx'' is epistatic to ''tra'', ''tra-2'', ''Sxl'' ''dsx'' and ''ix'' are indistinguishable in females; ''ix'' is placed downstream because it only effects females. ''tra'' and ''tra-2'' are epistatic to ''Sxl'' but not distinguishable from each other === Sex Specific Lethality === ''Sxl'' and upstream genes effect dosage compensation, thus they result in sex-specific lethality instead of transformations. X:autosome ratio is assessed early and then no longer needed. Once ''Sxl'' is activated, it is autoregulated in females, ''da'', ''sis-a'', and ''sis-b'' are only needed for initial signal first. == Molecular Analysis of Drosophila Sex Determination == === dsx === ''dsx'' can be alternatively spliced to give 2 RNAs differing at their 3' end (they use different splice acceptor sites. Mutations in the splice acceptor of the female specific exon lead to default use of male-specific exons. ''Tra'' and ''tra-2'' thus promote the female specific splice rather than inhibit the male specific splice. === tra === ''tra'' can be alternatively spliced to give sex-nonspecific RNA and female specific RNA Non-specific RNA includes a stop codon and produces no active product. Its splicing is regulated by ''Sxl'' and unaffected by ''tra-2''. ''Sxl'' blocks use of the non-specific acceptor site. ''Sxl'' has no effect on ''tra-2'' transcripts. ''Sxl'' exerts control of somatic sex solely by effects on ''tra''. ''Tra-2'' is only functionally active in the presence of ''tra'' gene product. Active product of ''tra-2'' has homology to RNA-binding domains of splicing factors. === Sxl === Like ''tra-2'' the active product of ''Sxl'' has homology to RNA-binding domains of splicing factors. Early ''Sxl'' expression is from a different promoter which is sensitive to X:A ration. At later times, ''Sxl'' product made from this early promoter can prevent splicing to the male exon and allow the production of female-specific RNA. === sis-a and sis-b === ''Sis-a'' and ''sis-b'' function by counting X chromosomes. ''da'' and ''sis-b'' encode helix-loop-helix proteins which function as heterodimers. ''Da'' is supplied maternally in excess. Dosage of ''sis-b'' determines the amount of helix-loop-helix heterodimer that can bind to ''Sxl'' and activate it. === hairy === ''Hairy'' is another helix-loop-helix protein which, when bound to ''sis-b'' makes an inactive dimer. ''Sxl'' is no longer activated in the presence of ''hairy'' protein. [[Category:Genetics]] [[Category:Methods]] [[Category:Biology]] qosrfa6c2ktacohvme7soz56y9ss3he 0 28055 2409190 2407792 2022-07-25T08:09:10Z Peter.mlich 2946719 add link to description insert-sort-middle wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Data Structures and Algorithms/Sidebar}} The wish for order is pretty old and there are as many reasons as there are things that could be sorted. But the main reason for sorting is the fact that finding can be much faster when one can rely on an order. Sorting is the main condition for effective searching. This is true for stores as well as dictionaries. In this chapter sorting is restricted to the sorting of data records. Since the times are long gone when tapes were used as data storage, we restrict to the sorting of data where we have random access. It does not matter whether the records are stored in the fast [[w:Random-access memory|RAM]] or on [[w:Hard disk drive|disc]]; the functionality of the algorithms stays the same. Additionally we require that the [[w:Record (computer science)|data records]] have all the same length and structure and that they are stored as a list; hence this chapter is called „Sorting of Arrays“. The structure of the data records is of no importance for us; we only have a look at the key, which is that part of the data record, by which the records are sorted. At the times when storage was very expensive, the memory needs of an algorithm were of importance and algorithms that could work [[w:In-place algorithm|"in place"]] were favored (the array with the data was given to the routine doing the sorting and the sorted data was returned in the same array). Nowadays it is much more interesting to have the possibility to select the behavior depending on the wish to later use the data again in their original order. When checking the usability of an algorithm the following criteria are of importance: * is the algorithm able to handle the sorting key * is there sufficient memory available * is the algorithm faster than alternative ones * is it possible to implement the algorithm in the wanted programming language In this chapter we will have a look at some selected sorting algorithms in order to explain the basic strategies; after studying this chapter one should be able to select a suitable algorithm for a given problem and to understand the principles and characteristics of algorithms not explained here. ==Introduction== Simplified one could say that sorting is based on these elementary operations: * selecting and inserting * interchange * spreading and collecting * distributing '''Sorting in applications''' In the mayority of all applications sorting is an important operation and is responsable for a big amount of processing time when there are more than a few hundred data records. There are estimates that 20% to 30% of the runtime of professional programs is used for sorting. Sorting we find in very different fields. * words in a dictionary (alphabetical order) * statement of account (ordered by date) * student records (name, social security number, subject, ...) * addresses (zip-code, name of town/city, street, ....) ===Definition of the Problem=== When a child sorts its toys all blue things go into one box, all yellow ones into another and all red ones into a third box and all others into box number four. We see that the criteria for sorting must not be numerical, they must only be distinguishable. Therefore we have to introduce another restriction: when comparing the elements of a list, it must be possible to tell whether element A is smaller, of same value, or bigger than element B. When sorting colored toys we have to number the colors -making a numbered list- or we could use the wavelength of the colors. When comparing numerical values, we normally work with build in functions; the compiler will automaticly know how to treat <pre>if(A > B)</pre> depending on the definition of the variables. If somebody writes a program in [[w:Assembly language|assembler]] for an old 8-bit processor, he will have to check the definition of how the bits of a 32-bit [[w:Floating point|float]] have to be interpreted so that a meaningful sorting routine can be programed. For alphabetical order we need to have a list with two columns. In the first column we have the number of the row and in the other column we have the interpretation. One of the most commonly used list of this type is the [[w:ASCII|ASCII-table]]. What the computer does is not really an alphabetical sort, the sort is by position numbers. All the algorithms discussed in this chapter work with numerical representations where a smaller-, bigger-, same-relation is defined. ===Indirect sort=== The time necessary for swapping data records can be reduced drastically when it is possible to maintain a list with references to the records and just to swap these references. After the sorting the array with the data records is still untouched; but in the array with the references we have the numbers of the data records in such a way that when rearranging the data records following these numbers, the data records will be sorted. The time necessary for this rearrangement increases in linear fashion <math>\mathcal O(n)</math> with the number of data records. Working with indirect sort is indicated when the costs for swapping are high (the length of the data record is much longer than the 4 bytes for an index) and there is no problem to provide the additional memory (since it is just 4 bytes per record this problem should occur seldom). === Stability === In applications it happens frequently that data records have to be sorted by more than one criteria. For example we have a list with addresses and we want to sort it by second name and within the second name by first name. A sorting algorithm is called stable when such a list is sorted first by first name and then by second name, and every block with identical second name is still sorted by first name. A stable sorting algorithm does not destroy the results of previous sorts. With algorithms that are not stable there is much more effort involved for getting the same result. First the list has to be sorted by second name and then all the blocks with identical second name have to be detected and sorted by first name. For sorting an address list by zip-code, within zip-code by street name, within street name by second name, within second name by first name, the program code will become a bit complicated when using an unstable algorithm. With a stable algorithm the four sorts are done in reverse order and everything is done. ===Runtime-Analysis=== Sorting algorithms are playing an important role in computer science and during the years a lot of algorithms were developed. A classical way to make up groups of algorithms is to distinguish whether they are comparison-based or not. Since most algorithms of the last type were very limited concerning their use this meant "usable" or "exotic". We will show here that it is a much better idea to distinguish dividing and non-dividing algorithms in order to explain the different speeds. With dividing is meant making subgroups from groups. In this chapter we only give a very brief description of the algorithms; a detailed description can be found further down. First we have a look at an algorithm of the non-dividing type. ====SelectionSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SelectionSort compares the keys of the data records in order to decide whether they have to be swapped or not. The algorithm starts with the first record and checks all the other records whether their key value is smaller; if so, the records are swapped. If no smaller key can be found, the algorithm continues with the second record, then with the third record and so on. In a rough estimate one can say that every key is compared with all the others. As a result we get a square characteristic. The time for a sort can be estimated by '''T = B * n² ''' where B is a constant reflecting the implementation. |} If there are only two data records, the algorithms of this type are reduced to the question whether the two records have to be swapped or not. In this special case these algorithms are faster than all the others. Now we have a look at some algorithms which follow the motto "divide and conquer". ====QuickSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| The algorithm QuickSort is frequently used. When it starts the totality of the data records is taken as a single domain. For this domain a so called pivot-element is selected in such a way that approximately half of the keys have a smaller value than the pivot. Then the data records are separated into a lower and a higher sub-domain. The method is then repeated recursively on the sub-domains. Domains with one or no record are defined as sorted. This repeated splitting could be visualized as a binary tree and the number of levels tells how many times the domains could be divided into two sub-domains. Therefor the time needed can be estimated by '''T = C * n * lg₂(n)''' where C is a constant reflecting the implementation. |} ====BucketSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|The classic under the sorting algorithms is BucketSort. It works with m buckets and a -however defined- function for evaluation into which bucket a record shall go. If, after sorting all records, we have records with different values in a bucket, then the content of this bucket has to be sorted again internally. This can, of course, be done by BucketSort but with a different function for bucket evaluation (the key values are different!). If these functions are generated automatically and in a way that the distribution into the buckets is even into again m buckets, the time for sorting can be estimated by '''T = D * n * lg_m(N)''' where D is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is the maximum number of different keys possible. |} ====RadixSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|The absolute classic (invented 1887 by [[w:Herman Hollerith|Herman Hollerith]]) is RadixSort, which was used for sorting numbered punched cards. A sorting machine with 10 buckets was adjusted to read the last digit of the numbers. Depending on the value of this digit the cards were distributed to the buckets. Then, starting with bucket number zero, the cards were recollected. Then the machine was adjusted to the second last digit, the cards were distributed and recollected. This was repeated until the stack was sorted by the first digit. The time for sorting can be estimated by '''T = E * n * lg₁₀(N)''' where E is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. Often the equation T ≈ n * d is found where d stays for the number of digits. Since the logarithm tells how many times N can be divided by 10 repeatedly, both equations tell the same, but the first one makes it possible to compare the characteristic with other algorithms. |} ====ExtraDix==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort. It simulates sorting machines with 256 buckets. The number 256 is somehow "natural" because one byte is the size of the smallest key in use (8-bit-numbers or characters). The time for sorting can therefor be estimated by '''T = F * n * lg₂₅₆(N)''' where F is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. The expression lg₂₅₆(N) gives the number of bytes of the key and for a 32-bit integer this is 4. |} ====Automatic Division vs Fixed Division==== It is conspicuous that for QuickSort we work with the logarithm of '''n''' and for the other algorithms with '''N'''; we have a closer look at the why. There is an unlimited number of different real numbers and it is possible to proof that there is even an unlimited number of real numbers in any given interval. QuickSort and algorithms alike work with the assumption, that it is impossible to know beforehand, how many times the domains have to be subdivided. Therefor the number of division levels is evaluated during the sort. The other algorithms work with the assumption, that on a computer the number of different values is limited and countable. Even when working with floats of double precision the maximum number of different values is known beforehand and this number is 2⁶⁴. When the dividing factor stays constant -same number of buckets or domains on any level- it is possible to tell the number of division levels that make sense; from there on only records with identical key values will be found in a bucket. ====How to compare algorithms==== If we have 4 data records, QuickSort has finished its job after two recursion levels (on any recursion level all the records have to be handled once). If working with RadixSort and numbers from 00.000 up to 99.999, all the data records have to be handled five times. We have a real advantage for QuickSort. This changes instantly when we have to sort 200.000 data records. RadixSort still has to handle all the records only five times but QuickSort now generates 18 recursion levels (2¹⁸ = 262 144) and handles all the records on any level. When looking for the fastest algorithm for a task we can use the equations in order to estimate the relation between them. If one wants to know from which number of records onwards ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort when sorting 64-bit integers, one gets {| class="wikitable |- |width="20"| ||width="100"| '''F * n * lg₂₅₆(N)''' ||width="30"| ''' < ''' ||width="100"| '''C * n * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''F * n * 8''' || ''' < ''' || '''C * n * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''F * 8''' || ''' < ''' || '''C * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''n''' || ''' > ''' || ''' 2 ^{F * 8 / C}''' |} Under the assumption that C and F have the same value, F / C becomes 1 and the result is that for more than 256 data records ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort. ==non-dividing algorithms== ===BubbleSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| The algorithm runs repeatedly through an array comparing element i with element i+1. If these records are not sorted they are swapped. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> as well for the '''worst-case''' as for the '''average-case''' Link to a detailed description of '''[[Bubble sort|BubbleSort]]''' |} ===SelectionSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SelectionSort runs in a double loop. The first element is compared with all the other ones. If a smaller one is found, the records are swapped. Then the second element is compared with all the other ones and so on. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[SelectionSort]]''' '''Modification tournament pyramid''' save winner (as index) of near pair for next round. Need more memory. Speed of algorithm as quick sort. Stable. '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math> |} ===InsertionSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| InsertionSort is a "natural" sorting algorithm and it is used to insert a new record into an already sorted list. The first step is to find the position where the new record should be; then the rest of the list is moved one position up and in the last step the record is inserted. The number of comparisons and record moves can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSort]]''' (insert top) '''Modification insert to middle''' (too called as binary insert). Insert sort get next number and search put position from top of array. This version get next and search position from 50% of array size (25%, 12.5% ...). The number of comparisons and have '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. But, need same time for shift array (when find position, must move down +1 other number from this position) as top-version. Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSortMiddle]]''' (insert middle) |} ==dividing algorithms== The algorithms of this category follow the motto '''[[w:Divide and rule|"divide and conquer"]]'''. Why the motto "divide and conquer" brings a benefit when sorting [[/Benefit of D&C/|you can learn here]]. As already shown in the runtime-analysis these algorithms can be subdivided into those which calculate the number of recursion levels dynamically and those which work with a fixed number of repetitions. ===dynamic division=== The algorithms of this type do the division into sub-domains based on the number of data records. Most of these algorithms do not work stable. ====MergeSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| MergeSort is a recursive algorithm which splits an input list into two sublists. When a level is reached where there is only one element in the list, it returns. Since returned sublists are sorted, a single sorted list can be build by merging the two sublists. Starting with the smallest elements of both lists the smaller one is moved to the result and deleted from the sublist. If one of the sublists is empty, the rest of the other sublist is moved to the result without compare operations. The algorithm is stable but not "in place". With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_2n)</math> for average case and worst case sorts. By grouping sorted sequences into sublists (called runs) which are not divided any more, the best case can be <math>\mathcal O(n)</math>. Link to a detailed description of '''[[MergeSort]]''' |} ====QuickSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| From a domain a so called [[w:Pivot element|pivot-element]] is determined. This pivot divides the domain into two sub-domains; one domain with the keys being smaller or equal to the pivot and the other sub-domain with keys being bigger or equal to the pivot. The sub-domains are processed recursively. Domains with one or zero records are seen as sorted. With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_2n)</math> for best case and average case sorts. When using the algorithm in its basic form (as pivot-element always the key of the first or last element of the domain is selected) the timing depends strongly on the distribution of the key values. If the key values are already sorted the worst case is characterized by <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math>. If the pivot element is selected by pure chance it is very improbable to make disadvantageous selections all the time. With some more effort (histograms) an optimal pivot can be selected. Link to a detailed description of '''[[QuickSort]]''' |} ====BucketSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| In BucketSort a function valuates the key of a record and gives the number of the bucket into which it has to go. The number of buckets is determined when this function is generated. After a sorting phase it is normal to find records with different key values in the same buckets. Then the content of these buckets have to be sorted internally. This can again be done by help of BucketSort, but the valuating functions have to be adapted to other key values. If the number m of buckets is identical on any level of recursion, the time necessary for sorting follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>. Link to a detailed description of '''[[BucketSort]]''' |} {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|In this implementation BucketSort is recursive and sorts by integer keys. The distribution function is evaluated automatically for any bucket by searching for the smalles and biggest key value and by dividing this range into as many subranges as buckets are requested.The sorting is stable and indirect. The number of buckets to be used on any recursion level is adjusted by a parameter. If this number is 2, a QuickSort with optimized pivot detection is realized. And here comes a novelty: After finding the smallest and the biggest key value it is checked whether they are identical; if so, all the key values in this bucket are identical as well and there is no need for another recursion level. We get the lower border for computing time if all key values are identical; there we get <math>\mathcal O(n)</math>. If there are no identical key values at all, we first get <math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>, but then there is a limitation. With the sorting key being a 4 byte integer, there will be in maximum 32 recursion levels, no matter how many data records we got, because on the 32nd level all key values in a bucket have to be identical! '''The proof that '''<math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>''' is the lower border for comparison based sorting algorithms is only a faulty thesis!''' [[BucketsortInC|'''Sample program in C''']] |} ====SortedListMergingSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SortedListMergingSort serach for sorted list in array and merge two to one. Comparation near: <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. Memory: <math>\mathcal (2..3)*n</math>. '''Modification 1 ''' not detect sorted. Set sorted as array size = 1. Then merge two array to one. All 1 and 1 to 2. Then all 2 and 2 to 4 (array size)... Comparation near: <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. Memory: <math>\mathcal 2*n</math>. Easiest algorithm. |} ===fixed division=== Before starting the sort it is known how many different key values are possible. If sorting by an 4 byte unsigned integer the values can be between 0 and a bit more than 4 billions. When using RadixSort it is clear that the numbers in decimal notation can have up to ten digits so we need ten sorting sequences. When using ExtraDix four are enough. ====RadixSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| RadixSort is not comparison-based and it is stable. A punched card sorting machine with ten buckets is simulated. First the machine is adjusted to the last digit and the records are distributed depending on the last digit of the key. Then the records are recollected, the machine is adjusted to the second last digit and the records are distributed depending on that digit. This cycle of adjusting, distributing and recollecting is repeated until the records are sorted by the very first digit. The time necessary for this follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_{10}N)</math>. N is the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before they are sorted has no effect whatsoever on the time necessary for a sort. Link to a detailed description of '''[[RadixSort]]''' |} ====ExtraDix==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort, hence the name '''Ext'''ended '''raDix'''. This algorithm simulates punched card sorting machines with 256 buckets. For any of the basic data types a variation is implemented. ExtraDix works stable and indirectly. The time necessary for a sort follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_{256}N)</math>. N is again the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before the sort has no influence whatsoever on the time necessary, therefor there is no best- nor worst-case. The memory needs are calculated by '''4kByte&nbsp;+&nbsp;24&nbsp;*&nbsp;n''' which is pretty moderate. The complete C source code of the algorithm can be downloaded from [http://www.sourceforge.net SourceForge] under the keyword '''ExtraDix'''. Link to a detailed description of '''[[ExtraDix]]''' |} [[Category:Data Structures and Algorithms]] [[Category:Sorting]] bsyl8h9kjn3b3r3knd5e4sn1zm6dn10 2409193 2409190 2022-07-25T08:17:45Z Peter.mlich 2946719 /* SortedListMergingSort */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Data Structures and Algorithms/Sidebar}} The wish for order is pretty old and there are as many reasons as there are things that could be sorted. But the main reason for sorting is the fact that finding can be much faster when one can rely on an order. Sorting is the main condition for effective searching. This is true for stores as well as dictionaries. In this chapter sorting is restricted to the sorting of data records. Since the times are long gone when tapes were used as data storage, we restrict to the sorting of data where we have random access. It does not matter whether the records are stored in the fast [[w:Random-access memory|RAM]] or on [[w:Hard disk drive|disc]]; the functionality of the algorithms stays the same. Additionally we require that the [[w:Record (computer science)|data records]] have all the same length and structure and that they are stored as a list; hence this chapter is called „Sorting of Arrays“. The structure of the data records is of no importance for us; we only have a look at the key, which is that part of the data record, by which the records are sorted. At the times when storage was very expensive, the memory needs of an algorithm were of importance and algorithms that could work [[w:In-place algorithm|"in place"]] were favored (the array with the data was given to the routine doing the sorting and the sorted data was returned in the same array). Nowadays it is much more interesting to have the possibility to select the behavior depending on the wish to later use the data again in their original order. When checking the usability of an algorithm the following criteria are of importance: * is the algorithm able to handle the sorting key * is there sufficient memory available * is the algorithm faster than alternative ones * is it possible to implement the algorithm in the wanted programming language In this chapter we will have a look at some selected sorting algorithms in order to explain the basic strategies; after studying this chapter one should be able to select a suitable algorithm for a given problem and to understand the principles and characteristics of algorithms not explained here. ==Introduction== Simplified one could say that sorting is based on these elementary operations: * selecting and inserting * interchange * spreading and collecting * distributing '''Sorting in applications''' In the mayority of all applications sorting is an important operation and is responsable for a big amount of processing time when there are more than a few hundred data records. There are estimates that 20% to 30% of the runtime of professional programs is used for sorting. Sorting we find in very different fields. * words in a dictionary (alphabetical order) * statement of account (ordered by date) * student records (name, social security number, subject, ...) * addresses (zip-code, name of town/city, street, ....) ===Definition of the Problem=== When a child sorts its toys all blue things go into one box, all yellow ones into another and all red ones into a third box and all others into box number four. We see that the criteria for sorting must not be numerical, they must only be distinguishable. Therefore we have to introduce another restriction: when comparing the elements of a list, it must be possible to tell whether element A is smaller, of same value, or bigger than element B. When sorting colored toys we have to number the colors -making a numbered list- or we could use the wavelength of the colors. When comparing numerical values, we normally work with build in functions; the compiler will automaticly know how to treat <pre>if(A > B)</pre> depending on the definition of the variables. If somebody writes a program in [[w:Assembly language|assembler]] for an old 8-bit processor, he will have to check the definition of how the bits of a 32-bit [[w:Floating point|float]] have to be interpreted so that a meaningful sorting routine can be programed. For alphabetical order we need to have a list with two columns. In the first column we have the number of the row and in the other column we have the interpretation. One of the most commonly used list of this type is the [[w:ASCII|ASCII-table]]. What the computer does is not really an alphabetical sort, the sort is by position numbers. All the algorithms discussed in this chapter work with numerical representations where a smaller-, bigger-, same-relation is defined. ===Indirect sort=== The time necessary for swapping data records can be reduced drastically when it is possible to maintain a list with references to the records and just to swap these references. After the sorting the array with the data records is still untouched; but in the array with the references we have the numbers of the data records in such a way that when rearranging the data records following these numbers, the data records will be sorted. The time necessary for this rearrangement increases in linear fashion <math>\mathcal O(n)</math> with the number of data records. Working with indirect sort is indicated when the costs for swapping are high (the length of the data record is much longer than the 4 bytes for an index) and there is no problem to provide the additional memory (since it is just 4 bytes per record this problem should occur seldom). === Stability === In applications it happens frequently that data records have to be sorted by more than one criteria. For example we have a list with addresses and we want to sort it by second name and within the second name by first name. A sorting algorithm is called stable when such a list is sorted first by first name and then by second name, and every block with identical second name is still sorted by first name. A stable sorting algorithm does not destroy the results of previous sorts. With algorithms that are not stable there is much more effort involved for getting the same result. First the list has to be sorted by second name and then all the blocks with identical second name have to be detected and sorted by first name. For sorting an address list by zip-code, within zip-code by street name, within street name by second name, within second name by first name, the program code will become a bit complicated when using an unstable algorithm. With a stable algorithm the four sorts are done in reverse order and everything is done. ===Runtime-Analysis=== Sorting algorithms are playing an important role in computer science and during the years a lot of algorithms were developed. A classical way to make up groups of algorithms is to distinguish whether they are comparison-based or not. Since most algorithms of the last type were very limited concerning their use this meant "usable" or "exotic". We will show here that it is a much better idea to distinguish dividing and non-dividing algorithms in order to explain the different speeds. With dividing is meant making subgroups from groups. In this chapter we only give a very brief description of the algorithms; a detailed description can be found further down. First we have a look at an algorithm of the non-dividing type. ====SelectionSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SelectionSort compares the keys of the data records in order to decide whether they have to be swapped or not. The algorithm starts with the first record and checks all the other records whether their key value is smaller; if so, the records are swapped. If no smaller key can be found, the algorithm continues with the second record, then with the third record and so on. In a rough estimate one can say that every key is compared with all the others. As a result we get a square characteristic. The time for a sort can be estimated by '''T = B * n² ''' where B is a constant reflecting the implementation. |} If there are only two data records, the algorithms of this type are reduced to the question whether the two records have to be swapped or not. In this special case these algorithms are faster than all the others. Now we have a look at some algorithms which follow the motto "divide and conquer". ====QuickSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| The algorithm QuickSort is frequently used. When it starts the totality of the data records is taken as a single domain. For this domain a so called pivot-element is selected in such a way that approximately half of the keys have a smaller value than the pivot. Then the data records are separated into a lower and a higher sub-domain. The method is then repeated recursively on the sub-domains. Domains with one or no record are defined as sorted. This repeated splitting could be visualized as a binary tree and the number of levels tells how many times the domains could be divided into two sub-domains. Therefor the time needed can be estimated by '''T = C * n * lg₂(n)''' where C is a constant reflecting the implementation. |} ====BucketSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|The classic under the sorting algorithms is BucketSort. It works with m buckets and a -however defined- function for evaluation into which bucket a record shall go. If, after sorting all records, we have records with different values in a bucket, then the content of this bucket has to be sorted again internally. This can, of course, be done by BucketSort but with a different function for bucket evaluation (the key values are different!). If these functions are generated automatically and in a way that the distribution into the buckets is even into again m buckets, the time for sorting can be estimated by '''T = D * n * lg_m(N)''' where D is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is the maximum number of different keys possible. |} ====RadixSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|The absolute classic (invented 1887 by [[w:Herman Hollerith|Herman Hollerith]]) is RadixSort, which was used for sorting numbered punched cards. A sorting machine with 10 buckets was adjusted to read the last digit of the numbers. Depending on the value of this digit the cards were distributed to the buckets. Then, starting with bucket number zero, the cards were recollected. Then the machine was adjusted to the second last digit, the cards were distributed and recollected. This was repeated until the stack was sorted by the first digit. The time for sorting can be estimated by '''T = E * n * lg₁₀(N)''' where E is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. Often the equation T ≈ n * d is found where d stays for the number of digits. Since the logarithm tells how many times N can be divided by 10 repeatedly, both equations tell the same, but the first one makes it possible to compare the characteristic with other algorithms. |} ====ExtraDix==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort. It simulates sorting machines with 256 buckets. The number 256 is somehow "natural" because one byte is the size of the smallest key in use (8-bit-numbers or characters). The time for sorting can therefor be estimated by '''T = F * n * lg₂₅₆(N)''' where F is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. The expression lg₂₅₆(N) gives the number of bytes of the key and for a 32-bit integer this is 4. |} ====Automatic Division vs Fixed Division==== It is conspicuous that for QuickSort we work with the logarithm of '''n''' and for the other algorithms with '''N'''; we have a closer look at the why. There is an unlimited number of different real numbers and it is possible to proof that there is even an unlimited number of real numbers in any given interval. QuickSort and algorithms alike work with the assumption, that it is impossible to know beforehand, how many times the domains have to be subdivided. Therefor the number of division levels is evaluated during the sort. The other algorithms work with the assumption, that on a computer the number of different values is limited and countable. Even when working with floats of double precision the maximum number of different values is known beforehand and this number is 2⁶⁴. When the dividing factor stays constant -same number of buckets or domains on any level- it is possible to tell the number of division levels that make sense; from there on only records with identical key values will be found in a bucket. ====How to compare algorithms==== If we have 4 data records, QuickSort has finished its job after two recursion levels (on any recursion level all the records have to be handled once). If working with RadixSort and numbers from 00.000 up to 99.999, all the data records have to be handled five times. We have a real advantage for QuickSort. This changes instantly when we have to sort 200.000 data records. RadixSort still has to handle all the records only five times but QuickSort now generates 18 recursion levels (2¹⁸ = 262 144) and handles all the records on any level. When looking for the fastest algorithm for a task we can use the equations in order to estimate the relation between them. If one wants to know from which number of records onwards ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort when sorting 64-bit integers, one gets {| class="wikitable |- |width="20"| ||width="100"| '''F * n * lg₂₅₆(N)''' ||width="30"| ''' < ''' ||width="100"| '''C * n * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''F * n * 8''' || ''' < ''' || '''C * n * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''F * 8''' || ''' < ''' || '''C * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''n''' || ''' > ''' || ''' 2 ^{F * 8 / C}''' |} Under the assumption that C and F have the same value, F / C becomes 1 and the result is that for more than 256 data records ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort. ==non-dividing algorithms== ===BubbleSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| The algorithm runs repeatedly through an array comparing element i with element i+1. If these records are not sorted they are swapped. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> as well for the '''worst-case''' as for the '''average-case''' Link to a detailed description of '''[[Bubble sort|BubbleSort]]''' |} ===SelectionSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SelectionSort runs in a double loop. The first element is compared with all the other ones. If a smaller one is found, the records are swapped. Then the second element is compared with all the other ones and so on. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[SelectionSort]]''' '''Modification tournament pyramid''' save winner (as index) of near pair for next round. Need more memory. Speed of algorithm as quick sort. Stable. '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math> |} ===InsertionSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| InsertionSort is a "natural" sorting algorithm and it is used to insert a new record into an already sorted list. The first step is to find the position where the new record should be; then the rest of the list is moved one position up and in the last step the record is inserted. The number of comparisons and record moves can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSort]]''' (insert top) '''Modification insert to middle''' (too called as binary insert). Insert sort get next number and search put position from top of array. This version get next and search position from 50% of array size (25%, 12.5% ...). The number of comparisons and have '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. But, need same time for shift array (when find position, must move down +1 other number from this position) as top-version. Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSortMiddle]]''' (insert middle) |} ==dividing algorithms== The algorithms of this category follow the motto '''[[w:Divide and rule|"divide and conquer"]]'''. Why the motto "divide and conquer" brings a benefit when sorting [[/Benefit of D&C/|you can learn here]]. As already shown in the runtime-analysis these algorithms can be subdivided into those which calculate the number of recursion levels dynamically and those which work with a fixed number of repetitions. ===dynamic division=== The algorithms of this type do the division into sub-domains based on the number of data records. Most of these algorithms do not work stable. ====MergeSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| MergeSort is a recursive algorithm which splits an input list into two sublists. When a level is reached where there is only one element in the list, it returns. Since returned sublists are sorted, a single sorted list can be build by merging the two sublists. Starting with the smallest elements of both lists the smaller one is moved to the result and deleted from the sublist. If one of the sublists is empty, the rest of the other sublist is moved to the result without compare operations. The algorithm is stable but not "in place". With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_2n)</math> for average case and worst case sorts. By grouping sorted sequences into sublists (called runs) which are not divided any more, the best case can be <math>\mathcal O(n)</math>. Link to a detailed description of '''[[MergeSort]]''' |} ====QuickSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| From a domain a so called [[w:Pivot element|pivot-element]] is determined. This pivot divides the domain into two sub-domains; one domain with the keys being smaller or equal to the pivot and the other sub-domain with keys being bigger or equal to the pivot. The sub-domains are processed recursively. Domains with one or zero records are seen as sorted. With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_2n)</math> for best case and average case sorts. When using the algorithm in its basic form (as pivot-element always the key of the first or last element of the domain is selected) the timing depends strongly on the distribution of the key values. If the key values are already sorted the worst case is characterized by <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math>. If the pivot element is selected by pure chance it is very improbable to make disadvantageous selections all the time. With some more effort (histograms) an optimal pivot can be selected. Link to a detailed description of '''[[QuickSort]]''' |} ====BucketSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| In BucketSort a function valuates the key of a record and gives the number of the bucket into which it has to go. The number of buckets is determined when this function is generated. After a sorting phase it is normal to find records with different key values in the same buckets. Then the content of these buckets have to be sorted internally. This can again be done by help of BucketSort, but the valuating functions have to be adapted to other key values. If the number m of buckets is identical on any level of recursion, the time necessary for sorting follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>. Link to a detailed description of '''[[BucketSort]]''' |} {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|In this implementation BucketSort is recursive and sorts by integer keys. The distribution function is evaluated automatically for any bucket by searching for the smalles and biggest key value and by dividing this range into as many subranges as buckets are requested.The sorting is stable and indirect. The number of buckets to be used on any recursion level is adjusted by a parameter. If this number is 2, a QuickSort with optimized pivot detection is realized. And here comes a novelty: After finding the smallest and the biggest key value it is checked whether they are identical; if so, all the key values in this bucket are identical as well and there is no need for another recursion level. We get the lower border for computing time if all key values are identical; there we get <math>\mathcal O(n)</math>. If there are no identical key values at all, we first get <math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>, but then there is a limitation. With the sorting key being a 4 byte integer, there will be in maximum 32 recursion levels, no matter how many data records we got, because on the 32nd level all key values in a bucket have to be identical! '''The proof that '''<math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>''' is the lower border for comparison based sorting algorithms is only a faulty thesis!''' [[BucketsortInC|'''Sample program in C''']] |} ====SortedListMergingSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SortedListMergingSort serach for sorted list in array and merge two to one. Comparation near: <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. Memory: <math>\mathcal (2..3)*n</math>. '''Modification 1 ''' not detect sorted. Set sorted as array size = 1. Then merge two array to one. All 1 and 1 to 2. Then all 2 and 2 to 4 (array size)... Comparation near: <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. Memory: <math>\mathcal 2*n</math>. Easiest algorithm. Link to a detailed description of '''[[SortedListMergingSort]]''' |} ===fixed division=== Before starting the sort it is known how many different key values are possible. If sorting by an 4 byte unsigned integer the values can be between 0 and a bit more than 4 billions. When using RadixSort it is clear that the numbers in decimal notation can have up to ten digits so we need ten sorting sequences. When using ExtraDix four are enough. ====RadixSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| RadixSort is not comparison-based and it is stable. A punched card sorting machine with ten buckets is simulated. First the machine is adjusted to the last digit and the records are distributed depending on the last digit of the key. Then the records are recollected, the machine is adjusted to the second last digit and the records are distributed depending on that digit. This cycle of adjusting, distributing and recollecting is repeated until the records are sorted by the very first digit. The time necessary for this follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_{10}N)</math>. N is the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before they are sorted has no effect whatsoever on the time necessary for a sort. Link to a detailed description of '''[[RadixSort]]''' |} ====ExtraDix==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort, hence the name '''Ext'''ended '''raDix'''. This algorithm simulates punched card sorting machines with 256 buckets. For any of the basic data types a variation is implemented. ExtraDix works stable and indirectly. The time necessary for a sort follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_{256}N)</math>. N is again the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before the sort has no influence whatsoever on the time necessary, therefor there is no best- nor worst-case. The memory needs are calculated by '''4kByte&nbsp;+&nbsp;24&nbsp;*&nbsp;n''' which is pretty moderate. The complete C source code of the algorithm can be downloaded from [http://www.sourceforge.net SourceForge] under the keyword '''ExtraDix'''. Link to a detailed description of '''[[ExtraDix]]''' |} [[Category:Data Structures and Algorithms]] [[Category:Sorting]] cep9niyoic9hdq3ln9uhg0h8i7nzq1v 2409195 2409193 2022-07-25T08:21:32Z Peter.mlich 2946719 /* SelectionSort */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Data Structures and Algorithms/Sidebar}} The wish for order is pretty old and there are as many reasons as there are things that could be sorted. But the main reason for sorting is the fact that finding can be much faster when one can rely on an order. Sorting is the main condition for effective searching. This is true for stores as well as dictionaries. In this chapter sorting is restricted to the sorting of data records. Since the times are long gone when tapes were used as data storage, we restrict to the sorting of data where we have random access. It does not matter whether the records are stored in the fast [[w:Random-access memory|RAM]] or on [[w:Hard disk drive|disc]]; the functionality of the algorithms stays the same. Additionally we require that the [[w:Record (computer science)|data records]] have all the same length and structure and that they are stored as a list; hence this chapter is called „Sorting of Arrays“. The structure of the data records is of no importance for us; we only have a look at the key, which is that part of the data record, by which the records are sorted. At the times when storage was very expensive, the memory needs of an algorithm were of importance and algorithms that could work [[w:In-place algorithm|"in place"]] were favored (the array with the data was given to the routine doing the sorting and the sorted data was returned in the same array). Nowadays it is much more interesting to have the possibility to select the behavior depending on the wish to later use the data again in their original order. When checking the usability of an algorithm the following criteria are of importance: * is the algorithm able to handle the sorting key * is there sufficient memory available * is the algorithm faster than alternative ones * is it possible to implement the algorithm in the wanted programming language In this chapter we will have a look at some selected sorting algorithms in order to explain the basic strategies; after studying this chapter one should be able to select a suitable algorithm for a given problem and to understand the principles and characteristics of algorithms not explained here. ==Introduction== Simplified one could say that sorting is based on these elementary operations: * selecting and inserting * interchange * spreading and collecting * distributing '''Sorting in applications''' In the mayority of all applications sorting is an important operation and is responsable for a big amount of processing time when there are more than a few hundred data records. There are estimates that 20% to 30% of the runtime of professional programs is used for sorting. Sorting we find in very different fields. * words in a dictionary (alphabetical order) * statement of account (ordered by date) * student records (name, social security number, subject, ...) * addresses (zip-code, name of town/city, street, ....) ===Definition of the Problem=== When a child sorts its toys all blue things go into one box, all yellow ones into another and all red ones into a third box and all others into box number four. We see that the criteria for sorting must not be numerical, they must only be distinguishable. Therefore we have to introduce another restriction: when comparing the elements of a list, it must be possible to tell whether element A is smaller, of same value, or bigger than element B. When sorting colored toys we have to number the colors -making a numbered list- or we could use the wavelength of the colors. When comparing numerical values, we normally work with build in functions; the compiler will automaticly know how to treat <pre>if(A > B)</pre> depending on the definition of the variables. If somebody writes a program in [[w:Assembly language|assembler]] for an old 8-bit processor, he will have to check the definition of how the bits of a 32-bit [[w:Floating point|float]] have to be interpreted so that a meaningful sorting routine can be programed. For alphabetical order we need to have a list with two columns. In the first column we have the number of the row and in the other column we have the interpretation. One of the most commonly used list of this type is the [[w:ASCII|ASCII-table]]. What the computer does is not really an alphabetical sort, the sort is by position numbers. All the algorithms discussed in this chapter work with numerical representations where a smaller-, bigger-, same-relation is defined. ===Indirect sort=== The time necessary for swapping data records can be reduced drastically when it is possible to maintain a list with references to the records and just to swap these references. After the sorting the array with the data records is still untouched; but in the array with the references we have the numbers of the data records in such a way that when rearranging the data records following these numbers, the data records will be sorted. The time necessary for this rearrangement increases in linear fashion <math>\mathcal O(n)</math> with the number of data records. Working with indirect sort is indicated when the costs for swapping are high (the length of the data record is much longer than the 4 bytes for an index) and there is no problem to provide the additional memory (since it is just 4 bytes per record this problem should occur seldom). === Stability === In applications it happens frequently that data records have to be sorted by more than one criteria. For example we have a list with addresses and we want to sort it by second name and within the second name by first name. A sorting algorithm is called stable when such a list is sorted first by first name and then by second name, and every block with identical second name is still sorted by first name. A stable sorting algorithm does not destroy the results of previous sorts. With algorithms that are not stable there is much more effort involved for getting the same result. First the list has to be sorted by second name and then all the blocks with identical second name have to be detected and sorted by first name. For sorting an address list by zip-code, within zip-code by street name, within street name by second name, within second name by first name, the program code will become a bit complicated when using an unstable algorithm. With a stable algorithm the four sorts are done in reverse order and everything is done. ===Runtime-Analysis=== Sorting algorithms are playing an important role in computer science and during the years a lot of algorithms were developed. A classical way to make up groups of algorithms is to distinguish whether they are comparison-based or not. Since most algorithms of the last type were very limited concerning their use this meant "usable" or "exotic". We will show here that it is a much better idea to distinguish dividing and non-dividing algorithms in order to explain the different speeds. With dividing is meant making subgroups from groups. In this chapter we only give a very brief description of the algorithms; a detailed description can be found further down. First we have a look at an algorithm of the non-dividing type. ====SelectionSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SelectionSort compares the keys of the data records in order to decide whether they have to be swapped or not. The algorithm starts with the first record and checks all the other records whether their key value is smaller; if so, the records are swapped. If no smaller key can be found, the algorithm continues with the second record, then with the third record and so on. In a rough estimate one can say that every key is compared with all the others. As a result we get a square characteristic. The time for a sort can be estimated by '''T = B * n² ''' where B is a constant reflecting the implementation. |} If there are only two data records, the algorithms of this type are reduced to the question whether the two records have to be swapped or not. In this special case these algorithms are faster than all the others. Now we have a look at some algorithms which follow the motto "divide and conquer". ====QuickSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| The algorithm QuickSort is frequently used. When it starts the totality of the data records is taken as a single domain. For this domain a so called pivot-element is selected in such a way that approximately half of the keys have a smaller value than the pivot. Then the data records are separated into a lower and a higher sub-domain. The method is then repeated recursively on the sub-domains. Domains with one or no record are defined as sorted. This repeated splitting could be visualized as a binary tree and the number of levels tells how many times the domains could be divided into two sub-domains. Therefor the time needed can be estimated by '''T = C * n * lg₂(n)''' where C is a constant reflecting the implementation. |} ====BucketSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|The classic under the sorting algorithms is BucketSort. It works with m buckets and a -however defined- function for evaluation into which bucket a record shall go. If, after sorting all records, we have records with different values in a bucket, then the content of this bucket has to be sorted again internally. This can, of course, be done by BucketSort but with a different function for bucket evaluation (the key values are different!). If these functions are generated automatically and in a way that the distribution into the buckets is even into again m buckets, the time for sorting can be estimated by '''T = D * n * lg_m(N)''' where D is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is the maximum number of different keys possible. |} ====RadixSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|The absolute classic (invented 1887 by [[w:Herman Hollerith|Herman Hollerith]]) is RadixSort, which was used for sorting numbered punched cards. A sorting machine with 10 buckets was adjusted to read the last digit of the numbers. Depending on the value of this digit the cards were distributed to the buckets. Then, starting with bucket number zero, the cards were recollected. Then the machine was adjusted to the second last digit, the cards were distributed and recollected. This was repeated until the stack was sorted by the first digit. The time for sorting can be estimated by '''T = E * n * lg₁₀(N)''' where E is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. Often the equation T ≈ n * d is found where d stays for the number of digits. Since the logarithm tells how many times N can be divided by 10 repeatedly, both equations tell the same, but the first one makes it possible to compare the characteristic with other algorithms. |} ====ExtraDix==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort. It simulates sorting machines with 256 buckets. The number 256 is somehow "natural" because one byte is the size of the smallest key in use (8-bit-numbers or characters). The time for sorting can therefor be estimated by '''T = F * n * lg₂₅₆(N)''' where F is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. The expression lg₂₅₆(N) gives the number of bytes of the key and for a 32-bit integer this is 4. |} ====Automatic Division vs Fixed Division==== It is conspicuous that for QuickSort we work with the logarithm of '''n''' and for the other algorithms with '''N'''; we have a closer look at the why. There is an unlimited number of different real numbers and it is possible to proof that there is even an unlimited number of real numbers in any given interval. QuickSort and algorithms alike work with the assumption, that it is impossible to know beforehand, how many times the domains have to be subdivided. Therefor the number of division levels is evaluated during the sort. The other algorithms work with the assumption, that on a computer the number of different values is limited and countable. Even when working with floats of double precision the maximum number of different values is known beforehand and this number is 2⁶⁴. When the dividing factor stays constant -same number of buckets or domains on any level- it is possible to tell the number of division levels that make sense; from there on only records with identical key values will be found in a bucket. ====How to compare algorithms==== If we have 4 data records, QuickSort has finished its job after two recursion levels (on any recursion level all the records have to be handled once). If working with RadixSort and numbers from 00.000 up to 99.999, all the data records have to be handled five times. We have a real advantage for QuickSort. This changes instantly when we have to sort 200.000 data records. RadixSort still has to handle all the records only five times but QuickSort now generates 18 recursion levels (2¹⁸ = 262 144) and handles all the records on any level. When looking for the fastest algorithm for a task we can use the equations in order to estimate the relation between them. If one wants to know from which number of records onwards ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort when sorting 64-bit integers, one gets {| class="wikitable |- |width="20"| ||width="100"| '''F * n * lg₂₅₆(N)''' ||width="30"| ''' < ''' ||width="100"| '''C * n * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''F * n * 8''' || ''' < ''' || '''C * n * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''F * 8''' || ''' < ''' || '''C * lg₂(n)''' |- | || '''n''' || ''' > ''' || ''' 2 ^{F * 8 / C}''' |} Under the assumption that C and F have the same value, F / C becomes 1 and the result is that for more than 256 data records ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort. ==non-dividing algorithms== ===BubbleSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| The algorithm runs repeatedly through an array comparing element i with element i+1. If these records are not sorted they are swapped. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> as well for the '''worst-case''' as for the '''average-case''' Link to a detailed description of '''[[Bubble sort|BubbleSort]]''' |} ===SelectionSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SelectionSort runs in a double loop. The first element is compared with all the other ones. If a smaller one is found, the records are swapped. Then the second element is compared with all the other ones and so on. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[SelectionSort]]''' '''Modification tournament pyramid''' save winner (as index) of near pair for next round. Need more memory. Speed of algorithm as quick sort. Stable. '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[PyramidSelectionSort]]''' |} ===InsertionSort=== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| InsertionSort is a "natural" sorting algorithm and it is used to insert a new record into an already sorted list. The first step is to find the position where the new record should be; then the rest of the list is moved one position up and in the last step the record is inserted. The number of comparisons and record moves can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math> Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSort]]''' (insert top) '''Modification insert to middle''' (too called as binary insert). Insert sort get next number and search put position from top of array. This version get next and search position from 50% of array size (25%, 12.5% ...). The number of comparisons and have '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. But, need same time for shift array (when find position, must move down +1 other number from this position) as top-version. Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSortMiddle]]''' (insert middle) |} ==dividing algorithms== The algorithms of this category follow the motto '''[[w:Divide and rule|"divide and conquer"]]'''. Why the motto "divide and conquer" brings a benefit when sorting [[/Benefit of D&C/|you can learn here]]. As already shown in the runtime-analysis these algorithms can be subdivided into those which calculate the number of recursion levels dynamically and those which work with a fixed number of repetitions. ===dynamic division=== The algorithms of this type do the division into sub-domains based on the number of data records. Most of these algorithms do not work stable. ====MergeSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| MergeSort is a recursive algorithm which splits an input list into two sublists. When a level is reached where there is only one element in the list, it returns. Since returned sublists are sorted, a single sorted list can be build by merging the two sublists. Starting with the smallest elements of both lists the smaller one is moved to the result and deleted from the sublist. If one of the sublists is empty, the rest of the other sublist is moved to the result without compare operations. The algorithm is stable but not "in place". With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_2n)</math> for average case and worst case sorts. By grouping sorted sequences into sublists (called runs) which are not divided any more, the best case can be <math>\mathcal O(n)</math>. Link to a detailed description of '''[[MergeSort]]''' |} ====QuickSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| From a domain a so called [[w:Pivot element|pivot-element]] is determined. This pivot divides the domain into two sub-domains; one domain with the keys being smaller or equal to the pivot and the other sub-domain with keys being bigger or equal to the pivot. The sub-domains are processed recursively. Domains with one or zero records are seen as sorted. With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_2n)</math> for best case and average case sorts. When using the algorithm in its basic form (as pivot-element always the key of the first or last element of the domain is selected) the timing depends strongly on the distribution of the key values. If the key values are already sorted the worst case is characterized by <math>\mathcal O(n^2)</math>. If the pivot element is selected by pure chance it is very improbable to make disadvantageous selections all the time. With some more effort (histograms) an optimal pivot can be selected. Link to a detailed description of '''[[QuickSort]]''' |} ====BucketSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| In BucketSort a function valuates the key of a record and gives the number of the bucket into which it has to go. The number of buckets is determined when this function is generated. After a sorting phase it is normal to find records with different key values in the same buckets. Then the content of these buckets have to be sorted internally. This can again be done by help of BucketSort, but the valuating functions have to be adapted to other key values. If the number m of buckets is identical on any level of recursion, the time necessary for sorting follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>. Link to a detailed description of '''[[BucketSort]]''' |} {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#F9F9F9;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"|In this implementation BucketSort is recursive and sorts by integer keys. The distribution function is evaluated automatically for any bucket by searching for the smalles and biggest key value and by dividing this range into as many subranges as buckets are requested.The sorting is stable and indirect. The number of buckets to be used on any recursion level is adjusted by a parameter. If this number is 2, a QuickSort with optimized pivot detection is realized. And here comes a novelty: After finding the smallest and the biggest key value it is checked whether they are identical; if so, all the key values in this bucket are identical as well and there is no need for another recursion level. We get the lower border for computing time if all key values are identical; there we get <math>\mathcal O(n)</math>. If there are no identical key values at all, we first get <math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>, but then there is a limitation. With the sorting key being a 4 byte integer, there will be in maximum 32 recursion levels, no matter how many data records we got, because on the 32nd level all key values in a bucket have to be identical! '''The proof that '''<math>\mathcal O(n\log_mn)</math>''' is the lower border for comparison based sorting algorithms is only a faulty thesis!''' [[BucketsortInC|'''Sample program in C''']] |} ====SortedListMergingSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| SortedListMergingSort serach for sorted list in array and merge two to one. Comparation near: <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. Memory: <math>\mathcal (2..3)*n</math>. '''Modification 1 ''' not detect sorted. Set sorted as array size = 1. Then merge two array to one. All 1 and 1 to 2. Then all 2 and 2 to 4 (array size)... Comparation near: <math>\mathcal O(n*log(n))</math>. Memory: <math>\mathcal 2*n</math>. Easiest algorithm. Link to a detailed description of '''[[SortedListMergingSort]]''' |} ===fixed division=== Before starting the sort it is known how many different key values are possible. If sorting by an 4 byte unsigned integer the values can be between 0 and a bit more than 4 billions. When using RadixSort it is clear that the numbers in decimal notation can have up to ten digits so we need ten sorting sequences. When using ExtraDix four are enough. ====RadixSort==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| RadixSort is not comparison-based and it is stable. A punched card sorting machine with ten buckets is simulated. First the machine is adjusted to the last digit and the records are distributed depending on the last digit of the key. Then the records are recollected, the machine is adjusted to the second last digit and the records are distributed depending on that digit. This cycle of adjusting, distributing and recollecting is repeated until the records are sorted by the very first digit. The time necessary for this follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_{10}N)</math>. N is the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before they are sorted has no effect whatsoever on the time necessary for a sort. Link to a detailed description of '''[[RadixSort]]''' |} ====ExtraDix==== {| class="wikitable |- |width="20" style="background-color:#008B45;"| ||style="background-color:#9AFF9A;"| ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort, hence the name '''Ext'''ended '''raDix'''. This algorithm simulates punched card sorting machines with 256 buckets. For any of the basic data types a variation is implemented. ExtraDix works stable and indirectly. The time necessary for a sort follows the function <math>\mathcal O(n\log_{256}N)</math>. N is again the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before the sort has no influence whatsoever on the time necessary, therefor there is no best- nor worst-case. The memory needs are calculated by '''4kByte&nbsp;+&nbsp;24&nbsp;*&nbsp;n''' which is pretty moderate. The complete C source code of the algorithm can be downloaded from [http://www.sourceforge.net SourceForge] under the keyword '''ExtraDix'''. Link to a detailed description of '''[[ExtraDix]]''' |} [[Category:Data Structures and Algorithms]] [[Category:Sorting]] fu2j5sducxm8a21p4ikw3b4z09p1g0w 0 107996 2409071 2274539 2022-07-24T14:14:52Z Lbeaumont 278565 wikitext text/x-wiki —Improving our world by learning to preserve dignity for all people [[File:Eric_Enstrom_-_Grace_-_bw.jpg|thumb|300px|[[w:Grace_(photograph) | Grace]] photograph by [[w:Eric_Enstrom | Eric Enstrom]] 1918.]] Dignity elicits feelings of “I matter” or “I am worthy”. Learning these simple lessons can profoundly improve our world. However, this may be difficult to understand, accept, and act on. This curriculum was inspired by the work of the [http://www.humiliationstudies.org/ Human Dignity and Humiliation Studies] Network and is part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom Curriculum]]. == We are each born with dignity == {{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}} We are charged to live well by the bare fact of our existence as self-conscious creatures with lives to lead.<ref> {{cite book |last=Dworkin |first=Ronald |author-link=w:Ronald_Dworkin |date= May 3, 2011 |title=Justice for Hedgehogs |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=521 |isbn=978-0674072251}} Chapter 9.</ref> [[w:Dignity|Dignity]] is accepting our responsibility to live our lives well. Living well entails both self-respect and authenticity. Self-respect requires us to care about how we live; we recognize the importance of living well. Authenticity requires us to take personal responsibility for the choices we make, to choose our own values and goals, and to decide how to live our lives. * [[w:Dignity|Dignity]] is the quality of worth and honor intrinsic to every person. [[/You are worthy simply because you exist/]]. ** If I am so worthy, then [[/why do I sometimes feel so worthless?/]] * [[w:Dignity|Dignity]] establishes basic entitlements that are the unalienable birthright of every human. It is our intrinsic legitimacy. Dignity is the threshold level of [http://emotionalcompetency.com/stature.htm status] required to meet basic human [http://emotionalcompetency.com/need.htm needs]. It establishes the basic boundaries of humanity. '''Assignment:''' Describe [[/how you experience dignity in your own life/]]. Describe what you perceive as its source or origins. Describe an occasion where your dignity was abridged or assaulted. Describe what happened and what that felt like (i.e. your [[Appraising Emotional Responses|emotional response]] to the event). Describe the conditions in your life that allow dignity to flourish, or that prevent you from fully experiencing your own dignity. If you would like feedback on the paper or blog post you write to complete this assignment, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]]. == Human Rights Preserve Our Dignity == * All human beings are born with equal and inalienable rights and fundamental freedoms. * In the [http://www.un.org/events/humanrights/udhr60/declaration.shtml Universal Declaration of Human Rights], the United Nations has stated in clear and simple terms the rights which belong equally to every person. * These rights belong to you. * Read your rights at: the [http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ Universal Declaration of Human Rights] web page. ** Use this [[Assessing Human Rights/Questionnaire|questionnaire]] to assess the level of human rights in your region. ** Consult the [http://www.visionofhumanity.org/ Global Peace Index] to learn how peaceful your region is. ** Learn what the [http://www.hrw.org/ Human Rights Watch] organization has learned about your region. ** Learn how your region ranks on the [http://www.politicalterrorscale.org/ Political Terror Scale]. * They are your rights. * Familiarize yourself with them. * Help to promote and defend them for yourself as well as for your fellow human beings. '''Assignment:''' Use this [[Assessing Human Rights/Questionnaire|questionnaire]] to assess the level of human rights in your region. Based on your responses to the questionnaire, identify the primary impediments to human rights in your region. Imagine living in a different region, where human rights are either better protected (if you live in an oppressed region) or where they are denied (if you are fortunate to live in a region with good human rights protections). Complete the questionnaire as if you are living in that other region. Based on the questionnaire responses, and the text of the [http://www.un.org/events/humanrights/udhr60/declaration.shtml Universal Declaration of Human Rights] what action would be most effective in improving human rights in the oppressed region? == Abridging Human Rights Causes Suffering == * Indignity—trespassing into the territory established by dignity—is the essence of insult, [http://emotionalcompetency.com/humiliation.htm humiliation], and the root of [[Resolving Anger|anger]], [http://emotionalcompetency.com/shame.htm shame], and [http://emotionalcompetency.com/hate.htm hate]. * This [http://emotionalcompetency.com/trespass.htm trespass] is the basic tool of [[Confronting Tyranny|tyranny]], oppression, and coercion. * All of [[/history is the quest/]] for dignity. * We are worthy simply because we are alive; it is a cruel injustice to deny someone their inalienable worth. * Dignity is [http://emotionalcompetency.com/congruence.htm congruence] between the [http://emotionalcompetency.com/respect.htm respect] we demonstrate and the intrinsic legitimacy of each person. * When honor requires [[/adherence to an archaic honor culture/]], it can abridge human rights. '''Assignment:''' * Complete the assignment described within the [[/history is the quest/ | history page]], above. * Determine if you are influenced by [[/adherence to an archaic honor culture/]]. Work to separate yourself from any behaviors that abridge human rights. == Preserving Human Rights Maximizes Our Well-Being == Preserving and protecting human rights reduces human suffering, reduces conflict, increases economic, social, and cultural opportunity, and increases the [http://www.epsusa.org/ peace dividend]. It is the [http://emotionalcompetency.com/symmetry.htm symmetrical] and stable configuration for humanity. We all benefit. '''Assignment:''' Identify and describe a situation where indignity prevails. Describe the costs of this indignity in human, social, cultural, and economic terms. Summarize the total cost of indignity for this situation. === Work to Protect and Preserve Human Rights for All People === * Preserve and [[w:Respect|respect]] the [[w:Dignity|dignity]] of all people. ** Follow these [http://emotionalcompetency.com/rules.htm#better guidelines for working together]. ** Prevent, eliminate, or remedy insults, injustices, [[w:Power_(social_and_political)|power]] imbalances, and other [http://emotionalcompetency.com/hdi/images/Fueling%20the%20H-Bomb.pdf conditions that cause] [[w:Humiliation|humiliation]]. * Preserve and protect the human rights of all people. * Do not tolerate actions or inactions that disrespect others, or infringe on human rights. ** Speak with [[w:Respect|respect]] and [[candor]]. ** Refuse to [[Overcoming Hate|hate]]. ** Renounce [[w:Violence|violence]]. * Increase your [[w:Empathy|empathy]] and [[Virtues/Compassion|compassion]] for all. ** Quell [[Coping with Ego|your ego]]. * Learn to [[Transcending Conflict|transcend conflict]], [[Forgiving|forgive]], and [[Apologizing|apologize]]. * Increase your [[Emotional Competency|emotional competency]]. * Embrace the [[Living_the_Golden_Rule|Golden Rule]] and the [[w:Charter_for_Compassion|Charter for Compassion]]. * Practice [[w:Sustainability | sustainability]]—meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs—to respect the needs of future generations. ** Learn about sustainability from the [[w:Earth_Policy_Institute|Earth Policy Institute]] and the [[w:Earth_Charter_Initiative|Earth Charter Initiative]] organizations. ** Study the Wikiversity course on [[Limits_To_Growth|Limits to Growth]]. '''Assignment:''' Identify and describe an occasion where one person or group intervened to protect the dignity or human rights of another. Describe the nature of the intervention and its effectiveness. Consider the points of view and experiences of both the victims and the interveners in both the short term and the long term. How did this intervention alter the relationship between the victims and the interveners in both the short term and the long term? === Don’t Surrender Your Human Rights === * Recognize when your dignity and [[w:human rights|human rights]] are being infringed. * Rely on your [[wisdom]] to know [[what you can change and what you cannot]] change. * Rely on your [[Finding Courage|courage]] to change what you can. * Accept and [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/coping.htm cope] with those things you cannot change. ** Draw on your capacity for [[w: Resilience_(psychology) | resilience]] when faced with indignity, doing your best to respond constructively and avoid defeat, resignation, [[Overcoming Hate|hate]], or [http://emotionalcompetency.com/revenge.htm revenge]. *** Draw inspiration from these [[/courageous examples of graceful responses/]] to humiliating treatment. * Recognize how taking [[Living_Wisely#Personal_Responsibility|responsibility]] for your own actions contributes to your own sense of dignity. ** Keep the [[w:The_Four_Agreements|Four Agreements]]. * If you are the victim of oppression—within your family, workplace, community, or nation—it can be very difficult to attain these human rights for yourself. Perhaps this advice on [[Confronting_Tyranny#Responding_to_Tyrants:|''Responding to Tyrants'']] can suggest some options available to you. * Maintain the 3Rs of: Rights, Responsibility, and Resilience! '''Assignment:''' Describe an occasion [[/when your dignity was threatened or abridged/]]. When and how did you recognize the infringement? How did you react? How did you respond or cope? [[Category:Life skills]] [[Category:Humanities/Courses]] [[Category:Peace studies]] [[Category:Sociology]] == Resources == Use these resources to continue your study of dignity: * [http://tedxberkeley.org/media/2011-2/robert-fuller/ Dignity], TEDx talk, February 2011 * [http://www.ted.com/talks/alberto_cairo_there_are_no_scraps_of_men.html There are no scraps of men], TED talk, Alberto Cairo, November 2011 * {{cite book |last=Hicks |first=Donna |date=January 29, 2013 |title=Dignity: Its Essential Role in Resolving Conflict |publisher=Yale University Press |pages=240 |isbn=978-0300188059}} * The Wikiversity course [[Assessing Human Rights]] *{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} ==References== <references/> {{Emotional Competency}} [[Category:Applied Wisdom]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Peace studies]] [[Category:Courses]] nh0s0bib9iy30gy9kq59nlwv3hl6o3y 10 114197 2409083 2263552 2022-07-24T16:48:47Z 73.200.29.43 Add redlink wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navbox |name = Musical instruments|title = Musical instruments |state=autocollapse |groupstyle = padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em; |liststyle = background:transparent; |listclass = hlist |group1 = [[Keyboard instruments]] |list1 = * [[Piano]] * [[Fortepiano]] * [[Clavichord]] * [[Celeste]] * [[Harpsichord]] * [[Organ]] ** <small>[[Pipe]]</small> ** <small>[[Chamber]]</small> ** <small>[[Electronic]]</small> |group2 = [[Percussion instruments]] |list2 = {{Navbox|child |group1 = Tuned |list1 = * [[Bell]] * [[Carillon]] * [[Mallet instruments#The Glockenspiel (bells)|Glockenspiel]] * [[Gong]] * [[Kettle drums]] * [[Handchime]] * [[Mallet instruments#The Marimba|Marimba]] * [[Tubular bells]] * [[Mallet instruments#The Vibraphone|Vibraphone]] * [[Mallet instruments#The Xylophone|Xylophone]] |group2 = Non-tuned |list2 = * [[Bass drum]] * [[Castanets]] * [[Cymbal]] * [[Snare drum]] * [[Tambourine]] * [[Wood block]] * [[Drum set|Drum kit]] }} |group3 = [[String instruments]] |list3 = {{Navbox|child |group1 = Bowed |list1 = * [[Bowed psaltery]] * [[Fiddle]] * [[Hardanger fiddle]] * [[Violin]] * [[Viola]] * [[Viola d'amore]] * [[Viola pomposa]] * [[Violoncello]] * [[Viol|Viol or Viola da gamba]] * [[Baryton]] * [[Double bass]] * [[Viola da braccio]] |group2 = Plucked |list2 = * [[Balalaika]] * [[Banjo]] * [[Guitar]] ** <small>[[Classical guitar|Classical]]</small> ** <small>[[Bass guitar|Bass]]</small> * [[Harp]] * [[Lute]] * [[Lyre]] * [[Mandolin]] * [[Psaltery]] * [[Sitar]] * [[Ukelele]] }} |group4 = [[Wind instruments]] |list4 = {{Navbox|child |group1 = [[Brass instruments|Brass]] |list1 = * [[Trumpet]] ** <small>[[Piccolo trumpet|Piccolo]]</small> * [[Cornet]] * [[Bugle]] * [[Flügelhorn]] * [[French horn]] * [[Tenor horn]] * [[Trombone]] * [[Sackbut]] * [[Euphonium]] * [[Sousaphone]] * [[Tuba]] |group2 = [[Woodwind instruments|Woodwind]] |list2 = * [[Oboe]] * [[Oboe d'amore]] * [[Clarinet]] * [[Bass clarinet]] * [[Bassoon]] * [[Contra-Bassoon]] * [[Saxophone]] ** <small>[[Soprano saxophone|Soprano]]</small> ** <small>[[Alto saxophone|Alto]]</small> ** <small>[[Tenor Saxophone|Tenor]]</small> ** <small>[[Baritone saxophone|Baritone]]</small> * [[Cor anglais]] * [[Flute]] * [[Ocarina]] * [[Recorder]] }} |below = [[School:Music and Dance|School of Music]] }} <noinclude> [[Category:Music instruments| ]] [[Category:Navigational templates]] </noinclude> 44akym0d6ruseaneh1oti587s5akk7p 1 170731 2409126 2406121 2022-07-24T23:56:30Z Mikael Häggström 12130 /* Editorial board application of Daniel Barton Oerther */ Noted done for most of them (not sure about wikidata item yet) wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{WikiJournal editorial application top |archive box = {{Archive box|[[/Archive 2015-2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022]] }} }} </noinclude> ==Associate editor application of James Bibey== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Associate editor | name =James Bibey | qualifications =2nd Year Medical Student | link =N/A | areas_of_expertise =General medicine (basic anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, statistics, ethics) | professional_experience =Maths lecturing, anatomical prosection preparation. | publishing_experience =N/A | open_experience =Significant editing history on English Wikipedia (primarily medicine and anatomy), Wikimedia Commons, and Wikidata under username "Bibeyjj". | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Medicine. [[User:Bibeyjj|Bibeyjj]] ([[User talk:Bibeyjj|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bibeyjj|contribs]]) 19:23, 24 September 2021 (UTC) }} *{{Support}}. The applicant is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Bibeyjj active in related topics in Wikipedia], and I think we can really need the help for our journal too. [[User:Bibeyjj|Bibeyjj]], I hope you are still interested in this position. I'm sorry for the late response to your application, as you see we are quite busy with the everyday matters of the project. If elected, would you be willing to help out for instance in [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editorial_guidelines#Arranging_peer_review|finding peer reviewers]] for article submissions to the journal? [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:10, 22 May 2022 (UTC) *{{Support}}. Mikael summarises the reasons well above and I agree [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 06:56, 23 May 2022 (UTC) *They seem a good candidate for assoc editor status, and it would be useful experience for them as well as helpful skills for us. We've been a bit stalled on applications over the last year, so it will be good to get organised again. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 11:59, 11 June 2022 (UTC) :I agree. I made [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Bibeyjj#Associate_editor_application an entry on the user's talk page] whether he's still interested. If so, I think we can go ahead and approve this application. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 15:52, 16 June 2022 (UTC) ==Editorial board application of Daniel Barton Oerther== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | position =Editorial board | Q = Q18001544 | name =Daniel Barton Oerther | qualifications =PHD | link =https://people.mst.edu/faculty/oertherd/ | areas_of_expertise =environmental health | professional_experience =Professor of environmental health engineering; Certified environmental health specialist and leader of a number of national and international organizations specializing in environmental health | publishing_experience =Editorial boards of Perspectives in Public Health, Water Environment Research, and Journal of Environmental Engineering ASCE | open_experience =Wikipedia and regular reviewer for open access Nursing Open | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Medicine. [[User:Oertherdb|Oertherdb]] ([[User talk:Oertherdb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Oertherdb|contribs]]) 15:23, 25 February 2022 (UTC) }} *{{Support}}. The applicant has substantial credentials including health and leadership. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:16, 22 May 2022 (UTC) *{{Support}}. I was the person who approached this candidate on the basis of his interesting background, enthusiasm for nursing and health and his Wikipedia experience [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 06:57, 23 May 2022 (UTC) *{{Support}}. [[User:Editor WikiJMed|Editor WikiJMed]] ([[User talk:Editor WikiJMed|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Editor WikiJMed|contribs]]) 21:07, 23 May 2022 (UTC) *{{support}} - I also suppoprt this application (apologies for not noting earlier). I particular, they have a usefully interdisciplinary knowledgebase connecting medicine to engineering and environmental research. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 11:56, 11 June 2022 (UTC) '''Result: Accepted into the editorial board.''' :[[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines#Adding_editorial_board_members|Next steps]] (add <code>DONE</code> or <code><nowiki>{{Done}}</nowiki></code> after someone has performed the task): # {{Done}} [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]]) # {{Done}} {{clickable button 2 | url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}} # {{Done}} Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|WikiJournal editor summary}} template # __ Add their name and start data to the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on wikidata # {{Done}} Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members # {{Done}} Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed # __ Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Suggested email template]])<br> [[User:Rwatson1955|Rwatson1955]] ([[User talk:Rwatson1955|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rwatson1955|contribs]]) 12:36, 13 June 2022 (UTC) ==Editorial board application of Luis Rafael Moscote-Salazar== {{WikiJournal editor application submitted | journal =WikiJournal of Medicine | position =Editorial board member | name =Luis Rafael Moscote-Salazar | qualifications =MD | link =https://neuroclani.org/ | areas_of_expertise =Neurosurgery, Neurotrauma, Stroke, Neurointervention, Neurocritical Care, Neurointervention, Evidence Based Medicine | professional_experience =Neurosurgeon graduated from the University of Cartagena, Founder of the Colombian Clinical Research Group in Neurocritical Care and Co-founder of the Latinamerican Council of Neurocritical Care (CLaNi). Research communication, research leadership, mentorship. | publishing_experience = Experience with publishing in peer-reviewed journals (see Google Scholar profile. Peer-reviewer for several international journals in Neurosurgery and Medicine (see Publons profile). | open_experience = | policy_confirm =I confirm that I will act in accordance with the policies of the WikiJournal of Medicine. [[User:NeuroQuimbaya|NeuroQuimbaya]] ([[User talk:NeuroQuimbaya|discuss]]) 2022-07-12 }} :No detials were provided, so I have contacted the applicant to request that they add more information. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:27, 7 July 2022 (UTC) ::I've updated the application above with the new replacement information that they sent through. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 03:55, 13 July 2022 (UTC) gwez92u1vxyvoj3vj2y0psaq2lxkzng 2 211310 2409097 2408810 2022-07-24T19:42:15Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |+ Multiplication table |} ewpuyuqjwapvgzndkqijzoavuxpb4gz 2409118 2409097 2022-07-24T23:35:34Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |- Establishing <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |} 6bomxjp7hocw4mv0epm4upaqqfs3zoa 2409119 2409118 2022-07-24T23:36:29Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |- Establishing |} 72lhlhsib3612419zsep6uykmuotobt 2409120 2409119 2022-07-24T23:37:30Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |- Establishing |} <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> k6af37rugw4uirhdtog8p7k0vm0i03w 2409121 2409120 2022-07-24T23:37:39Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |- Establishing |} <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> f42voi63pyezcjjft6zru6u8s7yzb35 2409122 2409121 2022-07-24T23:38:28Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |- ! 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Header text |- | Example || Example || Example |- | Example || Example || Example |- | Example || Example || Example |} hzz1e40nq75icqolwsujiefjfocrkgn 2409160 2409153 2022-07-25T01:54:49Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |+ Establishing <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |- ! a !!b !! c |} otmkvdo79e0ulqzri0hk5xwhx3g2q5c 2409164 2409160 2022-07-25T02:26:05Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |+ Establishing <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |- ! <math>n</math> !! <math>n</math> !! <math>b^2/n</math> !! <math>n%b</math> !! factors |} 1tdhdx2nr5i46k5dvkocf2pyql755u9 2409169 2409164 2022-07-25T02:56:13Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |+ Establishing <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |- ! <math>n</math> !! <math>b</math> !! <math>b^2/n</math> !! <math>n%b</math> !! <math>\text{change in}</math> <br><math>n,\text{or},b^x</math>!! factors |} 4dg9dm4u8eaqrjmxwox9g1rv7k40rbs 2409171 2409169 2022-07-25T02:59:37Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |+ <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |- ! <math>n</math> !! <math>b</math> !! <math>b^2/n</math> !! <math>n%b</math> !! <math>\text{change in}</math> <br><math>n\text{ or }b^x</math>!! \text{factors} |} 6zqx2xyl5gq3d2d1x8zpobahk6hg5fn 2409172 2409171 2022-07-25T03:03:07Z Guy vandegrift 813252 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=wikitable |+ <math>8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11</math> |- ! <math>n</math> !! <math>b</math> !! <math>b^2/n</math> !! <math>n%b</math> !! <math>\text{change in}</math> <br><math>n\text{ or }b^x</math>!!<math>\text{factors}</math> |} gm7owp8wzeyl74fpjack8jd61qnd94e 3 215404 2409114 2408851 2022-07-24T22:59:21Z Eyoungstrom 1933979 /* Curator */ Reply wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Eyoungstrom!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:Insert-signature.png]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikiversity-en <kbd>#wikiversity-en</kbd>]. * Follow Wikiversity on [[twitter]] (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and [[identi.ca]] (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity). </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:38, 23 September 2016 (UTC)</div> {{Robelbox/close}} == Evidence based assessment == Hi Eyoungstrom! Your clinical resource [[Evidence based assessment]] appears to be well-developed and ready for general learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 20:34, 25 June 2017 (UTC) ==Sandbox Section== ===Playing with Zotero=== This is a recent publication <ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/15374416.2019.1622121| issn = 1537-4416, 1537-4424| pages = 1–17| last1 = Young| first1 = Andrea S.| last2 = Youngstrom| first2 = Eric A.| last3 = Findling| first3 = Robert L.| last4 = Van Eck| first4 = Kathryn| last5 = Kaplin| first5 = Dana| last6 = Youngstrom| first6 = Jennifer K.| last7 = Calabrese| first7 = Joseph| last8 = Stepanova| first8 = Ekaterina| last9 = The LAMS Consortium| title = Developing and Validating a Definition of Impulsive/Reactive Aggression in Youth| journal = Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology| accessdate = 2019-07-26| date = 2019-07-25| url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15374416.2019.1622121}}</ref>. Here is a second one, where I first changed the default format to "Wikipedia Template" and then did ctrl+alt+C to copy the citation <ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1093/jpepsy/jst062| issn = 1465-735X, 0146-8693| volume = 39| issue = 2| pages = 204–221| last = Youngstrom| first = Eric A.| title = A Primer on Receiver Operating Characteristic Analysis and Diagnostic Efficiency Statistics for Pediatric Psychology: We Are Ready to ROC| journal = Journal of Pediatric Psychology| accessdate = 2019-07-26| date = 2014-03| url = https://academic.oup.com/jpepsy/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jpepsy/jst062}}</ref>. ===ref=== {{Reflist}} == Community Insights Survey == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> '''Share your experience in this survey''' Hi {{PAGENAME}}, The Wikimedia Foundation is asking for your feedback in a survey about your experience with {{SITENAME}} and Wikimedia. The purpose of this survey is to learn how well the Foundation is supporting your work on wiki and how we can change or improve things in the future. The opinions you share will directly affect the current and future work of the Wikimedia Foundation. Please take 15 to 25 minutes to '''[https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_0pSrrkJAKVRXPpj?Target=CI2019List(other,act3) give your feedback through this survey]'''. It is available in various languages. This survey is hosted by a third-party and [https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Insights_2019_Survey_Privacy_Statement governed by this privacy statement] (in English). Find [[m:Community Insights/Frequent questions|more information about this project]]. [mailto:surveys@wikimedia.org Email us] if you have any questions, or if you don't want to receive future messages about taking this survey. Sincerely, </div> [[User:RMaung (WMF)|RMaung (WMF)]] 14:31, 9 September 2019 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RMaung (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=CI2019List(other,act3)&oldid=19352826 --> =='''''Dyslexia Awareness Day''''' == *may be of interest for Dyslexia article... [https://www.google.com/search?q=world+dyslexia+awareness+day&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjw4Cl9sPkAhWMjFkKHYqoC7UQ_AUICSgA&biw=1339&bih=1002&dpr=1 world dyslexia awareness day Oct. 4] for [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform social media suggestions], thank you--[[User:Ozzie10aaaa|Ozzie10aaaa]] ([[User talk:Ozzie10aaaa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ozzie10aaaa|contribs]]) 16:01, 10 September 2019 (UTC) *Thank you -- we will keep this in mind for 2021, as well! [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 21:40, 4 February 2021 (UTC) == Reminder: Community Insights Survey == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> '''Share your experience in this survey''' Hi {{PAGENAME}}, A couple of weeks ago, we invited you to take the Community Insights Survey. It is the Wikimedia Foundation’s annual survey of our global communities. We want to learn how well we support your work on wiki. We are 10% towards our goal for participation. If you have not already taken the survey, you can help us reach our goal! '''Your voice matters to us.''' Please take 15 to 25 minutes to '''[https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_0pSrrkJAKVRXPpj?Target=CI2019List(other,act3) give your feedback through this survey]'''. It is available in various languages. This survey is hosted by a third-party and [https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Insights_2019_Survey_Privacy_Statement governed by this privacy statement] (in English). Find [[m:Community Insights/Frequent questions|more information about this project]]. [mailto:surveys@wikimedia.org Email us] if you have any questions, or if you don't want to receive future messages about taking this survey. Sincerely, </div> [[User:RMaung (WMF)|RMaung (WMF)]] 19:12, 20 September 2019 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RMaung (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=CI2019List(other,act3)&oldid=19397751 --> == Reminder: Community Insights Survey == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> '''Share your experience in this survey''' Hi {{PAGENAME}}, There are only a few weeks left to take the Community Insights Survey! We are 30% towards our goal for participation. If you have not already taken the survey, you can help us reach our goal! With this poll, the Wikimedia Foundation gathers feedback on how well we support your work on wiki. It only takes 15-25 minutes to complete, and it has a direct impact on the support we provide. Please take 15 to 25 minutes to '''[https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_0pSrrkJAKVRXPpj?Target=CI2019List(other,act3) give your feedback through this survey]'''. It is available in various languages. This survey is hosted by a third-party and [https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Insights_2019_Survey_Privacy_Statement governed by this privacy statement] (in English). Find [[m:Community Insights/Frequent questions|more information about this project]]. [mailto:surveys@wikimedia.org Email us] if you have any questions, or if you don't want to receive future messages about taking this survey. Sincerely, </div> [[User:RMaung (WMF)|RMaung (WMF)]] 17:02, 4 October 2019 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RMaung (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=CI2019List(other,act3)&oldid=19430537 --> == DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/3HKB4 == Hi. I saw you created [[DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/3HKB4]] with the content <nowiki>[https:///OSF.IO/3HKB4]</nowiki> - could you explain why? I'm not sure what purpose it served, and your summary of "fixed link" was a bit confusing. I deleted the page, since it looked like a test page, but if you want it restored I can. Thanks, --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 06:36, 20 December 2019 (UTC) :Thanks! You are right, it was an accident -- I was trying to add a link from the phone, and created the stub instead. Marking it for deletion was on my list of things to do this weekend. Much appreciated! [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 15:19, 20 December 2019 (UTC) == Helping Give Away Psychological Science == Is there something about the recent additions to [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science]] that could be added to [[Wikiversity:News]]? This is an excellent use of Wikiversity that we'd like to recognize and encourage. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:29, 26 April 2020 (UTC) Just checking again on a news announcement, either for Helping Give Away Psychological Science or for Evidence-Based Assessment. Highlighting these resources may encourage others to use Wikiversity for their efforts. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:03, 13 July 2020 (UTC) :Hi, Dave, yes, I would like that. I am sorry I was slow to respond. It's been challenging to figure out how to navigate the COVID situation and the changes in teaching format, plus dealing with some other major stresses and life events in the outside world. I am way behind on a lot of projects as a result. If you are still game, than maybe we could do something in December? Much appreciated! --[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 11:24, 5 November 2021 (UTC) == Helping Give Away Psychological Science/nnnn == Wikiversity [[Wikiversity:Naming conventions|naming conventions]] try to refrain from including sequence numbers in page titles. The recent group of HGAPS subpages all include a not-obviously-related number of some type. Can these pages be renamed? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:30, 4 November 2021 (UTC) :: :: Hi, @[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]! Thanks for reaching out about this! I apologize for the departures from convention. I am going to provide some context here, and ask for help problem solving, or for permission to leave this as is for the rest of 2021 as an experiment. Rationale to follow quickly. I am going to post it here tonight. Big thanks, [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 23:24, 4 November 2021 (UTC) ::-------- :: Okay, this is going to be a long reply! But I want to give you a big picture and some details as fast as I can on-Wiki. :: :: I know that we have talked once before (around Father’s Day) a couple of years ago, and that would be the fastest way to talk this through, but I also understand that you want as much as possible to be documented on Wiki. :: ::A ''blend'' might be great -- quick conversation to explain and agree on a solution and parameters, and I will document On Wiki (or we both can document -- you will be faster). :: ::'''Key detail'''-- We see these pages as a ''workspace'' for teaching projects. When the content matures, we will rename the pages or copy and paste material to a more polished-looking page with a conventional title. :: ::'''Options I know about that have considered but don’t think will work:''' ::''Put it in a sandbox:'' ::This is the apparent solution to the experienced Wiki editors. The problems: these pages are a bridge that is connecting the students with consultants who have no Wiki experience. On ::the Discuss page, there are links to GoogleDocs (which are much easier for consultants to edit). There are corresponding numbered pieces off Wiki (an OSF.io project, a Slack Channel, a ::Google Drive folder, working agendas and goals and project milestones). So this is the link connecting outside experts with “inside wiki” experts (like you!). :: ::''Put it in draft:'' ::The number is key for establishing the linkage between the different platforms. We would still want to have the number featured prominently in the page name. Draft also complicates some of the other aspects of editing. :: ::P''ut in user sandbox'' ::hard for others to find, and violates etiquette to have other people editing in a user sandbox. ::------ ::That was the thought process that led to my creating these in mainspace on Wikiversity, but only in a specific location (under the /Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science page) so that they are not causing havoc. Furthermore, my intention was not to link them anywhere within Wikiversity where teaching resources are in use. Essentially, I am having a set of “unlisted” pages that connect project management resources outside Wiki with a specific location and set of resources inside Wiki. :: ::The teams have varying numbers of contributors involved (1 to 20ish), and only a handful of people involved with HGAPS have accounts on *all* of the platforms involved (Wiki, Slack, OSF, Google Suites for nonprofits). :: ::Creating these “bridge” pages is organizing a set of portals for the “connector” people to be able to communicate with experts like you inside Wiki, as well as teams with little or no Wiki editing skills on the outside. :: ::We are putting the links to the GoogleDocs, etc. on the Discuss page (hidden in plain sight), so you or other people could follow the links to see the activity off-wiki (much of which would not be interesting or useful to document on Wiki, anyway), but this could be valuable for increasing transparency. :: ::I am using some of these numbered pages to try to connect 5 teams of students in an Econ 325 class taught by a different faculty member with a few experienced Wiki Editors to have their class projects be easier to move onto Wiki (commons and Wikiversity, most likely). They are doing a four week sprint that will be done by Thanksgiving. It’s too compressed to teach them how to edit while they are doing their main project, but this hybrid is building a connection for these to migrate to mature and cleaner looking products in December/January (when the Econ 325 students will have graduated or at least finished this class). :: ::There are a lot of logistics and moving parts. :: ::We can delete or rename all of these in December, but it would be a huge help if we could leave things as they are until Thanksgiving, with my promise that we will only do this in one location, and only for the purpose of building “bridges” between distributed teams with mixed skill sets. :: ::I would be glad to evaluate with you and anyone else in December to debrief, figure out lessons learned, and codify best practices going forward. :: ::LMK if anything else would be helpful. Super open to meeting via Zoom -- I would love to be able to show you what’s happening outside of Wiki, and how we are trying to connect everything. I would like to record any such Zoom, put it on YouTube, and link it to the Wikiversity page as another way of building a connection and sharing more of the off-Wiki activity as transparently as I know how inside Wiki. :: ::VERY open to suggestions or ideas. My email is eyoungstrom@hgaps.org if you or anyone wants to reach me that way. :: ::Big thanks -- you are the keeper of the flame for Wikiversity, and I am realizing that and I am grateful for all you are doing. [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 03:42, 5 November 2021 (UTC) :::Thanks for the detailed explanation. It would be helpful if there was a comment at the top of the Talk page introducing the resource as HGAPS project nnnn and described a bit more about the project and/or timeline, etc. Other than that, yes, leave the pages as is and rename them once the project is complete. Going forward, I wonder if putting such pages under an HGAPS/Draft/ or similar heading would help differentiate work in progress from active resource pages. Thanks for your consideration! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:29, 5 November 2021 (UTC) ::::Excellent! We could move them all to the location you suggested now. A page move creates a redirect so that the external links to the Wikiversity page would automatically redirect, right? If that's the case, I will take care of it by Tuesday, and will update the SOPs no later than next Thursday. ::::It will be intriguing to see how this works; it's an experiment, for sure. I don't know what your academic schedule is this fall. I am very much in "scramble mode" until after Thanksgiving, but then things should lighten. Let me know if you would be willing to debrief together -- I would be grateful for any time or consultation you might be able to squeeze in. Very best regards in the meantime! -- [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 17:02, 5 November 2021 (UTC) == Curator == You have earned [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Eyoungstrom|community support]] as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curator]]. Congratulations! Please start by adding yourself to the [[Wikiversity:Staff]] list. Then check to see new rights on pages and [[Special:Specialpages|Special pages]]. Let me know whenever you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:07, 23 July 2022 (UTC) :: ::Outstanding! I am glad to hear it, and look forward to continuing to learn and contribute to the community in this role. I have added myself to the Staff list, and am reading up on the new rights and Special pages. Best regards in the meantime.... -- [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 22:59, 24 July 2022 (UTC) tvsfu0a1tplyhajhdctfrxecz6zopwk 0 215980 2409069 2245321 2022-07-24T13:58:30Z FMSky 2921697 same in high res ([[Commons:Commons:GlobalReplace|GlobalReplace v0.6.5]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Narco-terrorism motivation:<br>What motivates narcoterrorism?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/qzfWrKtG2DY}} __TOC__ == Overview == Narco-terrorism was a term introduced in 1983 in Latin America by [[w:Fernando Belaúnde Terry|President Fernando Belaunde]] Terry of Peru. It was used to define violence waged by drug producers on their countries and governments, to further their own political interests.  The term itself refers to two types of terrorism; international drug dealers who use radical methods to gain and capitalise on their profits, and terrorist groups who use drug production and trafficking to fund their organisations and operations.  Since the term was first introduced, the label ‘narco-terrorism’ has developed various meanings, and different organisations reference different aspects of drug production, dealing and trafficking (Zalman, 2016; “Narcoterrorism”, 2016).   == History of Narco-Terrorism == [[File:Pablo_Escobar_Mug.jpg|link=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Pablo_Escobar_Mug.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1'': Pablo Escobars{{grammar}} mug shot.]] Narco-terrorism became a major concern in the late 1980s during the fight against the Colombian drug cartel and [[w:Pablo Escobar|Pablo Escobar]], one of the most powerful and violent criminals of all time.  During his rise to becoming one of the world’s most notorious drug dealers, Pablo Escobar controlled up to 80% of the cocaine trafficked over to the USA, earning the cartel as much as $420 million a week (“Pablo Escobar Biography”, 2016).  Pablo Escobar's rise to power was short-lived when the United States arranged for his capture and extradition.  This ultimately led to Escobar’s use of terror tactics on the Colombian government as a way to persuade them into exonerating him.  His terrorism attacks resulted in the deaths of thousands of people, including politicians, journalists, judges, police officers and civilians.  His attacks took violence to new extremes and included executions, car bombs, and bombing a Colombian jetliner, which killed over 100 people (“Pablo Escobar Biography”, 2016).  Escobar's wave of terror attacks used to run his business operations became known as narco-terrorism (Amoruso, 2010).  Pablo Escobar's rise to power may have been one of the most influential in making narco-terrorism history, but other criminal groups have acted under similar strategies. The [[w:Armed Forces of Colombia|Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC), one of the biggest political armies in the nation, began terrorising the Colombian Government in 1948, after the assassination of leader [[W:Jorge Eliécer Gaitán|Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], of the Liberal Party (“FARC”, 2016). Following the assassination, havoc unfolded; entire villages were attacked for affiliating with the Conservatives.  After 15 years of war, almost 20,000 people had lost their lives and hundreds more migrated to nearby cities to escape the conflict (“FARC”, 2016).  The group of rebels who fought against the Conservatives slowly began to grow, eventually adopting the name ‘FARC’ in 1966.  By the 1970s, the revolutionaries were highly involved in the drug industry, starting their trading through the marijuana market, and later expanding their business to include [[W: Coca leaf|coca leaf]] plantations, which funded their organisation for many years to come.  Although beginning a peace process with the Colombian Government in 2012, with the rebels agreeing to end all conflict by August 2016, at the peak of their operations in the drug trade, they terrorised many through kidnappings and assassinations, not to mention their debilitating assaults on government forces and police officers (“FARC”, 2016).  From the beginning to the end of their battles, the FARC killed up to 220,000 people in the 50-year conflict (Jamal, 2016).  Drug trade violence did not stop with the FARC, other organisations from around the globe including the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK) who utilized the drug market to fund their movements.[[File:Flag_of_the_FARC-EP_(cuadrado).jpg|link=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_FARC-EP_(cuadrado).jpg|left|thumb|''Figure 2:'' Rebel flag of the FARC.]] == Drug Market == The underground drug market has become the most utilised source of funding for many terrorist organisations (Martin, 2012).  This is a result of the mammoth earnings the drug trade accumulates, with the United States (US) contributing up to $100 billion annually on illicit substances between 2006 and 2010 (“What America's Users Spend on Illegal Drugs: 2000 –2010”, 2014). The turnover for narcotics globally is estimated at a whopping $400 billion per annum, in cases which were actually reported (“Spending on illegal drugs this year”, 2016).  More concerning, worldwide, drug use takes an estimated 95,000 to 226,000 lives annually, with up to 324 million people using [[W: Illicit substances|illicit substances]] (“Drug use and its health and social consequences”, 2016). == Drug trade and terrorist organisations == Since the deadly attacks in New York and Washington DC on [[W: September 11 2001|September 11 2001]] (9/11), the connection between the drug trade and terrorism has been under the microscope more than ever before.  One topic in particular which gained a lot of interest post 9/11, was how terrorism was being funded, with [[W: Taliban|Taliban]]'s involvement in the drug trade becoming more evident (Makarenko, 2004).  Afghanistan, the home of al-Qaida and the Taliban, has had the biggest impact on narco-terrorism.  It provides 93% of the [[W: Opium|opium]] production worldwide. In 2008, opium was sold for an estimated $730 million supplying the Taliban with up to $70 million alone (Haupt, 2009).  Alarmingly, terrorist organisations such as the Taliban will continue to be funded as long as substances like heroin are trafficked and sold on our shores (Haupt, 2009). [[File:Flag of al-Qaeda in Iraq design 4.svg|thumb|''Figure 3:'' the flag of al-Qaeda in Iraq.]] In [[Mexico]], the [[W: Cocaine|cocaine]] drug war continues to be a worldwide threat, particularly to the US, as its neighbouring cities are frequently exposed to, and forever vulnerable to the conflict generated from the [[W: Drug trade|drug trade]] (Haupt, 2009). Mexico is a base for various terrorist organizations including the FARC and is one of the major producers of the coca plant, which is estimated to provide $39 million in drug proceeds per annum.  Mexico provides a direct route from the rest of [[W: South America|South America]] to the [[W: US|US]] with 90% of their shipments being trafficked over the border into the US (Haupt, 2009).  Mexico is known for its lawlessness and corruption, making it the perfect location for various terrorist organisations to congregate with drug cartels, reducing their risk of being caught.  In 2009, 19 of 43 formally recognised terrorist groups, were been linked to the drug trade in Mexico by the [[W: Drug Enforcement Agency|Drug Enforcement Agency]] (DEA). Of those 19 groups, reports suggested [[W: Al-Qaeda|al-Qaeda]] was in direct contact with FARC, highlighting a number of al-Qaeda‘s operatives spotted at the South American and US borders (Haupt, 2009). == The law == [[File:President George W. Bush Signs Patriot Act.jpg|link=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:President George W. Bush Signs Patriot Act.jpg|thumb|320x320px|''Figure 4:'' Signing of the Patriot ACT (10 October 2001).]]As narco-terrorism involves two types of crime - [[W: Terrorism|terrorism]] and [[W: Drug offences|drug offences]], the laws surrounding them can be quite complex and are frequently changing. Resultantly, narco-terrorism as a ‘newer’ form of terrorism, has fewer laws applied compared to larger threats like global terrorism. There are a number of extensive laws in Australia that combat terrorism, national security and cross-jurisdictional offences.  According to the Australian National Security Agency, the basis for listing a terrorist group falls under Division 102 of the ''[[W: Criminal Code Act 1995|Criminal Code Act 1995]].''  The code states; {{quote |text=<poem>“For an organisation to be listed as a terrorist organisation, the Attorney-General must be satisfied on reasonable grounds that the organisation is: directly engaged in, preparing, planning, or assisting in fostering the doing of a terrorist act; or advocates the doing of a terrorist act” " </poem> |author= (“Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK)”, n.d)}} In the ''[[W: Customs Act 1901|Customs Act 1901]],'' a number of drug related offences are also identified including, smuggling illicit substances in and out of the country, manufacturing and cultivation of illicit substances, possession and distribution of substances (“Customs Act 1901”, 1901; “Drug Law in Australia”, 2016). More specific to narco-terrorism, and as recent as 2006, a narco-terrorism provision was added to the American ''Patriot Act'' (Section 112) (Thompson, 2016).  The Act states: “Anyone who engages in conduct or conspires in providing, directly, or indirectly, anything of value to any person or organisation terrorist activity… will be sentenced to imprisonment, not less than twice the minimum punishment, and no more than life...”  (“One Hundred Ninth Congress of the United States”, 2006). == The current issue == {{quote |text=<poem>“What we know for a fact is that global drug traffickers and terror networks and insurgent groups often join in a marriage of convenience and do business to raise revenue for their respective purposes,”...  “Much of the world’s terror regimes are funded through drug trafficking proceeds, or the taxing of drug routes throughout the world.  The threat is real." "</poem> |author= (Payne, as cited in Roy, 2014)}} The global drug trade is an ongoing concern in most [[W: Western countries|western countries]]. Not only does it affect lives around the globe, it is a concern for national security.  Terrorism financing not only helps terrorist organisations execute attacks on our shores, it helps establish and maintain terrorist organisations throughout [[W: Australia|Australia]] and Overseas, through training, preparing and planning for the next offence.  It allows individuals from these organisations to live normal daily lives, and helps provide compensation to families of those who have been killed in terrorist activities (“Tourism Financing in Australia”, 2016).  There are a number of ways terrorism financing can occur, these include through self-funding; making an honest living then using the funds to support terrorist groups or one's own terrorist intentions. Furthermore, this can be done through criminal acts such as exploiting charity organizations to raise funds, and transferring large quantities of money to overseas accounts disguised as a donations for aid etc.  Funds can also be sent overseas by charities with genuine intentions, to be intercepted by terrorist organisations for their own use (“Tourism Financing in Australia”, 2016).  Specific to narco-terrorism, terrorism financing is regularly maintained via the drug trade within Australia and America.  Drugs such as opium and cocaine are smuggled into the countries, sold, with the money made smuggled back to the originating countries, funding their terrorist groups.  Moreover, as long as the drug market continues to make a profit, and there is demand for illicit drugs, terrorism will be a constant threat around the world (Haupt, 2009). == Problem statement == Despite successful counterdrug operations, the drug market is constantly growing.  Illicit drugs are a serious threat to the health, safety and financial wellbeing of individuals all around the world (“Transnational Organized Crime”, n.d). More concerningly, the popularity of illicit drugs within the western hemisphere gives terrorist organisations power, allowing them to maintain and hold onto that power fueling further terror related violence. From this, the drug trade is not only detrimental to drug users, through the sales of narcotics, but allows terrorist organisations to further exploit and threaten the western worlds way of life.  Futhermore{{spelling}}, funding derived from terrorism through the manufacture and sale of narcotics, opens our doors to not only a constant flow of the prohibited substances, but to individuals or organisations with intention to carry out a terrorist act (“Transnational Organized Crime…”, n.d). == Rational Choice Theory == {{expand}} === Overview === The [[W: Rational Choice Theory|Rational Choice Theory]] (RCT) introduced by Cornish and Clarke in 1987, and seeks to identify how criminal behaviour occurs, by analysing the thought processes of an individual.  This perspective on crime adopts the idea that criminal offenders commit crimes in order to benefit themselves, and that most criminals are unable to make rational decisions (Cornish & Clarke, 1987).  This theory emphasizes that human behaviour is predicted based on the search for pleasure and the avoidance of pain, thus our actions are calculated based on the costs and benefits, and that crime is only committed when there are high chances of rewards and low chances of being caught (Hayward, 2007).  The RCT was created to understand criminal decision making in order to potentially prevent future occurrences of crime. In particular, the theory had an emphasis on ‘situational’ crime incidents caused by those who are less functional and have criminal dispositions (Cornish & Clarke, 1987).  Crimes being committed on a situational basis are done to benefit the criminal.  If the crime at hand does not provide any form of benefit, the criminal will displace their attention elsewhere, until an opportunity arises (Cornish & Clarke, 1987). === How this can be applied to narco-terrorism? === The rational choice perspective was introduced in order to understand criminal behaviour, therefore, is applicable to narco-terrorism in a number of ways.  For example, in the case of Pablo Escobar, it was evident that he was very much interested in benefiting himself through narcotics production and trade (“Pablo Escobar”, 2015).  Though there were always suspicions, in his dealings Escobar was always at arm's reach when it came to committing crimes which he would be directly affiliated with.  Those crimes included organising hits on people who had gone against him, like judges in cases against him and liberal party candidates who made threats against him and his trade.  He would organise to have them killed, but always made sure that he had no obvious connections to the crime.  The RCT does not assume that a person has a predisposition to offend in a particular way; it suggests that the decision to offend is influenced by both the offender and the offence.  That the decision to offend is calculated based on an appraisal process, which evaluates the value in the crime, and if it will help achieve the offenders objective (Cornish & Clarke, 1987){{grammar}}.  In the case of Pablo Escobar, he often had to make assessments regarding what actions were needed to protect him and his business.  These assessments led to killing of masses of people, which to him, were all done to benefit himself and his reputation{{fact}}. === Applied example === {{RoundBoxTop}} On the 18th of August 1989, [[W: Luis Carlos Galán|Luis Carlos Galan]], a favoured presidential candidate was assassinated in front of 10,000 people as he was about to step out on stage to deliver a speech at a liberal party convention where he was predicted to be chosen to run for senate (Bedoya, 2014).  Galan had no tolerance for drugs or drug organisations, and when elected, had a mission to take on and eradicate Colombia’s drug cartels.  This resulted in members of these organisations to viewing him less favourably.  Among those was Pablo Escobar who Galan publicly humiliated in front of a crowd of 5000 people during a presidential speech.  When there was word that Galan had the votes to win the election, Escobar became uneasy due to the potential implications it would have on him and his cartel.  The assassination was a group effort, which included military officers, intelligence directors, the drug cartel, and paramilitaries, who all had apparent connections with Escobar and his cartel (Bedoya, 2014).  Eventually, Escobar's hitman ‘Popeye’ was jailed for 22 years for the murder of Galan, after he handed himself into the authorities (Hayward, 2016).  Escobar’s everyday dealings showed strong support for RCT as crimes were often committed to benefit him.  They were infamously executed in a calculated manner so that he would have higher chance of success while avoiding the punishments of being caught (“Pablo Escobar”, 2015). {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Limitations === The RCT provides plausible motivations for crime displacement, and though these motives can be applied to criminal behaviour, there are some limitations to the theory itself.  The RCT suggests that it can be applied to all crime situations, that crime in itself is ‘rational’ and always committed to achieve goals (Cornish & Clarke, 1987), but questions have been raised to weather{{grammar}}{{spelling}} this is the case.  Burdon (1998) examined the validity of the theory, questioning if crimes are actually linked to a particular outcome or if they are executed rationally at all.  With reference to Pablo Escobar, at his peak it is said that he was involved in up to, if not more than 3000 murders before his death in 1993 (Roper, 2015). According to the RCT, all of the murders were done for a calculated reason. Of those 3000 murders, prostitutes were murdered and so were family members of people who had done him wrong (Roper, 2015).  Burdon’s (1998) work queries whether murders like these were premeditated; in Escobar’s case, did they occur because of a ‘legitimate’ reason; or perhaps because he abused his power and got away with it for so long. == Social Movement Theory == {{expand}} === Overview === The [[W: Social Movement Theory|Social Movement Theory]] (SMT) dates back to the 1960s and is based on the idea of people forming relationships in response to social movements and political opportunities, which more often than not, involve cultural conflict (Metzger, 2016).  When culture is involved, a network of people is harmonized and they possess similar qualities and ways of functioning.  Networks such these can be extremely hostile to different cultures that have different beliefs and ways of thinking (Metzger, 2016).  Much like the Rational Choice Theory, the SMT assumes that those who join a political organisation, do so to maximise their own benefits (Metzger, 2016). === How this can be applied to narco-terrorism? === [[File:Osama bin Laden portrait.jpg|thumb|''Figure 5:'' Osama Bin Laden{{explain}}]] Al Qaeda and the Taliban are a key example of the SMT in narco-terrorism.  These organisations are {{grammar}} they heavily involved with the opium market, with most of their funding coming from the sale and trafficking of the illegal narcotics (Haupt, 2009).  The organisation is made up of followers who hold similar beliefs and values as one another.  Some define these beliefs and values as [[W: Radical Islam|radical Islam]].  Although their objectives remain in dispute, Al Qaeda has been known to despise western cultures, more specifically the USA, loathing their way of life and values (Byman, 2003).  [[W: President Bush|President Bush]] stated on September 11, 2001: "They hate our freedoms: our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote, assemble, and disagree with each other ”…  These terrorists kill not merely to end lives, but to disrupt and end a way of life."  (Bush, as cited in Byman, 2003)''.'' Followers of al-Qaeda naturally form bonds over their hatred, and with these bonds and such strong beliefs, create a strong terrorist organisation{{fact}}.  The actions of al-Qaeda reinforces this theory, as their motives are based on collective objectives, built on common beliefs and motivators, maintained by a group who are hostile toward those who hold different values to their own. These objectives accompanied with their presence in drug market, make them a powerful narco-terrorist organisation. === Applied example === {{RoundBoxTop}} Al-Qaeda, which was originally founded by [[W: Osama bin Laden|Osama bin Laden]], dates back to the 1980s when many Arab countries had come together in Afghanistan, to help support the Muslims fight off the attacking Russian Army in the [[W: War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)|Afghan War]].  Once the Russians were defeated in 1989, the volunteers formed a faction that is now known as al-Qaeda, who created an alliance against any non-Islamic government ("How did al-Qaeda start?", n.d).  Al-Qaeda has had a long hatred of the United States{{fact}}. They maintain the belief that the country is full of [[W: Infidel|infidels]], because it is not governed in a way that is consistent with [[W: Islam|Islam]]{{fact}}.  For this reason, and many others, Bin Laden declared a war on the ‘unbelievers’ of the United States, which has created havoc for century’s ("Background: al-Qaeda", 2014).  September 11, 2011 is an example of the extremes the terrorist organisation is willing to go to in the name of their culture and religion.  With the millions of dollars of funding allegedly supplied to them from the opium trade, they were able to come together and execute one of the biggest terrorist attacks in America’s history (Haupt, 2009).  Terror groups like these show convincing support for the SMT.  Such a notorious organisation was established then expanded, based on beliefs and cultures, so strong; they were willing to pledge wars based on them{{fact}}. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Limitations === The SMT has a lot to offer in the study of terrorism and political violence.  It provides a great insight what motivates a terrorist organisation, and the strength that culture, and common beliefs create when brought together in a political setting.  In the case of al-Qaeda, this means collective threatening movements in the name of religion (Beck, 2008).  However, The SMT in regards to terrorism is very limited, and the current literature on the topic is outdated. This is essentially due to the lack of methodology on terrorist organisations, as it would be understandably difficult to gather the information needed direct from the source (Beck, 2008). == Other motivators == Other considerations that come to mind when faced with terrorist acts and their consequences are the [[W: Psychological|psychological]] states of the individual, or individuals, who execute the action.  Often people question if the perpetrators are mentally ill, or deranged, to carry out something so sinister (Ruby, 2002).  There have been numerous theories established to question exactly that.  Of these theories is the [[W: Personality Defect Model of Terrorism|Personality Defect Model of Terrorism]], which is based on the idea that terrorists have pathological flaws in their personality structures.  These shortcomings create hostile individuals who hold negative attitudes of themselves and those around them.  These feelings eventually assist them in rationalising terrorist behaviour (Ruby, 2002).  In a more learning specific approach, the [[W: Social Learning Model of Terrorism|Social Learning Model of Terrorism]] suggests, consistent with the theory of aggression, that terrorism is not a result of dysfunctional or flawed personality traits; but the result of learnt experiences and social influences, which the culprits view as completely normal behaviour (Ruby, 2002). == Conclusion == Theories like the Rational Choice Theory and the Social Movement theory help us understand the motivations behind any form of terrorist behaviour.  The Rational Choice Theory was created to understand why criminal behaviour occurs, so there are chances of preventing future incidents (Cornish & Clarke, 1987).  In the case of narco-terrorism, theories like these are especially important.  In a society where the drug market is continually growing, and terrorist tactics are used on a regular basis to keep the market flourishing, it is an ongoing concern globally.  Not only does the drug trade pose a serious threat to the health, safety and financial well-being of people all around the world (“Transnational Organized Crime”, n.d), but it is helping fund terrorist organisations like al-Qaeda, who’s ultimate goal is to destroy our way of living (Byman, 2003).  Theories like these are crucial in the fight against narco-terrorism. == See also == * [[W: Terrorism|Terrorism]] * [[W: Illegal Drug Trade|Illegal Drug Trade]] == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Amoruso, D. (2010, February 26).  ''Pablo Escobar’s War on Colombia''.  Retrieved from: <nowiki>http://gangstersinc.ning.com/profiles/blogs/pablo-escobars-war-on-colombia</nowiki> Amy Zalman, P. (2016). ''Narcoterrorism''. ''About.com News & Issues''.  Retrieved from Terrorism About Website: <nowiki>http://terrorism.about.com/od/n/g/Narcoterrorism.htm</nowiki>    Australian National Security.  (n.d).  ''Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK).''  Retrieved from the Australian Government National Security Website:  <nowiki>https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/KurdistanWorkersPartyPKK.aspx</nowiki> Beck, C. (2008).  The Contribution of Social Movement Theory to Understanding Terrorism. ''Sociology Compass'', 2(5), 1565-1581.  doi: org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00148.x Bedoya, N. (2014).  ''Colombia marks 25th anniversary of Galan’s assassination.'' Retrieved from the Colombia Reports Website:  <nowiki>http://colombiareports.com/luis-carlos-galan-25-years-later/</nowiki> Biography.com. (2016). ''Pablo Escobar Biography''.  Retrieved from the biography Website: <nowiki>http://www.biography.com/people/pablo-escobar-9542497#related-video-gallery</nowiki> Boudon, R. (1998).  Limitations of Rational Choice Theory 1.  American Journal of sociology, 104(3), 817-828. Boudon, R. (1998). Limitations of Rational Choice Theory.  ''American Journal Of Sociology'', 104(3), 817-828. doi: org/10.1086/210087 Byman, D. L. (2003).  ''Al-Qaeda as an Adversary do We Understand Our Enemy?''. World Politics, 56(01), 139-163. Collins English Dictionary. (2016). ''Definition of narco terrorism''.  Retrieved from the dictionary.com Website: <nowiki>http://www.dictionary.com/browse/narcoterrorism?s=t</nowiki> Commonwealth Consolidated Acts.  (1901). ''Customs Act 1901.''  Retrieved from the Australian Legal Information Institute Website:  <nowiki>http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca1901124/</nowiki> Commonwealth of Australia.  (2016). ''Tourism'' ''Financing in Australia.''  Retrieved from the AUSTRAC Website: <nowiki>http://www.austrac.gov.au/publications/corporate-publications-and-reports/terrorism-financing-australia-2014</nowiki> Cornish, D. & Clarke, R. (1987). Understanding Crime Displacement: An Application of Rational Choice Theory.  Criminology, 25(4), 933-948.  doi: org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00826.x Crime Investigation. (2015). ''Pablo Escobar.'' Retrieved from the Crime Investigation Website: <nowiki>http://www.crimeandinvestigation.co.uk/crime-files/pablo-escobar/crime</nowiki> Drug Info.  (2016).  ''Drug Law in Australia.''  Retrieved from the Alcohol and Drug Foundation Website: <nowiki>http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/topics/drug-law-in-australia#NEDs</nowiki> Frontline.  (2014). ''Background: al-Qaeda.''  Retrieved from the PBS Website: <nowiki>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/network/alqaeda/indictment.html</nowiki> Haupt, D. A. (2009).  ''Narco-Terrorism: An Increasing Threat to US National Security.'' National Defence UNIV Norfolk VA Joint Advanced Warfighting School. Retrieved from: <nowiki>http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a530126.pdf</nowiki> Hayward, B.  (2016).  ''Here’s how many people Pablo Escobar’s personal hitman has killed.''  Retrieved from the Unilad Website: <nowiki>http://www.unilad.co.uk/drugs/heres-how-many-people-pablo-escobars-personal-hitman-has-killed/</nowiki> Hayward, K. (2007).  Situational Crime Prevention and its Discontents: Rational Choice Theory versus the Culture of Now.  ''Social Policy & Admin'', 41(3), 232-250. doi: org/10.1111/j.1467-9515.2007.00550.x Insight Crime.  (2016, August 25).  ''FARC.''   Retrieved from the Insight Crime Website: <nowiki>http://www.insightcrime.org/colombia-organized-crime-news/farc-profile</nowiki> Jamal, T.  (2016).  ''Colombia (1964 – first combat deaths).'' Retrieved from the Project Ploughshares Website: <nowiki>http://ploughshares.ca/pl_armedconflict/colombia-1964-first-combat-deaths/</nowiki> Makarenko, T. (2004). The Crime-Terror Continuum: Tracing the Interplay between Transnational Organised Crime and Terrorism. Global Crime, 6(1), 129-145. doi.org/10.1080/174405704200029702 Martin, G. (2012). ''Understanding Terrorism'' (4^th ed.)  [Google Docs]. SAGE Publications. Retrieved from:  <nowiki>https://books.google.com.au/books?id=168ttmTMo5MC&pg=PA291&lpg=PA291&dq=motivating+ideology+for+narco+terrorism&source=bl&ots=UZjwnSoA2N&sig=vfc3QbCbPxOAaZv_D_nP2NKt_78&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2sO7jndbOAhWBzpQKHWHLBkMQ6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=motivating%20ideology%20for%20narco%20terrorism&f=false</nowiki> Metzger, T.  (2016).   ''Social Movement Theory and Terrorism: Explaining the Development of Al-Qaeda.''  Retrieved from the Inquiries Journal Website <nowiki>http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/916/social-movement-theory-and-terrorism-explaining-the-development-of-al-qaeda</nowiki> NarcoTerror.org. (2009). [null ''Lessons From History: Some Background Information On Narco-Funded Terrorism'']''.''  Retrieved from the Narco Terrror website: <nowiki>http://www.narcoterror.org/background.htm</nowiki> National Security Council.  (n.d). ''Transnational Organized Crime: A Growing Threat to National and International Security.'' Retrieved from the White House Website: <nowiki>https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/nsc/transnational-crime/threat</nowiki> Newsround.  (n.d). ''How did al-Qaeda start?''  Retrieved from the BBC News Website: <nowiki>http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/find_out/guides/world/terrorism/newsid_2691000/2691445.stm</nowiki> RAND.  (2014).  ''What America's Users Spend on Illegal Drugs: 2000 –2010.''  Retrieved from the rand.org Website:  <nowiki>http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR534.html</nowiki> Roper.  (2008). ''<nowiki/>'Buddy, circumstances make the man': Pablo Escobar's hitman 'Popeye' who admits ordering 3,000 murders breaks silence to say he doesn't feel ANY guilt... because he too was a victim of the 'King of Cocaine'.''  Retrieved from the Daily Mail Website: <nowiki>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3238278/Buddy-circumstances-make-man-Pablo-Escobar-s-hitman-Popeye-admits-ordering-3-000-murders-breaks-silence-say-doesn-t-feel-guilt-victim-King-Cocaine.html</nowiki> Roy, R. L. (2014, August 10).  ''Dissecting the Complicated Relationship between Drug Operations and Terrorism''. Retrieved from the ‘thefix’ Website: <nowiki>https://www.thefix.com/content/dissecting-confounding-nexus-drugs-and-terror</nowiki> Ruby, C. (2002). Are Terrorists Mentally Deranged?. ''Analyses Of Social Issues And Public Policy,'' 2(1), 15-26.  doi: org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00022.x Speaker of the House of Representatives.  (2006, January 3).  ''One Hundred Ninth Congress of the United States''.  Retrieved from: <nowiki>https://www.rainn.org/pdf-files-and-other-documents/Public-Policy/Key-Federal-Laws/PL109-248.pdf</nowiki> Thompson, G.  (2015, December 6). ''The Narco-terror Trap.''  Retrieved from the ProPublica Website: <nowiki>https://www.propublica.org/article/the-dea-narco-terror-trap</nowiki> TRAC. (2016). ''Narcoterrorism''.  Retrieved from the Tracking Terrorism Website: <nowiki>http://www.trackingterrorism.org/article/narcoterrorism</nowiki> World Drug Report 2014.  (2016).  ''Drug use and its health and social consequences.'' Retrieved from the UNIDC Website: <nowiki>http://www.unodc.org/wdr2014/en/drug-use.html</nowiki> Worldometers.  (2016). Spending ''on illegal drugs this year.'' Retrieved from the Worldometers Website:  <nowiki>http://www.worldometers.info/drugs/</nowiki> }} == External links == * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N8e9Hz0Xw6g How the DEA Invented "narco-terrorism"]. (YouTube, 2015) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=149041bZee4 Ginger Thompson: Narco-terrorism: Terrorists in the drug trade?] (YouTube, 2016) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8sXQALU0Lo Rational Choice theory of Criminology] (YouTube, 2016) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw13pS7qB7w Social movements - a primer: Toby Chow at TED Chicago] (YouTube, 2013) * [http://study.com/academy/practice/quiz-worksheet-principles-of-rational-choice-theory.html Rational Choice Theory: Definition & Principles Quiz] (Study.com, 2016) [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2016]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Forensic/Terrorism]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Drugs]] nn76pd8hcbg8uy7vrgat5b0u3roq7ix 0 216454 2409068 2186851 2022-07-24T13:58:08Z Magog the Ogre 26224 Czech -> English diagram wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Sound and mood:<br>What is the effect of sound on mood?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byCOyN3m-X8}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Sound-icon.png|thumb|''Figure 1''. Image of a sound icon.|128x128px]]''Have you ever thought about the effect of different sounds on your mood?'' ''How does hearing specific sounds impact our mood?'' ''What exactly happens when we hear sounds to illicit{{sp}} an emotional response to affect our mood?'' Sounds are capable of affecting and influencing an individuals{{sp}} mood, however these effects on emotions are considerably different across individuals and situations (Quarto et al., 2017). This chapter will explore the effect of sound on mood and how it can impact individuals well-being in everyday life.{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Key questions:}} * What is sound? * What is mood and how can it be measured? * How does sound affect us and what is the effect of sound on mood? * Based on empirical research, what effect does sound have on mood? * How do psychological theories explain the effect of sound and mood? * How does the effect of sound and mood apply to everyday life in the real world? {{Robelbox/close}} ==What is sound?== [[File:Sound wave.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Image of a sound wave.]] '''There are several definitions of [[wikipedia:Sound|sound]]:''' Kalat (2016) states that sound waves are the periodic compressions of air, water, or other structures that varies in amplitude, frequency, pitch and timbre. Sound waves are vibrations of molecules, that must travel through some sort of physical medium, such as air and water (Weiten, 2013). Pasnau (1999) states that there are two historical views of sounds: firstly sounds are the object of hearing and secondly that sounds are properties of the mechanism instead of the object making the sound. From typical listening environments, the ear receives compression waves from many different directions, where reverberation is a common phenomenon. The standard view of sound is incoherent as the perception of sound is illusory: for living beings, sounds are not heard as being in the air, however sounds are heard as from the place they are generated (Pasnau, 1999). '''Types of sounds''' Sounds can vary and emanate from anything such as environmental noises, music, nature, sports, travel and transportation. The capacity of the auditory system is dependent on auditory scene, which is restricted by the fixed number of cells and intrinsic noise; this essentially limits the ability for a human or animal to discriminate between different sounds with similar spectra-temporal characteristics - however to help this issue, improvements to the discrimination ability by an encoding procedure may occur i.e. sounds reaching the cochlea for the neural spike trains produced in continuous progressive stages in response to sounds (Attias & Schreiner, 2000). To process incoming sounds effectively, the auditory system may be adapted to the statistical structure of natural auditory scenes. Attias and Schreiner (2000) explored the relationship between the system and the inputs with low order statistical properties in several sound collections using a filter bank analysis. The amplitude and phase are shown in different frequency of bands, this demonstrates the simple parametric descriptions for their distribution and spectrum are effective for different types of sounds. The findings indicate that natural sounds are greatly redundant and have potential implications to the neural code in the auditory system (Attias & Schreiner, 2000). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|5}}}|title=Did you know?}} Humans and animals interpret sounds differently to each other. The hearing range is defined by the range of frequencies that can be heard. Many animal species are able to hear frequencies incredibly and far beyond the human hearing range. For example, several dolphins and bats can hear frequencies up to 100,000 Hz. {{Robelbox/close}}Fact sited from: [[wikipedia:Hearing_range|Hearing range]] ==What is mood? == [[File:Emotions - 3.png|thumb|''Figure 3''. Listed diagram of emotions and moods examples. ]]'''What is the difference between [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]] and [[wikipedia:Mood_(psychology)|mood]]?''' Emotions arise from reactions to significant life events. When emotions are initiated; '''feelings''' are produced, the '''body''' prepares for action, '''emotional''' '''states''' are generated and recognisable '''facial''' '''expressions''' are formed (Reeve, 2015). Emotions and moods are similar, however they differ with contrasting: antecedents, action specificity and time course. Both emotions and mood occur from different '''antecedent''' causes: emotions appear from significant life situations that are experienced, whereas moods appear from processes that are unclear and unknown (Reeve, 2015). The '''action specificity''' differs as: emotions are typically influenced by behaviour and from a direct specific course of actions, comparatively moods are generally influenced by cognition and direct thoughts. The '''time course''' differs as: emotions emerge from short lived events that may last for short periods of time (e.g. seconds or minutes), whereas moods emerge from mental events that may last for long periods of time (e.g. hours or days). Therefore, moods more continuous and long lasting than emotions (Reeve, 2015). '''How are emotions and mood measured?''' Mood can be measured from several different assessments such as; personality tests, stress scales, brain activity and facial feedback hypothesis.  Each type of tests may assess an individual’s mood in a certain way.  As mood itself has many variations, it may be treated as a personality characteristic with different points on the mood dimension and this can be measure by state mood questionnaires (Underwood & Froming, 1980).  Validity and reliability can be shown through face scale studies, with a pictorial scale of mood which assesses efficiently (Lorish & Maisiak, 1986).  Mood can also be measured through brain monitors such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe an individual’s mood reactions (Reeve, 2015).  The facial feedback hypothesis is another effective way at evaluating mood, by assessing the movements of the face, the changes in face temperature and the facial glandular activity (Reeve, 2015).  Essentially, facial feedback is the emotion activation which emotions can be expressed cognitively and physically. == Sound and mood - empirical research == {{expand}} === Covert digital manipulation of vocal emotions === Aucouturier et al., (2016) suggest research has shown that individuals often exert control over their emotions.  Individuals can regulate their emotional experience by modulating expressions, reappraising feelings and redirecting attention{{fact}}.  The concepts of both cognitive and emotional processes are investigated through emotional signals that are produced in a goal-directed way and monitored for errors such as intentional actions.  Aucouturier et al., (2016) experimented on how a digital audio platform can covertly modify the vocal emotional tone of participants voices; with emotions of happiness, fear and sadness. The results revealed that audio transformations were being perceived as natural examples of the intended emotions (Aucouturier et al., 2016). The majority of the participants remained unaware that their own voices were being manipulated.  The findings demonstrated that individuals are not meeting the predetermined emotional target of frequently monitoring their voices. Consequently, the individuals emotional state change in congruence with the emotion portrayed whilst listening to their own voices and this was measured through self report and skin conductance levels.  This study provided revolutionary evidence of peripheral feedback effects of emotional experience in the auditory system.   === Nature sounds === [[File:Rocky river near Manali, India, 2014.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4''. Scenery of nature, flowing water stream. ]] Nature sounds are interesting to explore in regards to how it effects an individual's mood and the messages we receive from certain sounds. Sounds can have influencing factors to affect antecedents of decision making, mood, behaviour duration and perceptions or intentions (Spendrup, Hunter & Isgren, 2016).  Additionally, nature sounds have a beneficial effect {{missing}} mood and stress{{expand}}.  Spendrup, Hunter and Isgren (2016) investigated how nature sounds directly or indirectly influence customers and their healthy food choices in food retailer stores. The results revealed how nature sounds can positively and directly influence customers to purchase healthy foods; specifically, for men the results show relatively low intentions to buy (Spendrup, Hunter & Isgren, 2016). The findings also indicate no evidence to support the effect of nature sounds influencing mood and individual differences between males and females.  Overall the effects from nature sounds are evident contextually by the environment in which they are experienced. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ugTaLEBu6g8 Nature sounds youtube] === Transportation sounds === [[File:New York City at night HDR.jpg|thumb|''Figure 5''. Image of city traffic at night.]] Loud transportation sounds that individuals are exposed to from surrounding environments may be detrimental to our health and well-being. Erkan (2017) completed a study on horn sounds in transportation systems with cognitive perspective on the instant mood condition disorder.  The research explored how pedestrians are influenced by different and sudden sounds of horns while walking on sidewalks.  The participants brain responses were measured by electroencephalogram recordings, while five different horn sounds were virtually presented randomly, from real traffic environments (Erkan, 2017).  The findings demonstrated how trucks with a high-end horn sound, displayed significant differences in the brainwaves of participants{{explain}}.  Gender differences were varied, with males being more unresponsive to bass tones, while women present more motivated behaviour{{explain}}.  Truck horn sounds have undeniably loud bass tones which affected pedestrians negatively, in comparison to a bicycle bell ringing (Erkan, 2017).  In general, the study emphasises the importance and consideration on instant mood disorder caused by harmful noises{{explain}}.  Brain responses have shown significant and noteworthy findings with detecting physiological perceptions of pedestrians with traffic sounds. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IN3891Aqam4 Rain and city sounds] === Age differences and distracting sounds === Age differences may contribute to the ability to process spoken language under conditions with numerous types of background noise (Tun & Wingfield, 1999). The type of background noise and the intensity may affect the way individuals process sounds. Tun and Wingfield (1999) investigated the listening performance and language processing with different types of distracting sounds. Results showed that increased intensity levels of just one speaker produced diversely greater impairment in older adults than younger adults, as well as listening performance varied between individual differences in speed processing and hearing ability (Tun & Wingfield, 1999). ==The brain == [[File:Anatomy of the Human Ear.svg|thumb|''Figure 6''. Anatomy of the human ear. ]]Sound stimulate the ears and produces sensations in the brain (Erkan, 2017). {{expand}} === Serotonin and mood regulation === Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that influences mood and emotion. There are serotonin and dopamine pathways in the brain, which are fundamental to understanding emotion and the primary motivational functions that produce positive feelings, such as pleasure or reward (Reeve, 2015). Both physiological and psychological aspects play a role in mood regulation. === Sound recognition and localisation === Maeder et al., (2001) completed a study on auditory information examined with psychophysical studies in control and brain damaged subjects with relevant localisation and recognition processes. Using fMRI the participant’s brain activation associations with performance in sound identification and localisation was explored.  There were three different conditions: the first conditions consisted of a comparison of spatial stimuli simulated with interaural time differences, the second condition consisted of identification of environmental sounds; and the third condition was rest - the first and second conditions required acknowledgment of predefined targets by pressing a button (Maeder et al., 2001). Each participants brain activation patterns were analysed, along with sound recognition and localisation activation, in comparison to how each participant’s brain reacted differently. Maeder et al., (2001) found that in the first two conditions, there were differing activation patterns of the fronto-temporo-parietal convexity. The middle temporal gyrus and posterior front gyrus areas of the brain were more activated by recognition than localisation.  The lower parts of the inferior parietal lobes and middle inferior gyri were more activated bilaterally by localisation rather than recognition. There were regions selectively activated by sound recognition, significantly larger in women which was selectively activated by localisation.  The passive listening concept revealed segregated pathways on superior temporal gyrus and inferior parietal lobe. The findings suggest that distinct networks are involved in sound recognition and sound localisation in the brain. === Sound environment on mood and emotion === As sounds are accountable for affecting an individual's moods and emotions, they can also be variable across different genetic backgrounds.  Sounds, in particularly music, are associated with potential mechanisms which modify mood state and emotion processing, which relies on dopamine signals.   Quarto et al., (2017) investigated the interaction between functional polymorphism of the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2 rs1076560, G > T genes) and sound environment on mood and emotion related brain activity.  Individual differences of mood induction were measured prior and subsequently from the tasks.  For this study, participants were genotyped for DRD2 and undertook fMRI throughout an implicit emotion-processing task whilst listening to noise or music.  The findings presented mood improvement in DRD2GG participants after music exposure and mood deterioration after noise exposure to GT subjects; and furthermore, music in comparison to noise environment decreased striatal activity of GT subjects in addition to prefrontal activity of GG subjects while processing emotional faces (Quarto et al., 2017).  Overall Quarto et al., (2017) study proposes the genetic variability of dopamine receptors affecting sound environment variations of mood and emotion processing{{gr}}. == Music == [[File:Musical notes.svg|thumb|''Figure 7''. Image of music notes. ]] There is a common fascination for music and how it creates emotional rewards for those who listen to music. Around the world music is existent in many cultures and a part of individuals everyday lives (Zentner, Grandjean & Scherer, 2008).  Even if you are not intentionally listening to music on your phone, you may hear and listen to music on the radio or by walking past department stores in the shopping mall. Music has the possibility of altering an individual's mood, emotion, and psychological well-being. === Emotions from different music sounds === Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008) investigated how the sound of music can evoke emotions with characterisation, classification and measurement.  In four related studies, music induced emotions were considered, the first two studies examined the perceived emotions; with a list of music relevant emotional terms and distinct music preferences. The findings from Study 1 and Study 2 presented that emotional responses varied greatly according to the music genre, the type of response and how the participants felt and experienced perceptions (Zentner, Grandjean & Scherer, 2008).  For Study 3 a music festival was examined through a field study and structure of music induced emotions by a positive factor analysis of mood emotion ratings.  In Study 4 the model was duplicated from Study 3 and looked at music elicited emotions better than basic emotions and dimensional emotion models (Zentner, Grandjean & Scherer, 2008).   The Geneva Emotional Music scale, a domain specific device to measure musically induced emotions{{gr}}. The overall findings revealed that individuals experience different emotional states whilst listening to music.  For the general results in response to music, negative emotions are experienced infrequently.  Whereas positive emotions varied, and were determined by the type of music{{vague}}. The differences between felt and perceived emotions, indicated that emotions were less frequently felt in response to music, compared to when they were perceived as expressive properties to music (Zentner, Grandjean & Scherer, 2008). From the studies, it was also found that individuals who listened to actual music and live music performances appeared to converge with music relevant emotion{{explain}}.  The overall goal of these studies was to understand how the sound of music affect emotions - on a theoretical level the findings show that music evoked emotions goes past the emotions typically experienced {{vague}}{{example}} (Zentner, Grandjean & Scherer, 2008). === Happy and sad music - emotional perceptions === '''Detriments, immediacy and isolation''' Emotional responses to music were examined with individuals who exhibited severe deficits in music processing after brain damage (Peretz, Gagnon & Bouchard, 1998).  Six studies were devised to investigate the perceptual base of emotional judgement in music, with the use of classical music that were used to convey either happy or sad tones.  In the first three studies, participants were required to identify whether the excerpts were happy or sad, on a 10-point scale. The findings demonstrated how emotional judgements are highly consistent across participants along with those resistant to brain damage, determined by musical structure and immediate {{missing}} (Peretz, Gagnon & Bouchard, 1998).  In last three studies, participants were assessed on emotional and non-emotional perceptions through the operations of a perceptual analysis system. The overall results found the emotional and non-emotional judgements are the product of distinct pathways that are consistent and reliable across subjects.  Individuals cultures may play a role, although emotional responses are extremely variable across individuals (Peretz, Gagnon & Bouchard, 1998).  Additional investigations in neuropsychology may help in furthering the understanding of music, perception and individuals with brain damage. '''Psychophysiological differentiation of happy and sad music - the role of tempo''' Comparatively, Khalfa, Roy, Rainville, Dalla Bella & Peretz, (2008) investigated the differentiation between happy and sad music.  The respiration rate was an entrainment to measure the emotions, through the rhythm and tempo of the music.  The study aimed to test whether fast or slow rhythm/tempo music was enough to produce differential physiological effects.  This was measured by the participants' physiological responses such as facial muscle activity, blood pressure and heart rate when listening to fast or slow music (Khalfa et al., 2008).  The findings revealed that there were significant differentiations between happy and sad music, by diastolic blood pressure, electrodermal activity, and zygomatic activity, in comparison to fast and slow music which did not elicit differentiations (Khalfa et al., 2008).  In general this study explored the tonal variations of happy, sad, fast and slow music, with the effect of psychophysiological responses. === Sad music and mood regulation === The debate over whether sad music is beneficial is a controversial topic. Several argue that sad music can increase and improve mood, rather than worsening mood.  Some report that sad music genuinely makes them feel sad, while others report a positive affect outcome from sad music (Huron, 2011). The following studies will discuss the sad music and the effects it has on mood. Garrido and Schubert (2013) explored the paradox on the maladaptive effect of how listening to sad music could make people happier and improve mood.  The study investigated participant moods before and after listening to self-selected music.  Measurements of psychometric scales, absorption, personality and reflectiveness were used.  The findings revealed that participants significantly increased depression after listening to self-selected sad music.  The limitations of the study may include the experiment design and listening instructions, as well as future implications for music in therapy, enhancing mood regulation and other health benefits from music (Garrido & Schubert 2013).   '''Sad music and prolactin''' Listening to sad music has been suggested to elicit the combination of cognitive rumination, empathetic responses and learned associations (Huron, 2011). The levels of the hormone prolactin, located in the pituitary gland of the brain, increases when individuals experience sad emotions, and this calming psychological effect is indicative of homeostatic function. Huron (2011) examines the proposed concept of high prolactin to be associated with enjoyable music induced sadness and low prolactin associated with unpleasant music induced sadness. The findings revealed certain individual differences, where females are more empathetically aware of the emotional state of others and consequently some females may be moved by sad music and likely to experience sad emotions (Huron, 2011). Also, cultural differences may factor for some individuals and they may have stronger learned associations and be more susceptible to association induced sadness whilst listening to music. Essentially, music can significantly affect an individual's mood. Depending on the present state of mood, music can positively influence an individual by lifting the current state of emotions which can result in improvements in mood, however music can also negatively influence an individual's mood by decreasing or possibly worsening the current state of emotions. There are both positive and negative aspects with how music affects our mood. '''The positive effects of music''' Happy music in comparison to sad music has shown differences and improvements across individuals. Where positive emotions varied in Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008) with emotions felt and perceived from the music listened to{{gr}}. Peretz, Gagnon and Bouchard (1998) also found consistent results with emotional judgements across participants. The physiology of participants was investigated by Khalfa et al., (2008) with happy and fast music. Music can possibly help individuals in the in the fields of music therapy, comfort, relaxation, positive mental health and well-being. '''The negative effects of music''' Despite the suggestions that sad music can improve mood, Garrido and Schubert (2013) found that listening to sad music can significantly increase depression. Individuals differences of gender Huron (2011) explains how females are more empathetic and more likely to be moved by sad music, this associated with stronger learned associations{{rewrite}}. Overall the research finding postulates that listening to sad music may negatively affect mood, emotions, the cognition and possibly worsen psychological states. == Theoretical explanations == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|''Figure 8''. Robert Plutchik's flower diagram of emotions. ]] === Plutchik's theory of emotion === [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]] theory of emotion is a highly influential classification approach for general emotional responses, where emphasis is on emotions the emotional process; a chain of events that are combined into a complex feedback system (Reeve, 2015). Plutchik's feedback loop consists of cognition, arousal, feelings, preparation for action, expressions and over behaviour, this occurs with significant life events that results with emotion (Reeve, 2015). From a biological perspective, Plutchik lists eight universal emotions which are anger, sadness, disgust, surprise, fear, acceptance, anticipation and joy. These eight emotions are the basic emotions that exist, universal to humans and animals, and the primary emotions that are the product of biology and evolution (Reeve, 2015). === Mood management theory === [[wikipedia:Mood_management_theory|Mood management theory]] is based on the principle that individuals make continuous efforts at improving affective and emotional experience, this theory postulates that individuals tend to arrange their stimulus environments to increase the likelihood that good moods are increased and prolonged, whereas bad moods are short-lived and experienced in different intensities (Zillmann, 2000){{gr}}. Primarily, this theory states that conveyed messages are efficient by changing our mood states and specific messages can contribute as regulation of certain mood states. Zillmann (2000), explored mood management in context of exposure theory, with concepts such as; communication choices, interactions with gender and personality, information utility and selective exposure and motivation. ==Conclusion== There are many factors regarding how sound can affect our mood{{vague}}. Understanding the effect of nature, transportation, vocalisations, distracting sounds, and music can assist us in gaining our understanding on how sound affects mood. Overall, with several individual differences considered, sound can both effectively alter our mood, by either positive improvements or negative impairments{{vague}}. There are numerous research articles on different types of sounds also to be considered and further research would be required to extensively understand the topic{{vague}}. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Misophonia|Misophonia]] (Book chapter, 2017) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Sad music and emotion|Sad music and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2017) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Attias, H., & Schreiner, C. (2000). Temporal Low-Order Statistics of Natural Sounds. Sloan Center For Theoretical Neurobiology And W.M. Keck Foundation Center For Integrative Neuroscience. Aucouturier, J., Johansson, P., Hall, L., Segnini, R., Mercadié, L., & Watanabe, K. (2016). Covert digital manipulation of vocal emotion alter speakers’ emotional states in a congruent direction. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences, 113(4), 948-953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1506552113 Erkan, İ. (2017). Horn Sounds in Transportation Systems and a Cognitive Perspective on the Instant Mood-Condition Disorder. Procedia Engineering, 187, pp.387-394. Garrido, S., & Schubert, E. (2013). Moody melodies: Do they cheer us up? A study of the effect of sad music on mood. Psychology Of Music, 43(2), 244-261. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0305735613501938 Huron, D. (2011). Why is sad music pleasurable? A possible role for prolactin. Musicae Scientiae, 15(2), 146-158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1029864911401171 Kalat, J. (2016). Biological psychology. 12th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Khalfa, S., Roy, M., Rainville, P., Dalla Bella, S., & Peretz, I. (2008). Role of tempo entrainment in psychophysiological differentiation of happy and sad music?. International Journal Of Psychophysiology, 68(1), 17-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2007.12.001 Lorish, C., & Maisiak, R. (1986). The face scale: A brief, nonverbal method for assessing patient mood. Arthritis & Rheumatism, 29(7), 906-909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.1780290714 Maeder, P., Meuli, R., Adriani, M., Bellmann, A., Fornari, E., & Thiran, J. et al. (2001). Distinct Pathways Involved in Sound Recognition and Localization: A Human fMRI Study. Neuroimage, 14(4), 802-816. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2001.0888 Pasnau, R. (1999). What is Sound. The Philosophical Quarterly, 49(196), pp.309-324. Peretz, I., Gagnon, L., & Bouchard, B. (1998). Music and emotion: perceptual determinants, immediacy, and isolation after brain damage. Cognition, 68(2), 111-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00043-2 Quarto, T., Fasano, M., Taurisano, P., Fazio, L., Antonucci, L., Gelao, B., Romano, R., Mancini, M., Porcelli, A., Masellis, R., Pallesen, K., Bertolino, A., Blasi, G. and Brattico, E. (2017). Interaction between DRD2 variation and sound environment on mood and emotion-related brain activity. Science Direct. Reeve, J. (2014). Understanding Motivation and Emotion, 6th Edition. 6th ed. John Wiley & Sons. Spendrup, S., Hunter, E., & Isgren, E. (2016). Exploring the relationship between nature sounds, connectedness to nature, mood and willingness to buy sustainable food: A retail field experiment. Appetite, 100, 133-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.007 Tun, P., & Wingfield, A. (1999). One Voice Too Many: Adult Age Differences in Language Processing With Different Types of Distracting Sounds. The Journals Of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences And Social Sciences, 54B(5), P317-P327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/54b.5.p317 Underwood, B., & Froming, W. (1980). The Mood Survey: A Personality Measure of Happy and Sad Moods. Journal Of Personality Assessment, 44(4), 404-414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4404_11 Weiten, W. (2013). Psychology Themes and Variations. 9th ed. [S.l.]: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, pp.159-162. Zentner, M., Grandjean, D., & Scherer, K. (2008). Emotions evoked by the sound of music: Characterization, classification, and measurement. Emotion, 8(4), 494-521. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.4.494 Zillmann, D. (2000). Mood Management in the Context of Selective Exposure Theory. Annals Of The International Communication Association, 23(1), 103-123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2000.11678971 }} ==External links== * [https://www.ted.com/talks/julian_treasure_the_4_ways_sound_affects_us TED Talk on the 4 ways sound affects us] - by Julian Treasure (ted.com) [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2017]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mood]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Music]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sound]] kfo8fuzt4uo4rm1odsczpfhfzrj0ak4 2 219126 2409064 2408449 2022-07-24T12:43:27Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* text does not wrap */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Congruences=== The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. :<math>x \not\equiv \pm y \,\pmod{n}</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} gwrjt017zkem7vq2nkuj534cea6y39v 2409067 2409064 2022-07-24T13:30:48Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Congruences */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Congruences=== The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. This means that: * A modulo N equals B modulo N, * the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or * <math>A-B = K\cdot N.</math> where p modulo N or <code>p % N</code> is the remainder when p is divided by N. For example: <math>23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}</math> because division <math>\frac{23-8}{5}</math> is exact without remainder. Similarly, <math>39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}</math> because division <math>\frac{39-29}{7}</math> is not exact. ====Law of addition==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}, </math> then: <math>A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A-B = K\cdot N</math>, therefore <math>A = B + K\cdot N.</math> <math>(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Common Value==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv B \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A \equiv C \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = B + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} :<math>x \not\equiv \pm y \,\pmod{n}</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} dq2zims6arjjuiodv51he2yu6zfnlve 2409070 2409067 2022-07-24T14:09:08Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Law of Common Value */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Congruences=== The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. This means that: * A modulo N equals B modulo N, * the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or * <math>A-B = K\cdot N.</math> where p modulo N or <code>p % N</code> is the remainder when p is divided by N. For example: <math>23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}</math> because division <math>\frac{23-8}{5}</math> is exact without remainder. Similarly, <math>39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}</math> because division <math>\frac{39-29}{7}</math> is not exact. ====Law of addition==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}, </math> then: <math>A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A-B = K\cdot N</math>, therefore <math>A = B + K\cdot N.</math> <math>(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Common Value==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv B \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A \equiv C \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = B + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Multiplication==== =====by a constant===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====by another congruence===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv D \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = D + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A\cdot C - B\cdot D</math> <math>= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D</math> <math>= B\cdot D + B\cdot K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot D + K_1\cdot N\cdot K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D</math> <math>= N( B\cdot K_2 + K_1\cdot D + K_1\cdot K_2\cdot N )</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} :<math>x \not\equiv \pm y \,\pmod{n}</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} 0nooqiqo0e5f6lo01la5mj00rdwgkof 2409072 2409070 2022-07-24T14:15:23Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* by another congruence */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Congruences=== The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. This means that: * A modulo N equals B modulo N, * the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or * <math>A-B = K\cdot N.</math> where p modulo N or <code>p % N</code> is the remainder when p is divided by N. For example: <math>23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}</math> because division <math>\frac{23-8}{5}</math> is exact without remainder. Similarly, <math>39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}</math> because division <math>\frac{39-29}{7}</math> is not exact. ====Law of addition==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}, </math> then: <math>A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A-B = K\cdot N</math>, therefore <math>A = B + K\cdot N.</math> <math>(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Common Value==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv B \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A \equiv C \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = B + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Multiplication==== =====by a constant===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====by another congruence===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv D \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = D + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A\cdot C - B\cdot D</math> <math>= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D</math> <math>= B\cdot D + B\cdot K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot D + K_1\cdot N\cdot K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D</math> <math>= N( B\cdot K_2 + K_1\cdot D + K_1\cdot K_2\cdot N )</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of squares==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} :<math>x \not\equiv \pm y \,\pmod{n}</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} 9mxweokpnt7m4n2bkpmxjv355w2mg9v 2409081 2409072 2022-07-24T16:02:30Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Law of squares */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Congruences=== The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. This means that: * A modulo N equals B modulo N, * the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or * <math>A-B = K\cdot N.</math> where p modulo N or <code>p % N</code> is the remainder when p is divided by N. For example: <math>23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}</math> because division <math>\frac{23-8}{5}</math> is exact without remainder. Similarly, <math>39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}</math> because division <math>\frac{39-29}{7}</math> is not exact. ====Law of addition==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}, </math> then: <math>A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A-B = K\cdot N</math>, therefore <math>A = B + K\cdot N.</math> <math>(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Common Value==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv B \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A \equiv C \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = B + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Multiplication==== =====by a constant===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====by another congruence===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv D \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = D + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A\cdot C - B\cdot D</math> <math>= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D</math> <math>= B\cdot D + B\cdot K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot D + K_1\cdot N\cdot K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D</math> <math>= N( B\cdot K_2 + K_1\cdot D + K_1\cdot K_2\cdot N )</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of squares==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ====Law of Division?==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} A simple example shows that a "law of division" does not exist. <math>24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.</math> However <math>\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}</math> Because <math>12 - 7 = 5</math> is not exactly divisible by <math>10</math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} :<math>x \not\equiv \pm y \,\pmod{n}</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} dvym5p2lexkzudd3hhxyaheo0p85al6 2409088 2409081 2022-07-24T18:22:46Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Congruences */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Quadratic Congruences=== A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square, for example: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}</math> or <math>x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Initially, let us consider the congruence: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> If <math>y = x^2 - N,</math> then: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>x^2 - y = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N</math> which is exactly divisible by <math>N.</math> Consider an example with real numbers. Let <math>N = 257</math> and <math>26 \ge x \ge 6.</math> <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 6 | -221 7 | -208 8 | -193 9 | -176 10 | -157 11 | -136 12 | -113 13 | -88 14 | -61 15 | -32 16 | -1 17 | 32 18 | 67 19 | 104 20 | 143 21 | 184 22 | 227 23 | 272 24 | 319 25 | 368 26 | 419 </syntaxhighlight> A cursory glance at the values of <math>x^2 - N</math> indicates that the value <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5.</math> Proof: <math>N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}</math> therefore <math>N - 2 = k5</math> or <math>N = 5k + 2.</math> The table shows all possible values of <math>x\ %\ 5:</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | y = x^2 - N ------ | --------------- | ----------------------------------------------- 5p + 0 | 25pp | 25pp - (5k+2) = 25pp - 5k - 2 5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k - 1 5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p + 4 | 25pp + 20p + 4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k + 2 5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p + 9 | 25pp + 30p + 9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k + 7 5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14 </syntaxhighlight> As you can see, the value <math>y = x^2 - N</math> is never exactly divisible by <math>5.</math> If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by <math>3.</math> Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} 3hzvws3gwt0n5a4pu2gaz38zq2i7wkz 2409140 2409088 2022-07-25T00:45:27Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Quadratic Congruences */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Quadratic Congruences=== A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square, for example: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}</math> or <math>x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Initially, let us consider the congruence: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> If <math>y = x^2 - N,</math> then: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>x^2 - y = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N</math> which is exactly divisible by <math>N.</math> Consider an example with real numbers. Let <math>N = 257</math> and <math>26 \ge x \ge 6.</math> <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 6 | -221 7 | -208 8 | -193 9 | -176 10 | -157 11 | -136 12 | -113 13 | -88 14 | -61 15 | -32 16 | -1 17 | 32 18 | 67 19 | 104 20 | 143 21 | 184 22 | 227 23 | 272 24 | 319 25 | 368 26 | 419 </syntaxhighlight> A cursory glance at the values of <math>x^2 - N</math> indicates that the value <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5.</math> Proof: <math>N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}</math> therefore <math>N - 2 = k5</math> or <math>N = 5k + 2.</math> The table shows all possible values of <math>x\ %\ 5:</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | y = x^2 - N ------ | --------------- | ----------------------------------------------- 5p + 0 | 25pp | 25pp - (5k+2) = 25pp - 5k - 2 5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k - 1 5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p + 4 | 25pp + 20p + 4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k + 2 5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p + 9 | 25pp + 30p + 9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k + 7 5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14 </syntaxhighlight> As you can see, the value <math>y = x^2 - N</math> is never exactly divisible by <math>5.</math> If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by <math>3.</math> Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues. ====Quadratic Residues==== Consider all the congruences for prime number <math>5:</math> <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}</math> for <math>5 > x \ge 0.</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | (x^2) % 5 ---|---------|----------- 0 | 0 | 0 1 | 1 | 1 2 | 4 | 4 3 | 9 | 4 4 | 16 | 1 </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>5</math> are <math>0,1,4.</math> Values <math>2,3</math> are not quadratic residues of <math>5.</math> These values are quadratic non-residues. To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime <math>p:</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code: def quadResidues(p) : L1 = [] for v in range (p>>1, -1, -1) : L1 += [(v*v) % p] return L1 print (quadResidues(11)) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> [3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0] </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>11</math> are <math>0,1,3,4,5,9.</math> The method presented here answers the question, "What are the quadratic residues of p?" If <math>p</math> is a very large prime, the question is often, "Is r a quadratic residue of p?" The answer is found in advanced number theory. Let us return to quadratic residues mod <math>N = 257.</math> <math>N\ %\ 5 = 2,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is not a quadratic residue of <math>5.</math> This is why <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5</math> exactly. <math>N\ %\ 11 = 4,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is a quadratic residue of <math>11</math> and a value of <math>x</math> that satisfies the congruence <math>x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}</math> has form <math>11p \pm 2.</math> From the table above: <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 9 | -176 13 | -88 20 | 143 24 | 319 </syntaxhighlight> These <math>4</math> values of <math>x^2 - N</math> are exactly divisible by <math>11.</math> <math>x = 9</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 - 2.</math> <math>x = 13</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 + 2.</math> <math>x = 20</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 - 2.</math> <math>x = 24</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 + 2.</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} neaxify0v8134idlsbx7nle3mb5n5uw 2409209 2409140 2022-07-25T10:58:46Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Quadratic Residues */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Quadratic Congruences=== A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square, for example: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}</math> or <math>x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Initially, let us consider the congruence: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> If <math>y = x^2 - N,</math> then: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>x^2 - y = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N</math> which is exactly divisible by <math>N.</math> Consider an example with real numbers. Let <math>N = 257</math> and <math>26 \ge x \ge 6.</math> <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 6 | -221 7 | -208 8 | -193 9 | -176 10 | -157 11 | -136 12 | -113 13 | -88 14 | -61 15 | -32 16 | -1 17 | 32 18 | 67 19 | 104 20 | 143 21 | 184 22 | 227 23 | 272 24 | 319 25 | 368 26 | 419 </syntaxhighlight> A cursory glance at the values of <math>x^2 - N</math> indicates that the value <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5.</math> Proof: <math>N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}</math> therefore <math>N - 2 = k5</math> or <math>N = 5k + 2.</math> The table shows all possible values of <math>x\ %\ 5:</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | y = x^2 - N ------ | --------------- | ----------------------------------------------- 5p + 0 | 25pp | 25pp - (5k+2) = 25pp - 5k - 2 5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k - 1 5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p + 4 | 25pp + 20p + 4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k + 2 5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p + 9 | 25pp + 30p + 9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k + 7 5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14 </syntaxhighlight> As you can see, the value <math>y = x^2 - N</math> is never exactly divisible by <math>5.</math> If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by <math>3.</math> Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues. ====Quadratic Residues==== Consider all the congruences for prime number <math>5:</math> <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}</math> for <math>5 > x \ge 0.</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | (x^2) % 5 ---|---------|----------- 0 | 0 | 0 1 | 1 | 1 2 | 4 | 4 3 | 9 | 4 4 | 16 | 1 </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>5</math> are <math>0,1,4.</math> Values <math>2,3</math> are not quadratic residues of <math>5.</math> These values are quadratic non-residues. To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime <math>p:</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code: def quadResidues(p) : L1 = [] for v in range (p>>1, -1, -1) : L1 += [(v*v) % p] return L1 print (quadResidues(11)) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> [3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0] </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>11</math> are <math>0,1,3,4,5,9.</math> The method presented here answers the question, "What are the quadratic residues of p?" If <math>p</math> is a very large prime, the question is often, "Is r a quadratic residue of p?" The answer is found in advanced number theory. Let us return to quadratic residues mod <math>N = 257.</math> <math>N\ %\ 5 = 2,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is not a quadratic residue of <math>5.</math> This is why <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5</math> exactly. <math>N\ %\ 11 = 4,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is a quadratic residue of <math>11</math> and a value of <math>x</math> that satisfies the congruence <math>x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}</math> has form <math>11p \pm 2.</math> From the table above: <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 9 | -176 13 | -88 20 | 143 24 | 319 </syntaxhighlight> These <math>4</math> values of <math>x^2 - N</math> are exactly divisible by <math>11.</math> <math>x = 9</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 - 2.</math> <math>x = 13</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 + 2.</math> <math>x = 20</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 - 2.</math> <math>x = 24</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 + 2.</math> =====products===== ======of 2 residues====== ======of 2 non-residues====== ======of residue and non-residue====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} m6f55eh46w0hdp17xz4bgxp2a3vwxho 2409210 2409209 2022-07-25T11:14:41Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* products */ wikitext text/x-wiki <math>3</math> cube roots of <math>W</math> <math>W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i</math> <math>w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i</math> <math>w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i</math> <math>w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>y = x^3 - x</math> <math>y = x^3</math> <math>y = x^3 + x</math> ===allEqual=== <math>y = f(x) = x^3</math> <math>y = f(-x)</math> <math>y = f(x) = x^3 + x</math> <math>x = p</math> <math>y = f(x) = (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7</math> {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;"> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> ====Welcomee==== {{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFF800; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> =====Welcomen===== {{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}} <div style="padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em; background-color: #FFFFFF; "> [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]]. </div> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox/close}} <noinclude> [[Category: main page templates]] </noinclude> ===Quadratic Congruences=== A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square, for example: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}</math> or <math>x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Initially, let us consider the congruence: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> If <math>y = x^2 - N,</math> then: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>x^2 - y = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N</math> which is exactly divisible by <math>N.</math> Consider an example with real numbers. Let <math>N = 257</math> and <math>26 \ge x \ge 6.</math> <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 6 | -221 7 | -208 8 | -193 9 | -176 10 | -157 11 | -136 12 | -113 13 | -88 14 | -61 15 | -32 16 | -1 17 | 32 18 | 67 19 | 104 20 | 143 21 | 184 22 | 227 23 | 272 24 | 319 25 | 368 26 | 419 </syntaxhighlight> A cursory glance at the values of <math>x^2 - N</math> indicates that the value <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5.</math> Proof: <math>N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}</math> therefore <math>N - 2 = k5</math> or <math>N = 5k + 2.</math> The table shows all possible values of <math>x\ %\ 5:</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | y = x^2 - N ------ | --------------- | ----------------------------------------------- 5p + 0 | 25pp | 25pp - (5k+2) = 25pp - 5k - 2 5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k - 1 5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p + 4 | 25pp + 20p + 4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k + 2 5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p + 9 | 25pp + 30p + 9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k + 7 5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14 </syntaxhighlight> As you can see, the value <math>y = x^2 - N</math> is never exactly divisible by <math>5.</math> If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by <math>3.</math> Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues. ====Quadratic Residues==== Consider all the congruences for prime number <math>5:</math> <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}</math> for <math>5 > x \ge 0.</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | (x^2) % 5 ---|---------|----------- 0 | 0 | 0 1 | 1 | 1 2 | 4 | 4 3 | 9 | 4 4 | 16 | 1 </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>5</math> are <math>0,1,4.</math> Values <math>2,3</math> are not quadratic residues of <math>5.</math> These values are quadratic non-residues. To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime <math>p:</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code: def quadResidues(p) : L1 = [] for v in range (p>>1, -1, -1) : L1 += [(v*v) % p] return L1 print (quadResidues(11)) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> [3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0] </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>11</math> are <math>0,1,3,4,5,9.</math> The method presented here answers the question, "What are the quadratic residues of p?" If <math>p</math> is a very large prime, the question is often, "Is r a quadratic residue of p?" The answer is found in advanced number theory. Let us return to quadratic residues mod <math>N = 257.</math> <math>N\ %\ 5 = 2,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is not a quadratic residue of <math>5.</math> This is why <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5</math> exactly. <math>N\ %\ 11 = 4,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is a quadratic residue of <math>11</math> and a value of <math>x</math> that satisfies the congruence <math>x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}</math> has form <math>11p \pm 2.</math> From the table above: <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 9 | -176 13 | -88 20 | 143 24 | 319 </syntaxhighlight> These <math>4</math> values of <math>x^2 - N</math> are exactly divisible by <math>11.</math> <math>x = 9</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 - 2.</math> <math>x = 13</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 + 2.</math> <math>x = 20</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 - 2.</math> <math>x = 24</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 + 2.</math> =====Products===== This section uses prime number <math>41</math> as an example. Using <code>quadResidues(p)</code> quadratic residues of <math>41</math> are: <syntaxhighlight> qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40] </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic non-residues of <math>41</math> are: <syntaxhighlight> qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38] </syntaxhighlight> ======of 2 residues====== ======of 2 non-residues====== ======of residue and non-residue====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ===Examples=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math>39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math>64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> ====Techniques==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} =====For speed===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ======Many comparisons====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put: <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 : pass </syntaxhighlight> If all values <code>a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h</code> are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time. For greater speed, put <math>0</math> and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h : pass </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} ======Divide by 2====== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> Division by 2 seems simple enough: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b / 2 </syntaxhighlight> Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = D('0.5') * b </syntaxhighlight> If b is <code>type int,</code> right shift is faster than multiplication by <code>0.5:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a = b >> 1 </syntaxhighlight> Also, right shift preserves precision of <code>type int:</code> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> a = b/2 ; a 6.172839450617284e+27 >>> a = b >> 1 ; a 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} To preserve rightmost bit: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. >>> b = 12345678901234567890123456789 >>> rightbit = b & 1 ; rightbit 1 >>> b >>= 1 ; b 6172839450617283945061728394 </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} =====For clarity===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> <math></math> <math></math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===tables=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots !! 3 equal roots !! 4 equal roots !! 2 pairs of equal roots |- | Cubic: 1(a), 2(a) | different | different | different | same | different |- | Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b) | different | different | same, 1root | null | same, 2roots |- | Linear: 1(c), 2(c) | different | same | null | null | null |} See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above. To calculate all roots: <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5 # Associated quadratic: p = -1 A = a B = A*p + b C = B*p + c # Associated linear function: a1 = A b1 = a1*p + B print ('x3 =', -b1/a1) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> x3 = 5.0 </syntaxhighlight> Roots of cubic function <math>f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5</math> are <math>-1, -1, 5.</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code. </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Testing= ======table1====== {|style="border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;" align="center" | Hello As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 </syntaxhighlight> |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|''' Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.''' </br> There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum. ]] Coefficient <math>a</math> may be negative as shown in diagram. As <math>abs(x)</math> increases, the value of <math>f(x)</math> is dominated by the term <math>-ax^3.</math> When <math>x</math> has a very large negative value, <math>f(x)</math> is always positive. When <math>x</math> has a very large positive value, <math>f(x)</math> is always negative. Unless stated otherwise, any reference to "cubic function" on this page will assume coefficient <math>a</math> positive. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>x_{poi} = -1</math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> <math></math> =====Various planes in 3 dimensions===== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} <gallery> File:0713x=4.png|<small>plane x=4.</small> File:0713y=3.png|<small>plane y=3.</small> File:0713z=-2.png|<small>plane z=-2.</small> </gallery> {{RoundBoxBottom}} <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727 3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147 0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989 6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471 6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723 5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162 0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342 1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698 6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112 0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472 </syntaxhighlight> <math>\theta_1</math> {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|''' Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between <math>f(x) = x^2 - x - 2</math> and <math>f'(x) = 2x - 1.</math>''' </br> ]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} <math>O\ (0,0,0)</math> <math>M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)</math> <math>N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)</math> <math>\theta</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} (6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&\ 0\\ 2Ap + B =&\ 0\\ 2Ap =&\ - B\\ \\ p =&\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8) \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math>\begin{align} 1.&4141475869yugh\\ &2645er3423231sgdtrf\\ &dhcgfyrt45erwesd \end{align}</math> <math>\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ </math> :<math> 4\sin 18^\circ = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)} = \sqrt 5 - 1 </math> ====Introduction to floats==== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}} Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line<ref>[[Wikipedia:Real number]]</ref>, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. <code>4.5</code>, <code>1.25</code>, and <code>0.75</code> are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the <code>isinstance</code> built-in function. <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> isinstance(4.5, float) True >>> isinstance(1.25, float) True >>> isinstance(0.75, float) True >>> isinstance(3.14159, float) True >>> isinstance(2.71828, float) True >>> isinstance(1.0, float) True >>> isinstance(271828, float) False >>> isinstance(0, float) False >>> isinstance(0.0, float) True </syntaxhighlight> As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though <code>4</code> and <code>4.0</code> are the same number, <code>4</code> is an integer while <code>4.0</code> is a float. The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.) <syntaxhighlight lang=python> >>> 4.0 + 2.0 6.0 >>> -1.0 + 4.5 3.5 >>> 1.75 - 1.5 0.25 >>> 4.13 - 1.1 3.03 >>> 4.5 // 1.0 4.0 >>> 4.5 / 1.0 4.5 >>> 4.5 % 1.0 0.5 >>> 7.75 * 0.25 1.9375 >>> 0.5 * 0.5 0.25 >>> 1.5 ** 2.0 2.25 </syntaxhighlight> {{RoundBoxBottom}} c7pf301pd13kp3evfxb8wmtcew23nzl 2 257428 2409105 2409053 2022-07-24T21:21:10Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 900 -- History and geography */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( #fff ) on #000 } ] </span> |} == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 9rbmnk434u2jkh4n1djtt3rgy7v2h8p 2409106 2409105 2022-07-24T21:24:55Z Archie97305 2915204 wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( #fff ) on #000 } ] </span> |} == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == fqt4ede1dfmfp3lcihb2q5ivbnktrhw 2409129 2409106 2022-07-25T00:19:41Z Archie97305 2915204 /* TrumPutin-ism */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( #fff ) on #000 } ] </span> |} == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == bwaf3iwnnl6h0vi4xuhtdru3bge06ql 2409130 2409129 2022-07-25T00:20:02Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( #fff ) on #000 } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 1lskf2msfx49fyykbl2socg7ub2yipr 2409131 2409130 2022-07-25T00:22:30Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( #fff ) on #000 } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { ( #FFC0CB ) on #808080 } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == sknqeashwtzrnw759ypigmbb2e17ejn 2409132 2409131 2022-07-25T00:22:59Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ black { on white ( #fff ) on #000 } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { ( #FFC0CB ) on #808080 } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == mzklx8zh8rsp5gs784necbvao2t84bf 2409135 2409132 2022-07-25T00:37:21Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == ogqjmtvky71mmylg9qqtho30igmhntl 2409137 2409135 2022-07-25T00:40:36Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == e2zrdj4lu5odqyfvag57tqsztdtshg4 2409139 2409137 2022-07-25T00:43:03Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == i7sc73mxc4c2y8aqpvgv1sx64wmdvqr 2409141 2409139 2022-07-25T00:49:06Z Archie97305 2915204 wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == b7yvl1ftrg9ehmt6k9rodyjreof7hjs 2409151 2409141 2022-07-25T01:05:18Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 900 -- History and geography */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 6mfy8xdo44seswexmf2u9f95yul3gwi 2409154 2409151 2022-07-25T01:13:17Z Archie97305 2915204 wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == oirdnj9qqfyiil3d0rjylk8rg6v64cu 2409155 2409154 2022-07-25T01:17:06Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == a6j85oas43ejzovisved0cyqhs9xjvz 2409156 2409155 2022-07-25T01:28:49Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutin War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 8akkepn7krsgwtatcq8bmke5nfk5rph 2409157 2409156 2022-07-25T01:31:50Z Archie97305 2915204 /* TrumPutin War Against Humanity */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 7cea4gkyjtp3hpcet93etnwivyr6ga0 2409166 2409157 2022-07-25T02:49:50Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 200 -- Religion */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == trg8z8c62nlr69bjblo1waebdl2n3a0 2409167 2409166 2022-07-25T02:50:49Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 31e984wqcvs099uwf7b8xq35mboe725 2409168 2409167 2022-07-25T02:56:08Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo{ on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ 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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ 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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == tczrko7yacyv5bh54evgykvmqu0qqh5 2409170 2409168 2022-07-25T02:56:26Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 100 -- Philosophy and psychology */ wikitext text/x-wiki w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#9e9e9e"> [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] </span> |} === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ 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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === A Contemporary "Underground Railroad" === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == p6uhls18j1l5dp3lx1wf3s5293j8ho0 0 267796 2409202 2400812 2022-07-25T09:50:32Z Jtneill 10242 Move psilocybin assisted psychotherapy to 2022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} == Motivation == # [[/Achievement motivation and attribution theory/]] - How do attributions affect achievement motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Mokkamicci|Mokkamicci]] # [[/Amotivational syndrome/]] - What is amotivational syndrome and how can it be treated? - [[User:U3204438|U3204438]] # [[/Anticipatory regret and motivation/]] - What is the motivational role of anticipatory regret?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Mcewas|Mcewas]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3197375|U3197375]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao 0906]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:SihTosam|SihTosam]] # [[/Boredom and technology addiction/]] - What is the relationship between boredom and technology addiction and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3144808|U3144808]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3149904|U3149904]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as an intervention for addiction/]] - How can brief MI be used as an intervention for addiction?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3202315|U3202315]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Lu3187731|Lu3187731]] # [[/Coercive control motivation in relationships/]] - What motivates coercive control in relationships and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190490|U3190490]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance and motivation/]] - What is the effect of cognitive dissonance on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3202904|U3202904]] # [[/Cognitive evaluation theory and motivation/]] - What is CET and how can it be applied to improving motivation? - [[User:Ashley Sanders01|Ashley Sanders01]] # [[/Consumer panic buying motivation/]] - What motivates consumer panic buying and how can it be prevented? - [[User:M.Pulford|M.Pulford]] # [[/Cooperation motivation/]] - What motivates cooperation? - [[User:U3182298|U3182298]] # [[/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation/]] - How has the COVID-19 pandemic impacted on human motivation? - [[User:U3127020|U3127020]] # [[/COVID-19 vaccine motivation/]] - What motivates people to get or not get vaccinated against COVID-19?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3020459|U3020459]] # [[/Criminal culpability and motivation/]] – How does motive impact on criminal culpability? - [[User:U3185260|U3185260]] # [[/Criminal profiling/]] - How is criminal profiling used by law enforcement agencies? - [[User:U3204463|U3204463]] # [[/Dark triad personality and motivation/]] - How do the dark triad personality traits influence motivation? - [[User:U3198571|U3198571]] # [[/Dispositional optimism/]] - What is dispositional optimism and how does it influence people's lives? - [[User:U3211849|U3211849]] # [[/Domestic violence motivation/]] - What motivates domestic violence?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3194166|U3194166]] # [[/Dopamine and motivational drive/]] - How does dopamine affect motivational drive? - [[User:U3198823|U3198823]] # [[/Effectance motivation/]] - What is effectance motivation and what are its implications? - [[User:Amyleehart|Amyleehart]] # [[/Eisenhower matrix and time management/]] - What is the Eisenhower matrix and how can it be used to improve time management?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Brianna Meddemmen|Brianna Meddemmen]] # [[/Employee self-care motivation/]] - How can employers promote and encourage employee self-care? - [[User:U3183224|U3183224]] # [[/Endurance sport motivation/]] - What motivates people to engage in endurance sports?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3194909|U3194909]] # [[/Environment-friendly behaviour motivation/]] - What motivates environment-friendly behaviour? - [[User:U3199859|U3199859]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Unknown1307|Unknown1307]] # [[/Factitious disorder imposed on another motivation/]] - What motivates FDIA?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Clawson2|Clawson2]] # [[/Feedback and motivation/]] - What is the effect of feedback on motivation? - [[User:U3155398|U3155398]] # [[/Fantasy and sexual motivation/]] - What is the role of fantasy in sexual motivation? - [[User:U3206810|U3206810]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Frustration of basic psychological needs/]] - What causes frustration of basic psychological needs and what are the consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3199117|U3199117]] # [[/Fulfilling potential/]] - How can people fulfill their personal potential?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Annalisev|Annalisev]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3162238|U3162238]] # [[/Goal-framing theory and pro-environmental behaviour/]] - What is the role of GFT in PEB?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3196787|U3196787]] # [[/Growth needs/]] - What are growth needs and how do they influence behaviour? - [[User:U3170151|U3170151]] # [[/Imposter syndrome/]] - What is IS, what causes it, and what can be done to deal with it?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:IsabellaMont|IsabellaMont]] # [[/Initiative/]] - What is initiative, what are its consequences, and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3203031|U3203031]] # [[/Jonah complex/]] - What is the Jonah complex and how can it be overcome? - [[User:JediClass|JediClass]] # [[/Juvenile delinquency motivation/]] - What motivates minors to engage in unlawful behaviour? - [[User:U3193728|U3193728]] # [[/Laziness/]] - What is laziness and how can we become less lazy?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3187874|U3187874]] # [[/Malingering motivation/]] - What motivates malingering and what can be done about it? - [[User:Mercedes TB|Mercedes TB]] # [[/Mass murder motivation/]] - What motivates individuals who commit mass murder?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3194580|U3194580]] # [[/Meaning in life/]] - What contributes to a sense of meaning in life and what are the consequences? - [[User:Leeeeanne|Leeeeanne]] # [[/Meditation and goal attainment/]] - How can meditation be used to help attain goals? - [[User:U3065868|U3065868]] # [[/Messiness, neatness, creativity, and productivity/]] - Is is better to be messy or neat for creativity and productivity? - [[User:OliverBBrown|OliverBBrown]] # [[/Morality as a psychological need/]] - What is morality and what are its implications as a psychological need?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3187716|U3187716]] # [[/Motivation-facilitation model of sexual offending/]] - What is it, what does it predict, and how can it be applied?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3203008|U3203008]] # [[/Optimism bias/]] - What is optimism bias and how does it influence our lives?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3187208|U3187208]] # [[/Optimism and coping/]] - How are optimism and coping related? - [[User:BlueDreams55|BlueDreams55]] # [[/Optimism and physical health/]] - How does optimism affect physical health?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:AP269|AP269]] # [[/Optimism and pessimism/]] - Are optimism and pessimism opposite ends of a single continuum or two different constructs? - [[User:Robert.E.House|Robert.E.House]] # [[/Optimism and psychological well-being/]] - How are optimism and psychological well-being related?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3195440|U3195440]] # [[/Perceived behavioural control and motivation/]] - What is the role of perceived behavioural control in motivated behaviour? - [[User:U3208107|U3208107]] # [[/Perseverance/]] - What is perseverance, what are its effects, and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3131387|U3131387]] # [[/Physical activity motivation/]] - How can health professionals motivate people to meet minimum physical activity recommendations?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:CharliU3203035|CharliU3203035]] # [[/Pleasure and sexual motivation/]] - What is the role of pleasure in sexual motivation? -[[User:U3203073|U3203073]] # [[/Positive illusions about the self/]] - How can positive illusions about the self contribute to personal effectiveness? - [[User:U3187178|U3187178]] # [[/Psychopathy and violence/]] - What is the relationship between psychopathy and violent behaviour?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3194769|U3194769]] # [[/Safety as a psychological need/]] - What is safety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:Aislinn.oleary|Aislinn.oleary]] # [[/Self-regulation/]] - What is self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Kalanyay|Kalanyay]] # [[/Self-regulation failure/]] - How and why do people fail at self-regulation? - [[User:U3201516|U3201516]] # [[/Self-schemas and motivation/]] - How are self-schemas formed and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:Sharlin.T|Sharlin.T]] # [[/Serial killer couples/]] - What motivates serial killer couples and why do some stay together while others turn on each other?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Eilish Ritchie|Eilish Ritchie]] # [[/Student engagement and learning/]] - What is student engagement and how can it be fostered to improve learning? - [[User:U3167879|U3167879]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3209767|U3209767]] # [[/Survivor guilt/]] - Why do some survivors of trauma experience guilt?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3039010|U3039010]] # [[/Sustainable leadership/]] - What are the leadership qualities needed for sustainable enterprises? - [[User:Takudzwa14|Takudzwa14]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3187248|U3187248]] # [[/Torture motivation/]] - What motivates the use of torture?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:J.Payten|J.Payten]] # [[/Transgender medical transitioning motivation/]] – What motivates medical transitioning in transgender people? - [[User:U3187741|U3187741]] # [[/Uncertainty tolerance/]] - What is uncertainty tolerance, what are its consequences, and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3175780|U3175780]] # [[/What the hell effect/]] - What is the WTHE and what are its consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Gracehowie|Gracehowie]] # [[/Work and passion/]] - What is the relationship between work and passion? - [[User:Mittali Vaidya|Mittali Vaidya]] # [[/Wounded healer paradigm/]] - What is the wounded healer paradigm and how does it explain the motivations of psychological health professionals?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:ZaraU3077613|ZaraU3077613]] == Emotion == # [[/Academic buoyancy/]] - What is academic buoyancy, why does it matter, and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:Kait B|Kait B]] # [[/Academic resilience/]] - What is academic resilience, why does it matter, and how can it be enhanced?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:TaraU3187760|TaraU3187760]] # [[/Affective disorders/]] - What affective disorders occur, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3186377|U3186377]] # [[/Amusement/]] - What is amusement, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Vertese|Vertese]] # [[/Autism and emotion perception through faces and biological motion/]] - How does autism affect emotion perception through faces and biological motion? - [[User:Anna u3200574|Anna u3200574]] # [[/Brain fog/]] - What is brain fog, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3203462]] # [[/Cognitive behaviour therapy for anger/]] - How can CBT be used to help with anger and anger management? - [[User:U3202984|U3202984]] # [[/Cognitive behaviour therapy for anxiety/]] - How can CBT be used to help deal with anxiety? - [[User:U3155259|U3155259]] # [[/Cognitive behaviour therapy for emotional abuse/]] - How can CBT be used to help with emotional abuse? - [[User:U3179143|U3179143]] # [[/Compassion/]] - Self-compassion and well-being: What is self-compassion and how can it influence our emotional well-being - [[User:Hollyit2001|Hollyit2001]] # [[/COVID-19 and mental health/]] - What is the impact of COVID-19 on mental health? - [[User:Sarahwill2211|Sarahwill2211]] # [[/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on emotion/]] - How has the COVID-19 pandemic impacted on human emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:D.mandziy|D.mandziy]] # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:U3190095|U3190095]] # [[/Crowds and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between crowds and emotion? - [[User:U3199141|U3199141]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3203472|U3203472]] # [[/Dental fear/]] - What causes dental fear, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202710|U3202710]] # [[/Developmental changes in emotion regulation/]] - What developmental changes occur in emotion regulation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3187813|U3187813]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop and vary across the lifespan?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Emotional buying/]] – What drives consumers to make emotional purchases and how to avoid it? - [[User:U3210446|U3210446]] # [[/Emotional eating/]] - What is emotional eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health? - [[User:Tinochaki|Tinochaki]] # [[/Emotional intelligence and the dark triad/]] - What is the relationship between the dark triad personality traits and emotional intelligence? - [[User:U3203818|U3203818]] # [[/Emotions and security investing/]] - How do emotions impact on security investment decisions?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3158530|U3158530]] # [[/Empathy-altruism hypothesis/]] - What is the empathy-altruism hypothesis and how can it be applied?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3201446|U3201446]] # [[/Employee assistance programs/]] - What are EAPs, how do they help, and how effective are they? - [[User:JulieWJ|JulieWJ]] # [[/Epigenetic impacts on emotional well-being/]] - How can epigenetics influence emotional well-being? - [[User:U3203297|U3203297]] # [[/Eudaimonia/]] - What is eudaimonia and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3190551|U3190551]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Graceraphael|Graceraphael]] # [[/Fear appeals/]] - How can fear appeals be used to motivate behaviour and how effective are they? - [[User:Svquinm|Svquinm]] # [[/Fear of driving/]] - What are the pros and cons of fearing driving and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3187314|U3187314]] # [[/Fitspiration and body image/]] - What is the effect of fitspiration on body image? - [[User:U3201218|U3201218]] # [[/Gaslighting and emotion/]] - What is gaslighting, what are the emotional consequences, and how can it be dealt with?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190257|U3190257]] # [[/Gratitude/]] - What is gratitude, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3202971|U3202971]] # [[/Healthy risk-taking/]] - What is healthy risk-taking and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3184769|U3184769]] # [[/Holistic care needs of the imminently dying/]] - What are the holistic care needs of people who are imminently dying? - [[User:ElouiseFord|ElouiseFord]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3153031|U3153031]] # [[/Indigenous Australian well-being/]] - What are the components of Indigenous Australian well-being?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:LozGrace|LozGrace]] # [[/Interest/]] - What is interest, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U103219|U103219]] # [[/Leadership and morale/]] - How does leadership affect morale?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3186267|U3186267]] # [[/Light triad/]] - What is the light triad, what are its impacts, and how can it be cultivated?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3204330|U3204330]] # [[/Limbic system and emotion/]] - What role does the limbic system play in emotion? - [[User:SM3203261|SM3203261]] # [[/Lived experience in mental health professionals/]] - What is the role of lived experience for health professionals?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3194822|U3194822]] # [[/Materialism and psychological well-being/]] - What are the effects of materialism on psychological well-being? - [[User:U3206215|U3206215]] # [[/Menopause and emotion/]] - How can theories of emotion be applied to help understand and better manage unpleasant emotions during menopause?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3177076|U3177076]] # [[/Mental toughness/]] - What is mental toughness, how does it help, and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3198955|U3198955]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Joekon200029|Joekon200029]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:ARpsych|ARpsych]] # [[/Nature and psychological distress/]] - How can nature help people deal with psychological distress? - [[User:U3202023|U3202023]] # [[/Neurostimulation and emotion/]] - How can neurostimulation affect emotion? - [[User:U3201030|U3201030]] # [[/Non-English emotion words/]] - What non-English words help to describe human emotions? - [[User:U3202854|U3202854]] # [[/Panic/]] - What are the emotional components of panic and how can panic be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Wilksbn|Wilksbn]] # [[/Persuasion and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in persuasion? - [[User:Julesrc12|Julesrc12]] # [[/Pity/]] - What is pity, what are its implications, and how can it be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Callmedee|Callmedee]] # [[/Pleasure/]] - What is pleasure and what are its consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3204694|U3204694]] # [[/Psilocybin and spirituality/]] - How can psilocybin facilitate spiritual experiences?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:BenRoss068|BenRoss068]] # [[/Psychedelics, altered consciousness, and personal growth/]] - How can psychedelic altered consciousness facilitate personal growth? - [[User:Mrigankaiyer|Mrigankaiyer]] # [[/Psychedelic treatment of depression/]] - How can psychedelics be used to help in treating depression? - [[User:Margaret Minikin|Margaret Minikin]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3200881|U3200881]] # [[/Serenity/]] - What is serenity, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203231|U3203231]] # [[/Social comparison and emotion/]] - What emotions result from social comparisons and how can they be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3205964|U3205964]] # [[/Sorry/]] - What is feeling sorry, what causes it, and what are its consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3217975|U3217975]] # [[/Synthetic cannabinoids and emotion/]] - What are the emotional effects of synthetic cannaboids?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Ta3231485|Ta3231485]] # [[/Transactional analysis and emotional literacy/]] - How can TA help to develop emotional literacy? - [[User:Janet 3071529|Janet 3071529]] # [[/Trauma-informed therapy/]] - What is trauma-informed therapy and how can it be used to improve psychological interventions? - [[User:U3191781|U3191781]] # [[/Youth at risk/]] - Who are youth at risk and what are they at risk of? - [[User:U3201217|U3201217]] == Motivation and emotion == # [[/Lottery winners, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional impacts of winning a lottery? - [[User:U3203392|U3203392]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2021]] c09v1ilxzzn8g9j2agox5t7km4401a8 0 276564 2409198 2408781 2022-07-25T09:49:43Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill moved page [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] over redirect wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy:<br>How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Overview of protocols for psilocybin assisted psychotherapy across patient cohorts. case studies supplementation with omega 3 for enhanced neurogenesis and lasting neurological change. integration strategies {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * Why use psylocybin in therapy? * How to get the most out of a psylocybin assisted session? * What is integration? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does psilocybin do? == *How does psilocybin impact neurological connections *what is the theraputic impact of this change *why is it helpful in a clinical setting [[File:Your_brain_on_psilocybin.jpg|center|thumb|550x550px|Communication between brain networks in people given psilocybin (right) or a non-psychedelic compound (left).]] ''Psilocybin is a serotonergic psychedelic with untapped therapeutic potential. There are hints that the use of psychedelics can produce neural adaptations, although the extent and timescale of the impact in a mammalian brain are unknown. In this study, we used chronic two-photon microscopy to image longitudinally the apical dendritic spines of layer 5 pyramidal neurons in the mouse medial frontal cortex. We found that a single dose of psilocybin led to ∼10% increases in spine size and density, driven by an elevated spine formation rate. The structural remodeling occurred quickly within 24 h and was persistent 1 month later. Psilocybin also ameliorated stress-related behavioral deficit and elevated excitatory neurotransmission. Overall, the results demonstrate that psilocybin-evoked synaptic rewiring in the cortex is fast and enduring, potentially providing a structural trace for long-term integration of experiences and lasting beneficial actions.'' == Psilocybin assisted therapy protocols == * Describe hopkins protocols after screening for contraindications like a family or personal history of psychosis and medications like lithium, which can increase the risk of seasures, participants can be given a 250mg dose of niacin in a therapuic environment to acclimatise themselves to the somatic state changes that can accompany a psychadelic experience. == How to prepare for a psilocybin assisted session == * Two weeks before the session *one week before the sesion *Day of the session ''The reduction in stroke-induced neurological deficits with n-3 PUFA post-treatment was associated with enhanced angiogenesis, oligodendrogenesis, neuron survival and white matter restoration. Together, these results indicate that the neurological benefits of n-3 PUFA administration after stroke extend to older animals and are associated with improved neuronal survival and brain remodeling, therefore suggesting that post-stroke administration of n-3 PUFAs is a viable clinically relevant treatment option against stroke.'' == What is integration and why is it important? == *What is post session integration *why is integration important *Integration activities ==Conclusion== ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Psilocybin and emotion|Psilocybin and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019)]] ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aday, J.S., Davis, A.K., Mitzkovitz, C.M., Bloesch, E.M., & Davoli, C.C. (2021). Predicting reactions to psychedelic drugs: a systematic review of states and traits related to acute drug effects. ''ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science, 4''(2), 424–435. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsptsci.1c00014 Fleischmann, C., Shohami, E., Trembovler, V., Heled, Y,. & Horowitz, M. (2020) Cognitive Effects of Astaxanthin Pretreatment on Recovery From Traumatic Brain Injury. ''Frontiers in Neurology''. (11) https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00999 Garcia-Romeu, A., Barrett, F.S., Carbonaro, T.M., Johnson, M.W., & Griffiths, R.R. (2021). Optimal dosing for psilocybin pharmacotherapy: Considering weight-adjusted and fixed dosing approaches. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology, 35''(4), 353-361.https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269881121991822 Jiang X, Suenaga J, Pu H, Wei Z, Smith AD, Hu X, Shi Y, Chen J. Post-stroke administration of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids promotes neurovascular restoration after ischemic stroke in mice: Efficacy declines with aging. Neurobiol Dis. 2019 Jun;126:62-75. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.09.012. Epub 2018 Sep 12. PMID: 30218758. Petri, G., Expert, P. , Turkheimer, F. , Carhart-Harris, R., Nutt, D. , Hellyer, P. J.  & Vaccarino, F. (2014). Homological scaffolds of brain functional networks. ''Journal of The Royal Society Interface,'' https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsif.2014.0873 Strickland, J.C., Garcia-Romeu, A., & Johnson, M.W. (2021). Set and setting: a randomized study of different musical genres in supporting psychedelic therapy. ''ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science, 4''(2), 472-478. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsptsci.0c00187 }} Shao LX, Liao C, Gregg I, Davoudian PA, Savalia NK, Delagarza K, Kwan AC. Psilocybin induces rapid and persistent growth of dendritic spines in frontal cortex in vivo. Neuron. 2021 Aug 18;109(16):2535-2544.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.06.008. Epub 2021 Jul 5. PMID: 34228959; PMCID: PMC8376772. In this section, list the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.). For example: ==External links== [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Drugs/Psilocybin]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] m1g5rq343na2780lwhj17qp4chdnmga 1 277306 2409200 2400808 2022-07-25T09:49:44Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill moved page [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] to [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] over redirect wikitext text/x-wiki == Comment == Hey! I found this reference that discusses safety and risks of psilocybin and I thought it might be relevant to your topic. Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., & Horáček, J. (2014). Psilocybin–summary of knowledge and new perspectives. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(3), 342-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006--[[User:BenRoss068|BenRoss068]] ([[User talk:BenRoss068|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BenRoss068|contribs]]) 04:20, 12 October 2021 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2021 |1= <!-- Title --> # Excellent |2= <!-- User page --> # Book chapter template has been removed # Add description about self # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. # Add link to book chapter |3= <!-- Social contribution --> # None summarised with link(s) to evidence. # Add direct links to evidence. To do this: View the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and then use this website address as a direct link to evidence for listing on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. # Use a numbered list. # Add a brief summary of each contribution. |4= <!-- Headings --> # Basic, 1-level heading structure - could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure. # I like the practical focus, however it is not clear where/how theory and research are to be covered. |5= <!-- Key points--> # Underdeveloped # Use bullet points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection#Using Wikiversity|Tutorial 1 - Using Wikiversity]]) # Overview - Consider adding: ## a description of the problem and what will be covered ## focus questions ## an image ## an example or case study # Remove or adapt generic template content. # Expand theory and research. # Include in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters. # Consider including more examples/case studies. # Include APA style citations. # Conclusion (the most important section): ## hasn't been developed # Cite each reference at least once in the main text. |6= <!-- Figure --> # A figure is presented. # Caption ## use APA style e.g., ''Figure 1''. ... # Cite each figure at least once in the main text. |7= <!-- References --> # Good # For [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style], check and correct: ## capitalisation ## italicisation |8= <!-- Resources --> # See also ## Very good # External links ## None provided }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:54, 31 August 2021 (UTC) 90eor4ogjg098x5f5zf8sn1zo82cly4 0 277657 2409125 2408269 2022-07-24T23:50:42Z U3141987 2947041 /* Motivation */ Chapter signup wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987 # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] 1285jt0f82ajd7vtedb9zrgrys6w0i9 2409148 2409125 2022-07-25T01:02:06Z Brewerjr 2947044 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987 # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] js7rdm76i8xv9wgasxctrhdsy44tj4z 2409196 2409148 2022-07-25T08:36:38Z U3218292 2947058 user U3218292 added identifier next to hijack theory wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987 # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - U3218292 # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] kufnf0hmoxlhskvtvqhjl8ng997hci8 2409197 2409196 2022-07-25T08:38:24Z U3218292 2947058 Added a link to user U3218292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987 # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] 8qnaduwqmy574jh2s45mpeo8uchg7tv 2409203 2409197 2022-07-25T09:52:05Z Jtneill 10242 # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation== # [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987 # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] 7kruloccc43p5p0qjdnd9z3r4lxpu5v 2 277686 2409099 2408282 2022-07-24T19:44:28Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography}} '''[[User:Jtwsaddress42/People_B|<big>B</big>]]''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} * {{cite journal | last1= Bachy | first1= Isabelle | last2= Failli | first2= Vieri | last3= Roux | first3= Sylvie | year= 2002 | title= A LIM-homeodomain Code for Development and Evolution of Forebrain Connectivity | journal= NeuroReport | volume= 13 | number= 2 | pages= A23-A27 | publication-date= February 11, 2002 | pmid= 11893924 | doi= 10.1097/00001756-200202110-00002 | url= https://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Citation/2002/02110/A_LIM_homeodomain_code_for_development_and.2.aspx }} * {{cite book | last= Bacon | first= Francis | date= 1620 | title= Novum Organum | language= English | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tH4_AAAAYAAJ | editor= Thomas Fowler | publisher= McMillan and Co., Clarendon Press | location= Oxford | publication-date= 1878 }} * {{cite journal | last1= Bada | first1= Jeffrey L. | last2= Lazcano | first2= Antonio | year= 2002 | title= Some Like It Hot, But Not the First Biomolecules | journal= Science | volume= 296 | number= 5575 | pages= 1982-1983 | publication-date= June 14, 2002 | pmid= 12065824 | doi= 10.1126/science.1069487 | url= https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1069487?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed }} * {{cite journal | last1= Bains | first1= J.S. | last2= Ferguson | first2= A.V. | year= 1995 | title= Paraventricular Nucleus Neurons Projecting To The Spinal Cord Receive Excitatory Input From The Subfornical Organ | journal= American Journal of Physiology and Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology | volume= 268 | number= 3 | pages= R625-R633 | publication-date= March 1, 1995 | pmid= 7900904 | doi= 10.1152/ajpregu.1995.268.3.R625 | url= https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajpregu.1995.268.3.R625?rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bandow, Doug}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bakunin, Mikhail}} * {{cite book | last1= Balda | first1= Russell P. | last2= Kamil | first2= Alan C. | year= 2002 | chapter= Spatial And Social Cognition In Corvids: An Evolutionary Approach | title= [https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-edited-volume/2392/The-Cognitive-AnimalEmpirical-and-Theoretical The Cognitive Animal: Empirical And Theoretical Perspectives On Animal Cognition] | editor= Marc Bekoff, Colin Allen, and Gordon M. Burghardt | number= 17 | pages= 129-134 | publisher= MIT Press | isbn= 978-0-262-52322-6 | doi= 10.7551/mitpress/1885.003.0020 | url= https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-edited-volume/2392/chapter/625475/Spatial-and-Social-Cognition-in-Corvids }} * {{cite journal | last1= Baldwin | first1= Jack E. | last2= Harwood | first2= L.M. | year= 2008 | title= A Discussion With Professor Sir Jack E. Baldwin, FRS (Interviewed March 5, 2008) | journal= SYNFORM - People, Trends And Views In Synthetic Organic Chemistry | number=7 | pages= A75-A77 | publisher= Thieme Chemistry | publication-date= July 23, 2008 | doi= 10.1055/s-2008-1078618 | url= https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/pdf/10.1055/s-2008-1078618.pdf }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Baldwin, Robert L.}} * {{cite AV media | last= Ballabio | first= Andrea | year= 2016 | title= The lysosome, from trash can to control center of cell metabolism | series= 2nd De Duve Lecture | publisher= De Duve Institute | publication-date= May 18, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pm4CLYxhZE8&list=PLnRSLo-bTsRDs1dovuUAjZE3AfPdxAdNX&index=6 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (1:02:35) {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Baltimore, David}} * {{cite journal | last1= Bar | first1= Isabelle | last2= De Rouvroit | first2= Christine Lambert | last3= Goffinet | first3= Andre M. | | year= 2000 | title= The evolution of cortical development. An hypothesis based on the role of the Reelin signaling pathway | journal= Trends In Neurosciences | volume= 23 | number= 12 | pages= 633-638 | publication-date= December 01, 2000 | pmid= 11137154 | doi= 10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01675-1 | url= https://www.cell.com/trends/neurosciences/fulltext/S0166-2236(00)01675-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0166223600016751%3Fshowall%3Dtrue }} * {{cite book | last= Barbieri | first= Marcello | year= 2002 | title= The Organic Codes: An Introduction to Semantic Biology | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= December 2002 | isbn= 978-0-521-82414-9 | url= https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/life-sciences/evolutionary-biology/organic-codes-introduction-semantic-biology?format=HB&isbn=9780521824149 }} * {{cite journal | last1= Barlow | first1= D.J. | last2= Thornton | first2= J.M. | year= 1988 | title= Helix geometry in proteins | journal= Journal of Molecular Biology | volume= 201 | number= 3 | pages= 601-619 | publication-date= June 5, 1988 | pmid= 3418712 | doi= 10.1016/0022-2836(88)90641-9 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0022283688906419?via%3Dihub }} * {{cite AV media | last= Barlow | first= Horace | year= 2003 | title= History Of Neuroscience - Horace Barlow | publisher= Society For Neuroscience | medium= Recorded March 20-21, 2003 | publication-date= July 5, 2012 | url= https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-videos/barlow,-horace }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Barrangou, Rodolphe}} * {{cite book | last= Barrante | first= James R. | year= 1998 | title= Applied Mathematics for Physical Chemistry | edition= 2 | publisher= Pearson | isbn= 978-0-137-41737-7 | url= https://www.pearson.com/us/higher-education/product/Barrante-Applied-Mathematics-for-Physical-Chemistry-2nd-Edition/9780137417377.html }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Barsky, Robert F.}} * {{cite journal | last1= Barton | first1= Gregory M. | last2= Medzhitov | first2= Ruslan | year= 2003 | title= Toll-like Receptor Signaling Pathways | journal= Science | volume= 300 | number= 5625 | pages= 1524-1525 | publication-date= June 6, 2003 | pmid= 12791976 | doi= 10.1126/science.1085536 | url= https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1085536?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Basson, M. Albert}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}} * {{cite journal | last= Baudoin | first= Olivier | year= 2007 | title= New Approaches For Decarboxylative Biaryl Coupling | journal= Angewandte Chemie International Edition | volume= 46 | number= 9 | pages= 1373-1375 | publication-date= February 19, 2007 | pmid= 17387652 | doi= 10.1002/anie.200604494 | url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.200604494 }} * {{cite journal | last1= Baur | first1= Stefanie | last2= Niehaus | first2= Jorg | last3= Karagouni | first3= Amalia D. | last4= Katsifas | first4= Efstathios A. | last5= Chalkou | first5= Kalliopi | last6= Meintanis | first6= Christos | last7= Jones | first7= Amanda L. | last8= Goodfellow | first8= Michael | last9= Ward | first9= Alan C. | last10= Beil | first10= Winfried | last11= Schneider | first11= Kathrin | last12= Sussmuth | first12= Roderich D. | last13= Fiedler | first13= Hans-Peter | year= 2006 | title= Fluostatins C~E, Novel Members Of The Fluostatin Family Produced by <i>Streptomyces</i> Strain Acta 1383| journal= The Journals Of Antibiotics| number= 5 | pages= 293-297 | location= Tokoyo | pmid= 16883779 | doi= 10.1038/ja.2006.41 | url= https://www.nature.com/articles/ja200641 }} * {{cite AV media | last= Bavington | first= Dean | year= 2009 | title= The Role Of Science In The Rise And Fall Of The Cod Fishery | series= CBC Ideas with Paul Kennedy - How To Think About Science | number= 13 | medium= Interviewed by David Cayley | publisher= CBC Radio | publication-date= January 2, 2009 | url= https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1479811640 }} [[File:CBC Radio-Canada logo.svg|128px|CBC Radio]] * {{cite book | last1= Bear | first1= Mark F. | last2= Cooper | first2= Leon N. | date= 2001 | chapter= From Molecules to Mental States | title= The Brain | editor= Gerald M. 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K. and Paul, C. R. C. | pages= 269-303 | publisher= Wiley | location= New York | publication-date= August 24, 1998 | isbn= 978-0-471-96988-4 | url= https://cpb-eu-w2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.bristol.ac.uk/dist/5/537/files/2019/08/1998qualityvfr.pdf }} * {{cite AV media | last= Benzer | first= Seymour | year= 2003 | title= History Of Neuroscience - Seymour Benzer | publisher= Society For Neuroscience | medium= Recorded February 12-13, 2003 | publication-date= July 5, 2012 | url= https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-videos/benzer,-seymour }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * {{cite book | last1= Berg | first1= Jeremy Mark | last2= Stryer | first2= Lubert | last3= Tymoczko | first3= John L. | year= 2002 | title= Biochemistry | edition= 5 International | publisher= W.H. 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Collins | last2= Cross | first2= Stacy D. | last3= Waddel | first3= Thomas G.| year= 1997 | title= Prebiotic Transamination | journal= Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere | volume= 27 | number= 4 | pages= 319-324 | publication-date= August 1997 | pmid= 11536825 | doi= 10.1023/a:1006552722812 | url= https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1006552722812 }} * {{cite AV media | last= Bissell | first= Mina | year= 2012 | title= Half the secret of the cell is outside of the cell | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= University of California, Berekeley (UCB)/LBNL | publication-date= October 7, 2012 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBBOMTIXlL0&list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&index=20 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:49:46) * {{cite book | last1= Bizzi | first1= Emilio | last2= Mussa-Ivaldi | first2= Ferdinando A. | date= 2001 | chapter= The Acquisition of Motor Behavior | title= The Brain | editor= Gerald M. Edelman & Jean-Pierre Changeux | pages= 217-232 | publisher= Transaction Publishers | publication-date= 2001 | isbn= 978-0-765-80717-5 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Brain/ofhADwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Black,_Ira_B.}} * {{cite journal | last1= Black | first1= Krista T. | last2= Hakon | first2= Hope | year= 1971 | title= X-Ray Determination Of The Absolute Configuration Of (+)-Phenyltriphenylsilylcarbinol | journal= Journal Of The American Chemical Society | volume= 93 | number= 12 | pages= 3053-3055 | publication-date= June 16, 1971 | doi= 10.1021/ja00741a044 | url= https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja00741a044 }} * {{cite book | last1= Blackburn | first1= G. Michael (Editor) | last2= Gait | first2= Michael G.(Editor) | year= 1995 | title= Nucleic Acids in Chemistry and Biology | publisher= IRL Press @ Oxford University Press | edition= 2 | isbn= 978-0-199-63534-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/RRUrswEACAAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiE7f7OyvjyAhVWDzQIHZDRCUQQre8FegQIAxAw }} * {{cite book | last= Blessington | first= Bernard | year= 1997 | chapter= Ethanbutol And Tuberculosis, A Neglected And Confused Chiral Puzzle | title = The Impact Of Stereochemistry On Drug Development And Use | editor= Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein & Irving W. 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Burghardt | number= 2 | pages= 9-17 | publisher= MIT Press | isbn= 978-0-262-52322-6 | doi= 10.7551/mitpress/1885.003.0005 | url= https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-edited-volume/2392/chapter/625460/Crotalomorphism }} * {{cite journal | last1= Rizzuto | first1= D.S. | last2= Madsen | first2= J.R. | last3= Bromfield | first3= E.B. | last4= Schulze-Bonhage | first4= A. | last5= Seelig | first5= D. | last6= Aschenbrenner-Scheibe | first6= R. | last7= Kahana | first7= M.J. | year= 2003 | title= Reset of human neocortical oscillations during a working memory task | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA | volume= 100 | number= 13 | pages= 7931-7936 | publication-date= June 24, 2003 | pmid= 12792019 | pmc= 164690 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.0732061100 | url= https://www.pnas.org/content/100/13/7931 }} * {{cite journal | last1= Robert | first1= Jason Scott | last2= Hall | first2= Brian K. | last3= Olson | first3= Wendy M. | year= 2001 | title= Bridging the Gap Between Developmental Systems Theory and Evolutionary Developmental Biology | journal= BioEssays | volume= 23 | number= 10 | pages= 954-962 | publication-date= October 2001 | pmid= 11598962 | doi= 10.1002/bies.1136 | url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bies.1136 }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Roberts, Jane}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rocker, Rudolf}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rogers, George W.}} * {{cite journal | last1= Roman | first1= Beth L. | last2= Weinstein | first2= Brant M. | year= 2000 | title= Building the Vertebrate Vasculature: Research is Going Swimmingly | journal= BioEssays | volume= 22 | number= 10 | pages= 882-893 | publication-date= October 2000 | pmid= 10984714 | doi= 10.1002/1521-1878(200010)22:10<882::AID-BIES3>3.0.CO;2-J | url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1521-1878(200010)22:10%3C882::AID-BIES3%3E3.0.CO;2-J }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Romer,_Alfred_Sherwood}} * {{cite AV media | last= Rosenblatt | first= Jody | year= 2016a | title= 1: Epithelial homeostasis: Cell division | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI)/University of Utah | publication-date= August 31, 2019 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlQ9zdELTfw&list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&index=51 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:25:04) * {{cite AV media | last= Rosenblatt | first= Jody | year= 2016b | title= 2: Epithelial Apoptosis: Death by epithelial cell extrusion | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI)/University of Utah | publication-date= August 31, 2019 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcwlJYxAPJk&list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&index=52 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:23:56) * {{cite AV media | last= Rosenblatt | first= Jody | year= 2016c | title= 3: Pathologies resulting from aberrant epithelial extrusion | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI)/University of Utah | publication-date= August 31, 2019 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtVG-kZ05eg&list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&index=53 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:25:40) * {{cite journal| last1= Ros-Rocher | first1= Núria | last2= Pérez-Posada | first2= Alberto | last3= Leger | first3= Michelle M. | last4= Ruiz-Trillo | first4= Iñaki | year= 2021 | publication-date= February 24, 2021 | title= The origin of animals: an ancestral reconstruction of the unicellular-to-multicellular transition | journal= Open Biology | volume= 11 | issue= 2 | pages= 200359 | doi= 10.1098/rsob.200359 | pmid= 33622103 | pmc= 8061703 }} * {{cite web | url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12617205-400-review-darwin-on-the-brain/ | title= Review: Darwin on the brain | last= Rose | first= Steven | year= 1990 | publication-date= June 9, 1990 |website= www.newscientist.com | publisher= New Scientist }} * {{cite journal | last1= Rosemann | first1= Eric | last2= Korian | first2= Peter | year= 2001 | title= Exploring Serotonin in the GI Tract | journal= SIGGRAPH01 Conference: The 28th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques | publisher= Association for Computing Machinery | publication-date= August 12, 2001 | isbn= 978-1-4503-7429-3 | doi= 10.1145/945191.945208 | url= https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/945191.945208 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:02:49) * {{cite journal | last= Rosenfield | first= Israel | title= Neural Darwinism: A New Approach to Memory and Perception | journal = The New York Review of Books | year= 1986 | publication-date= October 9, 1986 | url= https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1986/10/09/neural-darwinism-a-new-approach-to-memory-and-perc/ }} * {{cite book | last= Roth | first= Gerhard | year= 2001 | chapter= The Evolution of Consciousness | title= Brain Evolution and Cognition | pages= 556-582 | editor= Gerhard Roth, Mario F. Wullimann, William F. Wullimann | publisher= Wiley-Spektrum | isbn= 978-0-471-33170-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Brain_Evolution_and_Cognition/brZqAAAAMAAJ?hl=en }} * {{cite book | last1= Roy | first1= Roopali | last2= Adams | first2= Michael W.W. | year= 2002 | chapter= Tungsten-Dependent Aldehyde Oxidoreductase: A New Family of Enzymes Containing The Pterin Cofactor | title= Metal Ions In Biological Systems - Volume 39 Molybdenum And Tungsten: Their Roles in Biological Processes | editor= Astrid Sigel & Helmut Sigel | number= 19 | pages= 673-697 | publisher= CRC Press | publication-date= March 6, 2002 | isbn= 978-0-203-90933-1 | pmid= 11913140 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Metals_Ions_in_Biological_System/WoDMBQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 }} * {{cite journal | last1= Rubinstein | first1= Robert A. | last2= Laughlin Jr. | first2= Charles D. | last3= Boggs | first3= James P. | last4= Brady | first4= Ivan A. | last5= Burton-Bradley | first5= Burton G. | last6= Pataki-Schweizer | first6= K.J. | last7= Byrne | first7= Rodney | last8= Chaney | first8= Richard Paul | last9= Count | first9= Earl W. | last10= Ferreira | first10= J.V. | last11= Gallus | first11= Alexander | last12= Geilhufe | first12= Nancy L. | last13= Göhring | first13= Heinz | last14= Hepburn | first14= Marcus J. | last15= Korey | first15= Kenneth A. | last16= Martindale | first16= Colin | last17= Paredes | first17= J. Anthony | last18= Straight | first18= H. Stephen | last19= Wallace | first19= James M. | last20= Wundram | first20= Ina Jane | year= 1977 | title= Bridging Levels of Systemic Organization | journal= Current Anthropology | volume= 18 | number= 3 | pages= 459-481 | publication-date= September 1977 | doi= 10.1086/201927 | url= https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/201927 }} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rucker, Rudolf v.B.}} * {{cite journal | last= Ruse | first= Michael | year= 1980 | title= Charles Darwin And Group Selection | journal= Annals Of Science | volume= 37 | number= 6 | pages= 615-630 | pmid= 11615926 | doi= 10.1080/00033798000200421 | url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033798000200421 }} * {{cite journal | last= Rutishauser | first= Urs | year= 2014 | publication-date= June 24, 2014 | title= Gerald Edelman (1929–2014) | journal= Nature | volume= 510 | number= 7506 | pages= 474 | doi= 10.1038/510474a | pmid= 24965643 | url= https://www.nature.com/articles/510474a?WT.ec_id=NATURE-20140626&spMailingID=46310529&spUserID=MjA1NTEwMjEzMgS2&spJobID=463279889&spReportId=NDYzMjc5ODg5S0 }} {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Includes/Notes_&_Citations}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Navigation/Footer Navbar}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Includes/Categories}} tsrrk7za1sftlgyuw1oi3gxidemcf7v 2 277749 2409134 2342803 2022-07-25T00:27:04Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{User:Jtwsaddress42/People}} '''[[User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography_R|<big>R</big>]]''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Raff, Rudolf}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Romer, Alfred Sherwood}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Includes/Notes_&_Citations}} {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Navigation/Footer Navbar}} mcl0qjg0w47m46acd2pb53tncn5jb7h 2 277875 2409179 2408326 2022-07-25T05:56:38Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Svante Arrhenius|Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927)]] === <hr /> [[File:Svante Arrhenius 01.jpg|thumb|Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927)]] [[File:Solvay conference, 1922.jpg|thumb|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1922{{efn|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1992:<br/>Back Row - Georges Chavanne, Octave Dony-Hénault, Frédéric Swarts, Charles-Victor Mauguin, Édouard Herzen, L. Flamache, Edouard Hannon, Auguste Piccard<br/>Middle Row - Marcel Delépine, Einar Biilmann, Henri Wuyts, Thomas Martin Lowry, Georges Urbain, Jean Perrin, Frans Maurits Jaeger, André Louis Debierne, Hans Rupe, Alfred Berthoud, R.-H. Pickard<br/>Front Row - Charles Moureu, Francis William Aston, Sir William Henry Bragg, Henry Edward Armstrong, Sir William Jackson Pope, Ernest Solvay, Albin Haller, Svante Arrhenius, Frederick Soddy}} - Svante Arrhenius sits first row, second to last, on the right side.]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1903/arrhenius/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903] - "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation." * Theory of Hydronium Acids and Hydroxide Bases * The Arrhenius Equation <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 640px |'''The Arrhenius Equation'''<br /> <math display="block">k = Ae^\frac{- E_{\rm a}}{RT},</math> where * {{mvar|k}} is the [[w:rate constant|Rate Constant]] (frequency of collisions resulting in a reaction), * {{mvar|T}} is the [[w:absolute temperature|Absolute Temperature]] (in [[w:Kelvin|Kelvin]] or degree [[w:Rankine scale|Rankine]]), * {{mvar|A}} is the [[w:pre-exponential factor|Pre-exponential Factor]], a temperature-independent constant. * {{math|''E''_a}} is the [[w:activation energy|Activation Energy]] for the reaction (in the same units as ''RT''), * {{mvar|R}} is the [[w:universal gas constant|Universal Gas Constant]]. <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Arrehenius,_Svante}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> qwqevarhj53le30g8qm3ytpx7q00z8l 2409180 2409179 2022-07-25T05:58:35Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Svante Arrhenius|Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927)]] === <hr /> [[File:Svante Arrhenius 01.jpg|thumb|Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927)]] [[File:Solvay conference, 1922.jpg|thumb|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1922{{efn|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1992:<br/>Back Row - Georges Chavanne, Octave Dony-Hénault, Frédéric Swarts, Charles-Victor Mauguin, Édouard Herzen, L. Flamache, Edouard Hannon, Auguste Piccard<br/>Middle Row - Marcel Delépine, Einar Biilmann, Henri Wuyts, Thomas Martin Lowry, Georges Urbain, Jean Perrin, Frans Maurits Jaeger, André Louis Debierne, Hans Rupe, Alfred Berthoud, R.-H. Pickard<br/>Front Row - Charles Moureu, Francis William Aston, Sir William Henry Bragg, Henry Edward Armstrong, Sir William Jackson Pope, Ernest Solvay, Albin Haller, Svante Arrhenius, Frederick Soddy}} - Svante Arrhenius sits first row, second to last, on the right side.]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1903/arrhenius/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903] - "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation." * Theory of Hydronium Acids and Hydroxide Bases * The Arrhenius Equation <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 640px |'''The Arrhenius Equation'''<br /> <math display="block">k = Ae^\frac{- E_{\rm a}}{RT},</math> where * {{mvar|k}} is the [[w:rate constant|Rate Constant]] (frequency of collisions resulting in a reaction), * {{mvar|T}} is the [[w:absolute temperature|Absolute Temperature]] (in [[w:Kelvin|Kelvin]]), * {{mvar|A}} is the [[w:pre-exponential factor|Pre-exponential Factor]] (a temperature-independent constant), * {{math|''E''_a}} is the [[w:activation energy|Activation Energy]] for the reaction, * {{mvar|R}} is the [[w:universal gas constant|Universal Gas Constant]]. <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Arrehenius,_Svante}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> 0wk5rpcjewhaufyqrbddxuopuc0h6pp 2409181 2409180 2022-07-25T06:02:24Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Svante Arrhenius|Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927)]] === <hr /> [[File:Svante Arrhenius 01.jpg|thumb|Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927)]] [[File:Solvay conference, 1922.jpg|thumb|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1922{{efn|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1992:<br/>Back Row - Georges Chavanne, Octave Dony-Hénault, Frédéric Swarts, Charles-Victor Mauguin, Édouard Herzen, L. Flamache, Edouard Hannon, Auguste Piccard<br/>Middle Row - Marcel Delépine, Einar Biilmann, Henri Wuyts, Thomas Martin Lowry, Georges Urbain, Jean Perrin, Frans Maurits Jaeger, André Louis Debierne, Hans Rupe, Alfred Berthoud, R.-H. Pickard<br/>Front Row - Charles Moureu, Francis William Aston, Sir William Henry Bragg, Henry Edward Armstrong, Sir William Jackson Pope, Ernest Solvay, Albin Haller, Svante Arrhenius, Frederick Soddy}} - Svante Arrhenius sits first row, second to last, on the right side.]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1903/arrhenius/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903] - "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation." * Theory of Hydronium Acids and Hydroxide Bases * The Arrhenius Equation <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 640px |'''The Arrhenius Equation'''<br /> <math display="block">k = Ae^\frac{- E_{\rm a}}{RT},</math> where * {{mvar|k}} is the [[w:rate constant|Rate Constant]] (frequency of collisions resulting in a reaction), and is a function of * {{mvar|A}} is the [[w:pre-exponential factor|Pre-exponential Factor]] (a temperature-independent constant), * {{math|''E''_a}} is the [[w:activation energy|Activation Energy]] for the reaction, * {{mvar|R}} is the [[w:universal gas constant|Universal Gas Constant]]. * {{mvar|T}} is the [[w:absolute temperature|Absolute Temperature]] (in [[w:Kelvin|Kelvin]]), <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Arrehenius,_Svante}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> h8hfhotk140z2q51z3qqtwy5y656upb 2409182 2409181 2022-07-25T06:02:59Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Svante Arrhenius|Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927)]] === <hr /> [[File:Svante Arrhenius 01.jpg|thumb|Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927)]] [[File:Solvay conference, 1922.jpg|thumb|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1922{{efn|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1992:<br/>Back Row - Georges Chavanne, Octave Dony-Hénault, Frédéric Swarts, Charles-Victor Mauguin, Édouard Herzen, L. Flamache, Edouard Hannon, Auguste Piccard<br/>Middle Row - Marcel Delépine, Einar Biilmann, Henri Wuyts, Thomas Martin Lowry, Georges Urbain, Jean Perrin, Frans Maurits Jaeger, André Louis Debierne, Hans Rupe, Alfred Berthoud, R.-H. Pickard<br/>Front Row - Charles Moureu, Francis William Aston, Sir William Henry Bragg, Henry Edward Armstrong, Sir William Jackson Pope, Ernest Solvay, Albin Haller, Svante Arrhenius, Frederick Soddy}} - Svante Arrhenius sits first row, second to last, on the right side.]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1903/arrhenius/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903] - "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation." * Theory of Hydronium Acids and Hydroxide Bases * The Arrhenius Equation <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 640px |'''The Arrhenius Equation'''<br /> <math display="block">k = Ae^\frac{- E_{\rm a}}{RT},</math> where * {{mvar|k}} is the [[w:rate constant|Rate Constant]] (frequency of collisions resulting in a reaction), and is a function of * {{mvar|A}} is the [[w:pre-exponential factor|Pre-exponential Factor]] (a temperature-independent constant), * {{math|''E''_a}} is the [[w:activation energy|Activation Energy]] for the reaction, * {{mvar|R}} is the [[w:universal gas constant|Universal Gas Constant]]. * {{mvar|T}} is the [[w:absolute temperature|Absolute Temperature]] (in [[w:Kelvin|Kelvin]]), |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Arrehenius,_Svante}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> qvalnjhu3pssq8qft2ybznqlmws245k 2409204 2409182 2022-07-25T10:09:22Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Svante Arrhenius|Arrehenius, Svante (1859 – 1927)]] === <hr /> [[File:Svante Arrhenius 01.jpg|thumb|Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927)]] [[File:Solvay conference, 1922.jpg|thumb|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1922{{efn|First Solvay conference on Chemistry, 1992:<br/>Back Row - Georges Chavanne, Octave Dony-Hénault, Frédéric Swarts, Charles-Victor Mauguin, Édouard Herzen, L. Flamache, Edouard Hannon, Auguste Piccard<br/>Middle Row - Marcel Delépine, Einar Biilmann, Henri Wuyts, Thomas Martin Lowry, Georges Urbain, Jean Perrin, Frans Maurits Jaeger, André Louis Debierne, Hans Rupe, Alfred Berthoud, R.-H. Pickard<br/>Front Row - Charles Moureu, Francis William Aston, Sir William Henry Bragg, Henry Edward Armstrong, Sir William Jackson Pope, Ernest Solvay, Albin Haller, Svante Arrhenius, Frederick Soddy}} - Svante Arrhenius sits first row, second to last, on the right side.]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1903/arrhenius/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903] - "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation." * Theory of Hydronium (H₃O⁺) Acids and Hydroxide (OH⁻) Bases * The Arrhenius Equation <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 640px |'''The Arrhenius Equation'''<br /> <math display="block">k = Ae^\frac{- E_{\rm a}}{RT},</math> where * {{mvar|k}} is the [[w:rate constant|Rate Constant]] (frequency of collisions resulting in a reaction), and is a function of * {{mvar|A}} is the [[w:pre-exponential factor|Pre-exponential Factor]] (a temperature-independent constant), * {{math|''E''_a}} is the [[w:activation energy|Activation Energy]] for the reaction, * {{mvar|R}} is the [[w:universal gas constant|Universal Gas Constant]]. * {{mvar|T}} is the [[w:absolute temperature|Absolute Temperature]] (in [[w:Kelvin|Kelvin]]), <hr /> [[Image:Arrhenius_plot_with_break_in_y-axis_to_show_intercept.svg|thumb|Arrhenius linear plot: ln&nbsp;''k'' against 1/''T''.]] '''The Arrhenius Plot'''<br /><br /> Taking the [[w:natural logarithm|natural logarithm]] of Arrhenius equation yields & Rearranging yields: <math display="block">\ln k = \frac{-E_{\rm a}}{R}\left(\frac{1}{T}\right) + \ln A.</math> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Arrehenius,_Svante}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> 2pa83hhvyjwlg994x8pffsxp3ekl2aw 2 277887 2409178 2408348 2022-07-25T05:37:07Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Descartes, René (1596 - 1650) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Rene_Descartes|Descartes, René (1596 - 1650)]] === <hr /> [[File:Portrait of René Descartes, bust, three-quarter facing left in an oval border, (white background removed).png|thumb|René Descartes (1596 - 1650)]] [[File:Cartesian coordinates 2D.svg|thumb|2D-Cartesian coordinates]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Meditations on First Philosophy * Discourse On The Method <br /><hr /> {| align=center |{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/René Descartes}} <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Descartes,_René}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> d0kil71jvxw2l0n7e23ypz5fcxidyyq 2 280304 2409138 2370578 2022-07-25T00:41:05Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last= Ramachandran | first= Vilayanur S. | year= 2007 | title= A Journey to the Center of Your Mind - 3 clues to understanding your brain | series= Technology, Entertainment, and Design - TEDTalks | publication-date= October 23, 2007 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rl2LwnaUA-k&t=6s }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:25:31) * {{cite AV media | last= Ramachandran | first= Vilayanur S. | year= 2000 | title= Neurology and the Passion for Art | series= UCTV - UCSD Faculty Lecture Series 40/40 Vision Lecture | publication-date= January 31, 2008 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NzShMiqKgQ }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (1:29:29) * {{cite AV media | last= Ramachandran | first= Vilayanur S. | year= 2008 | title= Aesthetic Universals and the Neurology of Hindu Art | journal= California Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technology - Center of Interdisciplinary Science for Art, Architecture and Archaelogy | publication-date= November 12, 2008 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ZTvHqM-_jE }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (1:07:43) * {{cite book | last1= Ramachandran | first1= Vilayanur S. | last2= Blakeslee | first2= Sandra | year= 1998 | title= Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind | publisher= HarperCollins | publication-date= August 19, 1998 | isbn= 978-0-688-15247-5 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Kt67QgAACAAJ?hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo3JeTvc70AhVyCTQIHcdZAQgQ8fIDegQIAxAh }} * {{cite journal | last1= Ramachandran | first1= Vilayanur S. | last2= Hubbard | first2= Edward M. | year= 2001 | title= Psychophysical investigations into the neural basis of synaesthesia | journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences | volume= 268 | number= 1470 | pages= 979-983 | publication-date= | pmid= 11370973 | pmc= 1088697 | doi= 10.1098/rspb.2000.1576 | url= https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2000.1576?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed }} 139x60v6r423x5lh2233v5tuz8psggp 0 285113 2409077 2409048 2022-07-24T15:37:50Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Reflections */ wikitext text/x-wiki <imagemap> File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}} rect 0 0 550 420 [[International Space Station]] rect 550 0 693 420 [[Tiangong Space Station]] rect 0 420 260 700 [[Mir]] rect 260 420 500 700 [[Skylab]] rect 500 420 693 700 [[Tiangong-2]] rect 0 700 160 921 [[Salyut 1]] rect 160 700 280 921 [[Salyut 2]] rect 280 700 420 921 [[Salyut 4]] rect 420 700 550 921 [[Salyut 6]] rect 550 700 693 921 [[Salyut 7]] </imagemap> '''Def.''' a "manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc."<ref name=SpaceStationWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=space station |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''space station'''. '''Def.''' "a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star"<ref name=OrbitalPlatform>{{ cite web |author=Roberts |title=Orbital platform |publisher=Roberts Space Industries |location= |date=2021 |url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called an '''orbital platform'''. {{clear}} ==International Space Station== [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. "Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."<ref name=Sheldon>{{ cite book |author=Sheldon |title=Materials: Out of This World |publisher=NASA News |location=Washington DC USA |date=April 29, 2011 |url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html |accessdate=2014-01-08 }}</ref> The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit. On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points. "The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration."<ref name=Choy/> "The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3."<ref name=Choy/> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name=Choy/> "The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period."<ref name=Choy/> {{clear}} ==Mir== [[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998). Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. ''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.<ref name=Jackman>{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}</ref> The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&nbsp;km/h (17,200&nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.<ref name="MirBIS">{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="FinalBIS">{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="OrbitCalc">{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Polar Satellite 4== [[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]] PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}</ref> Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}</ref> and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}</ref> PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for "docking experiments" on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Singh>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage "alive" in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=Rajasekhar>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.<ref name=Rajwi>{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.<ref>{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}</ref> On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.<ref name=Clark>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}</ref> experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}</ref> ==Salyut 1== [[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).<ref>Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). "Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir" . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.</ref> The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&nbsp;Å at 2600&nbsp;Å (0.5&nbsp;nm at 260&nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&nbsp;Å (200 and 380&nbsp;nm).<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}</ref> The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Marett-Crosby2013">{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Salyut 3== [[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2<ref name=Zak>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> or Almaz 2<ref name=Portree1995>D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.</ref>) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.<ref name=Hall>Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.</ref> Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.<ref name=Zimmerman>Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.</ref> It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&nbsp;km on launch<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.</ref> and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&nbsp;km.<ref name=NASAcat>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.<ref name=Portree1995/> Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.<ref name=Portree/> It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.<ref name=Portree/> Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.<ref name=Portree1995/> The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.<ref name=Portree1995/> The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.<ref name=Portree/> Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.<ref name=Portree/> The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.<ref name=Portree1995/> The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;<ref name=Siddiqi/>. Another NASA source<ref name=Portree1995/> states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]</ref> The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.<ref name=Siddiqi/> The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.<ref name=Portree1995/> The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.<ref name=Zak/> Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&nbsp;mm gun.<ref name=Olberg>[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]</ref> Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.<ref>Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'') p. 162</ref> These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.<ref name=Olberg/> Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.<ref name=Zak/> The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.<ref name=Zak/><ref name=Olberg/> Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,<ref name=Olberg/> while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 4== [[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.<ref>[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]</ref> One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&nbsp;cm² in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&nbsp;cm² for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).<ref name=Salyut4>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}</ref> Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.<ref name=Salyut4/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 5== [[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.<ref name=Anikeev>{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}</ref> On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives. The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 6== [[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station. Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.<ref name=Chiara>{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}</ref> Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft. {{clear}} ==Salyut 7== [[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station<ref name=Portree1995/>) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.<ref name=Portree1995/> Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.<ref name=Portree1995/> Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.<ref name=Portree1995/> {{clear}} ==Skylab== [[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. {{clear}} ==Skylab 2== [[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy. {{clear}} ==Skylab 3== [[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount. {{clear}} ==Skylab 4== [[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home. During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems. Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F. The rectangular gold "parasol" over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew. {{clear}} ==Spacelabs== [[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.<ref name=Tramiel1984>{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}</ref> Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight. "Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]</ref> NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.<ref name=Portree>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}</ref> Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.<ref name="Angelo">{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}</ref> However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.<ref name="Angelo"/> The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.<ref name="Angelo"/> When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.<ref name="Angelo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mission name ! Space Shuttle orbiter ! Launch date ! Spacelab <br>mission name ! Pressurized <br>module ! Unpressurized <br>modules |- | STS-2 | ''Columbia'' | November 12, 1981 | OSTA-1 | | 1 Pallet (E002)<ref name=STS2>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-3 | ''Columbia'' | March 22, 1982 | OSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (E003)<ref name=STS3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-9 | ''Columbia'' | November 28, 1983 | Spacelab 1 | Module LM1 | 1 Pallet (F001) |- | STS-41-G | ''Challenger'' | October 5, 1984 | OSTA-3 | | 1 Pallet (F006)<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-51-A | ''Discovery'' | November 8, 1984 | Retrieval of 2 satellites | | 2 Pallets (F007+F008) |- | STS-51-B | ''Challenger'' | April 29, 1985 | Spacelab 3 | Module LM1 | Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS) |- | STS-51-F | ''Challenger'' | July 29, 1985 | Spacelab 2 | Igloo | 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS |- | STS-61-A | ''Challenger'' | October 30, 1985 | Spacelab D1 | Module LM2 | MPESS |- | STS-35 | ''Columbia'' | December 2, 1990 | ASTRO-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS |- | STS-40 | ''Columbia'' | June 5, 1991 | SLS-1 | Module LM1 | |- | STS-42 | ''Discovery'' | January 22, 1992 | IML-1 | Module LM2 | |- | STS-45 | ''Atlantis'' | March 24, 1992 | ATLAS-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F004+F005) |- | STS-50 | ''Columbia'' | June 25, 1992 | USML-1 | Module LM1 | Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) |- | STS-46 | ''Atlantis'' | July 31, 1992 | TSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=ESA-STS46>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}</ref> |- | STS-47 (J) | ''Endeavour'' | September 12, 1992 | Spacelab-J | Module LM2 | |- | STS-56 | ''Discovery'' | April 8, 1993 | ATLAS-2 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-55 (D2) | ''Columbia'' | April 26, 1993 | Spacelab D2 | Module LM1 | Unique Support Structure (USS) |- | STS-58 | ''Columbia'' | October 18, 1993 | SLS-2 | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-61 | ''Endeavour'' | December 2, 1993 | HST SM 01 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-59 | ''Endeavour'' | April 9, 1994 | SRL-1 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-65 | ''Columbia'' | July 8, 1994 | IML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-64 | ''Discovery'' | September 9, 1994 | LITE | | 1 Pallet (F007)<ref name=PraxisLog>{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}</ref> |- | STS-68 | ''Endeavour'' | September 30, 1994 | SRL-2 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-66 | ''Atlantis'' | November 3, 1994 | ATLAS-3 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-67 | ''Endeavour'' | March 2, 1995 | ASTRO-2 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO |- | STS-71 | ''Atlantis'' | June 27, 1995 | Spacelab-Mir | Module LM2 | |- | STS-73 | ''Columbia'' | October 20, 1995 | USML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-75 | ''Columbia'' | February 22, 1996 | TSS-1R / USMP-3 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=NASA28/> + 2 MPESS + EDO |- | STS-78 | ''Columbia'' | June 20, 1996 | LMS | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-82 | ''Discovery'' | February 21, 1997 | HST SM 02 | | 1 Pallet (F009)<ref name=NASA28/> |- | STS-83 | ''Columbia'' | April 4, 1997 | MSL-1 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-94 | ''Columbia'' | July 1, 1997 | MSL-1R | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-90 | ''Columbia'' | April 17, 1998 | Neurolab | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-103 | ''Discovery'' | December 20, 1999 | HST SM 03A | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-99 | ''Endeavour'' | February 11, 2000 | SRTM | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-92 | ''Discovery'' | Oktober 11, 2000 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F005) |- | STS-100 | ''Endeavour'' | April 19, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-104 | ''Atlantis'' | July 12, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) |- | STS-109 | ''Columbia'' | March 1, 2002 | HST SM 03B | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-123 | ''Endeavour'' | March 11, 2008 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-125 | ''Atlantis'' | May 11, 2009 | HST SM 04 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |} {{clear}} ==Spacelab 1== [[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.<ref name=Shayler>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 2== [[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible. The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.<ref name=Kent/> The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.<ref name=Kent>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]</ref> It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.<ref name=Kent/> Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.<ref name=Kent/> IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.<ref name="ipac.caltech.edu">{{cite web |title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}</ref> A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 3== [[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.<ref name=Engelen>{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}</ref><ref name="netwerk">{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut` |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}</ref> The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.<ref name=Engelen/><ref name="netwerk" /> {{clear}} ==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)== [[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars. The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms. {{clear}} ==STS-1== [[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography. {{clear}} ==STS-2== [[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.<ref name="NASA - STS-2">{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}</ref> On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html |title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}</ref> The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).<ref name=Becker>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-3== [[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay. {{clear}} ==STS-4== [[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,<ref name=oomops>{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}</ref> and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.<ref name=owastwrd>{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}</ref> The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen. In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.<ref name=JSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-5== [[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982. STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight. {{clear}} ==STS-6== [[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.. STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments. {{clear}} ==STS-7== [[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight. The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay. STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time. {{clear}} ==STS-8== [[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,<ref name="news 82-46">{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.<ref name="STS-8 Press Information, p. i">''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i</ref> It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.<ref>Press kit, p. 32</ref> The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.<ref>Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)</ref> Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.<ref>Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).</ref> The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.<ref>Press kit, p. 37</ref> A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.<ref>Press kit, p. 38</ref> A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39">Press kit, p. 39</ref> The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39"/> A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).<ref>''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-9== [[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) <ref>"Fun facts about STS numbering"|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27 |NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref> was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit. The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA. Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time. {{clear}} ==STS-10== [[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.<ref name=Ency>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm |title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}</ref> Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.<ref name=Ency/> {{clear}} ==STS-11== [[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.<ref name=Hoften>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref><ref name=Hart>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013</ref> The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base. On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32. {{clear}} ==STS-12== [[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984. A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS). The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS). A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out. {{clear}} ==STS-13== [[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.<ref name=mis41g>{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}</ref>. The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras. The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned. SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the "strain ellipsoid" model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an "irruptive") is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century. Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown. {{clear}} ==STS-14== STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984. STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985. Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2. {{clear}} ==STS-15== STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985. ==STS-16== STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.<ref name=PressKitit51D>{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref> The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC. ''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and "Toys in Space", an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> ==STS-17== [[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985. STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,<ref>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011</ref> the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center. On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth. {{clear}} ==STS-18== [[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),<ref name=SF51G>{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}</ref> and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system. The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed "Star Wars"); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64. {{clear}} ==STS-19== [[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the "Spacelab igloo", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success. The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.<ref name=report>{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}</ref> During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.<ref name=report/> In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two "holes" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-20== STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. ==STS-21== STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985. ==STS-22== STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ==STS-23== STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985. ==STS-24== STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986. ==STS-26== [[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988. The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research. * Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE) * Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC) * Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE) * Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD) * Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) * Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments * Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU) The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8). {{clear}} ==STS-27== [[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17. {{clear}} ==STS-28== [[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,<ref name="LATimes 1989-03-14">{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}</ref> and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. ''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.<ref name=Brown1990>{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}</ref> One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed "partially successful". The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.<ref name=Kosson>{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}</ref> All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',<ref name=Venant>{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet' |date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}</ref> including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.<ref name=Viereck>{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)'' |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-29== [[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).<ref name="MSER STS-30"/> [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA. Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.<ref name="MSER STS-30">{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-30== [[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989. The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]</ref> ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit. {{clear}} ==STS-31== [[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989. ''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully. STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space. {{clear}} ==STS-32== [[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST. STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.<ref name=Knecht>{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Kofsky>{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA241756 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-33== [[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above. Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: * Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA) * American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE) * Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * IMAX camera * Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. {{clear}} ==STS-34== [[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23. The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-35== [[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.<ref name=McDowell>{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell |title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km) |url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}</ref> The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR">{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR"/> The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name="MacKnight 1991">{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-36== [[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX) # INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE) # Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) # Voice Command System (VCS). By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible. Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment. {{clear}} ==STS-37== [[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33. {{clear}} ==STS-38== [[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990</ref> The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay. The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.</ref> Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could "talk" to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama. Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.</ref> A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville. {{clear}} ==STS-39== [[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33. During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= "S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission" |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}</ref> Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.<ref name="gulflink.osd.mil">{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&roll=152&frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}</ref> Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields # Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill) # Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II). {{clear}} ==STS-40== [[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas. Instruments: # Chemical Release Observation (CRO) # Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) # Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A) # Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) # Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC) # Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II) # Space Test Program (STP-01) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III). {{clear}} ==STS-41== [[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish. Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs). {{clear}} ==STS-42== [[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture. STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker. Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}</ref> Instruments: # Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) # Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) {{clear}} ==STS-43== [[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE) # Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE) # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) {{clear}} ==Reflections== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}} [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity. This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}} [[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}} [[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf |title=Census & Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}</ref> living on 1.5&nbsp;km². The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.<ref>[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]</ref> The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953</ref> The total area is about six square kilometers.<ref>[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot</ref> Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk). {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}} [[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills. {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}} [[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.<ref name="NatGeoReport" /> It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.<ref name="NatGeoReport">{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}</ref> The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins. The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline. In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}} [[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area. {{clear}} ==Capes== [[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake"<ref name=CapeWikt>{{ cite book |title=cape |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> is called a '''cape'''. {{clear}} ==Coastlines== [[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water. {{clear}} ==Craters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}} [[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits. The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. {{clear}} ==Glaciology== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}} [[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field. This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore. Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier. {{clear}} ==Lakes== [[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large, [landlocked]<ref name=LakeWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> stretch of water"<ref name=LakeWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 July 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''lake'''. The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin. Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution. The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}} [[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking. The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view. The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. {{clear}} ==Volcanoes== [[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right. The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano. {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radio astronomy]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Spaceflight]] p9jteumbp5szj4g4mqwbj6ibc70yqpa 2409079 2409077 2022-07-24T15:39:39Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* STS-43 */ wikitext text/x-wiki <imagemap> File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}} rect 0 0 550 420 [[International Space Station]] rect 550 0 693 420 [[Tiangong Space Station]] rect 0 420 260 700 [[Mir]] rect 260 420 500 700 [[Skylab]] rect 500 420 693 700 [[Tiangong-2]] rect 0 700 160 921 [[Salyut 1]] rect 160 700 280 921 [[Salyut 2]] rect 280 700 420 921 [[Salyut 4]] rect 420 700 550 921 [[Salyut 6]] rect 550 700 693 921 [[Salyut 7]] </imagemap> '''Def.''' a "manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc."<ref name=SpaceStationWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=space station |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''space station'''. '''Def.''' "a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star"<ref name=OrbitalPlatform>{{ cite web |author=Roberts |title=Orbital platform |publisher=Roberts Space Industries |location= |date=2021 |url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called an '''orbital platform'''. {{clear}} ==International Space Station== [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. "Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."<ref name=Sheldon>{{ cite book |author=Sheldon |title=Materials: Out of This World |publisher=NASA News |location=Washington DC USA |date=April 29, 2011 |url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html |accessdate=2014-01-08 }}</ref> The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit. On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points. "The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration."<ref name=Choy/> "The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3."<ref name=Choy/> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name=Choy/> "The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period."<ref name=Choy/> {{clear}} ==Mir== [[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998). Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. ''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.<ref name=Jackman>{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}</ref> The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&nbsp;km/h (17,200&nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.<ref name="MirBIS">{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="FinalBIS">{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="OrbitCalc">{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Polar Satellite 4== [[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]] PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}</ref> Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}</ref> and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}</ref> PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for "docking experiments" on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Singh>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage "alive" in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=Rajasekhar>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.<ref name=Rajwi>{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.<ref>{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}</ref> On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.<ref name=Clark>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}</ref> experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}</ref> ==Salyut 1== [[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).<ref>Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). "Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir" . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.</ref> The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&nbsp;Å at 2600&nbsp;Å (0.5&nbsp;nm at 260&nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&nbsp;Å (200 and 380&nbsp;nm).<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}</ref> The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Marett-Crosby2013">{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Salyut 3== [[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2<ref name=Zak>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> or Almaz 2<ref name=Portree1995>D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.</ref>) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.<ref name=Hall>Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.</ref> Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.<ref name=Zimmerman>Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.</ref> It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&nbsp;km on launch<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.</ref> and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&nbsp;km.<ref name=NASAcat>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.<ref name=Portree1995/> Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.<ref name=Portree/> It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.<ref name=Portree/> Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.<ref name=Portree1995/> The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.<ref name=Portree1995/> The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.<ref name=Portree/> Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.<ref name=Portree/> The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.<ref name=Portree1995/> The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;<ref name=Siddiqi/>. Another NASA source<ref name=Portree1995/> states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]</ref> The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.<ref name=Siddiqi/> The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.<ref name=Portree1995/> The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.<ref name=Zak/> Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&nbsp;mm gun.<ref name=Olberg>[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]</ref> Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.<ref>Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'') p. 162</ref> These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.<ref name=Olberg/> Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.<ref name=Zak/> The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.<ref name=Zak/><ref name=Olberg/> Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,<ref name=Olberg/> while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 4== [[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.<ref>[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]</ref> One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&nbsp;cm² in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&nbsp;cm² for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).<ref name=Salyut4>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}</ref> Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.<ref name=Salyut4/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 5== [[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.<ref name=Anikeev>{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}</ref> On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives. The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 6== [[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station. Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.<ref name=Chiara>{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}</ref> Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft. {{clear}} ==Salyut 7== [[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station<ref name=Portree1995/>) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.<ref name=Portree1995/> Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.<ref name=Portree1995/> Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.<ref name=Portree1995/> {{clear}} ==Skylab== [[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. {{clear}} ==Skylab 2== [[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy. {{clear}} ==Skylab 3== [[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount. {{clear}} ==Skylab 4== [[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home. During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems. Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F. The rectangular gold "parasol" over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew. {{clear}} ==Spacelabs== [[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.<ref name=Tramiel1984>{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}</ref> Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight. "Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]</ref> NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.<ref name=Portree>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}</ref> Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.<ref name="Angelo">{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}</ref> However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.<ref name="Angelo"/> The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.<ref name="Angelo"/> When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.<ref name="Angelo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mission name ! Space Shuttle orbiter ! Launch date ! Spacelab <br>mission name ! Pressurized <br>module ! Unpressurized <br>modules |- | STS-2 | ''Columbia'' | November 12, 1981 | OSTA-1 | | 1 Pallet (E002)<ref name=STS2>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-3 | ''Columbia'' | March 22, 1982 | OSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (E003)<ref name=STS3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-9 | ''Columbia'' | November 28, 1983 | Spacelab 1 | Module LM1 | 1 Pallet (F001) |- | STS-41-G | ''Challenger'' | October 5, 1984 | OSTA-3 | | 1 Pallet (F006)<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-51-A | ''Discovery'' | November 8, 1984 | Retrieval of 2 satellites | | 2 Pallets (F007+F008) |- | STS-51-B | ''Challenger'' | April 29, 1985 | Spacelab 3 | Module LM1 | Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS) |- | STS-51-F | ''Challenger'' | July 29, 1985 | Spacelab 2 | Igloo | 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS |- | STS-61-A | ''Challenger'' | October 30, 1985 | Spacelab D1 | Module LM2 | MPESS |- | STS-35 | ''Columbia'' | December 2, 1990 | ASTRO-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS |- | STS-40 | ''Columbia'' | June 5, 1991 | SLS-1 | Module LM1 | |- | STS-42 | ''Discovery'' | January 22, 1992 | IML-1 | Module LM2 | |- | STS-45 | ''Atlantis'' | March 24, 1992 | ATLAS-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F004+F005) |- | STS-50 | ''Columbia'' | June 25, 1992 | USML-1 | Module LM1 | Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) |- | STS-46 | ''Atlantis'' | July 31, 1992 | TSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=ESA-STS46>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}</ref> |- | STS-47 (J) | ''Endeavour'' | September 12, 1992 | Spacelab-J | Module LM2 | |- | STS-56 | ''Discovery'' | April 8, 1993 | ATLAS-2 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-55 (D2) | ''Columbia'' | April 26, 1993 | Spacelab D2 | Module LM1 | Unique Support Structure (USS) |- | STS-58 | ''Columbia'' | October 18, 1993 | SLS-2 | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-61 | ''Endeavour'' | December 2, 1993 | HST SM 01 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-59 | ''Endeavour'' | April 9, 1994 | SRL-1 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-65 | ''Columbia'' | July 8, 1994 | IML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-64 | ''Discovery'' | September 9, 1994 | LITE | | 1 Pallet (F007)<ref name=PraxisLog>{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}</ref> |- | STS-68 | ''Endeavour'' | September 30, 1994 | SRL-2 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-66 | ''Atlantis'' | November 3, 1994 | ATLAS-3 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-67 | ''Endeavour'' | March 2, 1995 | ASTRO-2 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO |- | STS-71 | ''Atlantis'' | June 27, 1995 | Spacelab-Mir | Module LM2 | |- | STS-73 | ''Columbia'' | October 20, 1995 | USML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-75 | ''Columbia'' | February 22, 1996 | TSS-1R / USMP-3 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=NASA28/> + 2 MPESS + EDO |- | STS-78 | ''Columbia'' | June 20, 1996 | LMS | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-82 | ''Discovery'' | February 21, 1997 | HST SM 02 | | 1 Pallet (F009)<ref name=NASA28/> |- | STS-83 | ''Columbia'' | April 4, 1997 | MSL-1 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-94 | ''Columbia'' | July 1, 1997 | MSL-1R | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-90 | ''Columbia'' | April 17, 1998 | Neurolab | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-103 | ''Discovery'' | December 20, 1999 | HST SM 03A | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-99 | ''Endeavour'' | February 11, 2000 | SRTM | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-92 | ''Discovery'' | Oktober 11, 2000 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F005) |- | STS-100 | ''Endeavour'' | April 19, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-104 | ''Atlantis'' | July 12, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) |- | STS-109 | ''Columbia'' | March 1, 2002 | HST SM 03B | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-123 | ''Endeavour'' | March 11, 2008 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-125 | ''Atlantis'' | May 11, 2009 | HST SM 04 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |} {{clear}} ==Spacelab 1== [[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.<ref name=Shayler>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 2== [[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible. The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.<ref name=Kent/> The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.<ref name=Kent>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]</ref> It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.<ref name=Kent/> Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.<ref name=Kent/> IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.<ref name="ipac.caltech.edu">{{cite web |title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}</ref> A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 3== [[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.<ref name=Engelen>{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}</ref><ref name="netwerk">{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut` |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}</ref> The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.<ref name=Engelen/><ref name="netwerk" /> {{clear}} ==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)== [[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars. The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms. {{clear}} ==STS-1== [[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography. {{clear}} ==STS-2== [[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.<ref name="NASA - STS-2">{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}</ref> On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html |title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}</ref> The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).<ref name=Becker>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-3== [[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay. {{clear}} ==STS-4== [[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,<ref name=oomops>{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}</ref> and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.<ref name=owastwrd>{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}</ref> The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen. In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.<ref name=JSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-5== [[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982. STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight. {{clear}} ==STS-6== [[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.. STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments. {{clear}} ==STS-7== [[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight. The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay. STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time. {{clear}} ==STS-8== [[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,<ref name="news 82-46">{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.<ref name="STS-8 Press Information, p. i">''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i</ref> It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.<ref>Press kit, p. 32</ref> The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.<ref>Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)</ref> Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.<ref>Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).</ref> The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.<ref>Press kit, p. 37</ref> A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.<ref>Press kit, p. 38</ref> A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39">Press kit, p. 39</ref> The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39"/> A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).<ref>''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-9== [[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) <ref>"Fun facts about STS numbering"|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27 |NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref> was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit. The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA. Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time. {{clear}} ==STS-10== [[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.<ref name=Ency>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm |title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}</ref> Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.<ref name=Ency/> {{clear}} ==STS-11== [[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.<ref name=Hoften>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref><ref name=Hart>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013</ref> The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base. On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32. {{clear}} ==STS-12== [[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984. A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS). The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS). A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out. {{clear}} ==STS-13== [[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.<ref name=mis41g>{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}</ref>. The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras. The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned. SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the "strain ellipsoid" model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an "irruptive") is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century. Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown. {{clear}} ==STS-14== STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984. STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985. Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2. {{clear}} ==STS-15== STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985. ==STS-16== STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.<ref name=PressKitit51D>{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref> The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC. ''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and "Toys in Space", an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> ==STS-17== [[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985. STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,<ref>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011</ref> the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center. On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth. {{clear}} ==STS-18== [[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),<ref name=SF51G>{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}</ref> and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system. The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed "Star Wars"); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64. {{clear}} ==STS-19== [[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the "Spacelab igloo", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success. The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.<ref name=report>{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}</ref> During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.<ref name=report/> In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two "holes" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-20== STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. ==STS-21== STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985. ==STS-22== STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ==STS-23== STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985. ==STS-24== STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986. ==STS-26== [[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988. The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research. * Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE) * Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC) * Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE) * Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD) * Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) * Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments * Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU) The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8). {{clear}} ==STS-27== [[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17. {{clear}} ==STS-28== [[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,<ref name="LATimes 1989-03-14">{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}</ref> and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. ''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.<ref name=Brown1990>{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}</ref> One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed "partially successful". The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.<ref name=Kosson>{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}</ref> All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',<ref name=Venant>{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet' |date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}</ref> including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.<ref name=Viereck>{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)'' |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-29== [[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).<ref name="MSER STS-30"/> [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA. Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.<ref name="MSER STS-30">{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-30== [[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989. The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]</ref> ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit. {{clear}} ==STS-31== [[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989. ''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully. STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space. {{clear}} ==STS-32== [[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST. STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.<ref name=Knecht>{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Kofsky>{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA241756 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-33== [[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above. Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: * Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA) * American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE) * Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * IMAX camera * Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. {{clear}} ==STS-34== [[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23. The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-35== [[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.<ref name=McDowell>{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell |title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km) |url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}</ref> The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR">{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR"/> The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name="MacKnight 1991">{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-36== [[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX) # INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE) # Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) # Voice Command System (VCS). By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible. Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment. {{clear}} ==STS-37== [[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33. {{clear}} ==STS-38== [[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990</ref> The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay. The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.</ref> Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could "talk" to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama. Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.</ref> A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville. {{clear}} ==STS-39== [[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33. During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= "S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission" |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}</ref> Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.<ref name="gulflink.osd.mil">{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&roll=152&frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}</ref> Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields # Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill) # Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II). {{clear}} ==STS-40== [[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas. Instruments: # Chemical Release Observation (CRO) # Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) # Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A) # Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) # Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC) # Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II) # Space Test Program (STP-01) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III). {{clear}} ==STS-41== [[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish. Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs). {{clear}} ==STS-42== [[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture. STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker. Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}</ref> Instruments: # Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) # Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) {{clear}} ==STS-43== [[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE) # Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE) # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) {{clear}} ==STS-44== ==Reflections== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}} [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity. This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}} [[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}} [[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf |title=Census & Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}</ref> living on 1.5&nbsp;km². The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.<ref>[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]</ref> The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953</ref> The total area is about six square kilometers.<ref>[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot</ref> Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk). {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}} [[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills. {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}} [[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.<ref name="NatGeoReport" /> It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.<ref name="NatGeoReport">{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}</ref> The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins. The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline. In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}} [[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area. {{clear}} ==Capes== [[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake"<ref name=CapeWikt>{{ cite book |title=cape |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> is called a '''cape'''. {{clear}} ==Coastlines== [[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water. {{clear}} ==Craters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}} [[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits. The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. {{clear}} ==Glaciology== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}} [[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field. This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore. Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier. {{clear}} ==Lakes== [[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large, [landlocked]<ref name=LakeWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> stretch of water"<ref name=LakeWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 July 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''lake'''. The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin. Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution. The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}} [[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking. The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view. The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. {{clear}} ==Volcanoes== [[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right. The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano. {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radio astronomy]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Spaceflight]] rav44eopvrtcdhh7zzj9rjsnrujyiup 2409173 2409079 2022-07-25T04:58:38Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* STS-44 */ wikitext text/x-wiki <imagemap> File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}} rect 0 0 550 420 [[International Space Station]] rect 550 0 693 420 [[Tiangong Space Station]] rect 0 420 260 700 [[Mir]] rect 260 420 500 700 [[Skylab]] rect 500 420 693 700 [[Tiangong-2]] rect 0 700 160 921 [[Salyut 1]] rect 160 700 280 921 [[Salyut 2]] rect 280 700 420 921 [[Salyut 4]] rect 420 700 550 921 [[Salyut 6]] rect 550 700 693 921 [[Salyut 7]] </imagemap> '''Def.''' a "manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc."<ref name=SpaceStationWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=space station |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''space station'''. '''Def.''' "a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star"<ref name=OrbitalPlatform>{{ cite web |author=Roberts |title=Orbital platform |publisher=Roberts Space Industries |location= |date=2021 |url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called an '''orbital platform'''. {{clear}} ==International Space Station== [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. "Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."<ref name=Sheldon>{{ cite book |author=Sheldon |title=Materials: Out of This World |publisher=NASA News |location=Washington DC USA |date=April 29, 2011 |url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html |accessdate=2014-01-08 }}</ref> The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit. On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points. "The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration."<ref name=Choy/> "The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3."<ref name=Choy/> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name=Choy/> "The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period."<ref name=Choy/> {{clear}} ==Mir== [[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998). Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. ''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.<ref name=Jackman>{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}</ref> The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&nbsp;km/h (17,200&nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.<ref name="MirBIS">{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="FinalBIS">{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="OrbitCalc">{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Polar Satellite 4== [[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]] PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}</ref> Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}</ref> and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}</ref> PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for "docking experiments" on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Singh>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage "alive" in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=Rajasekhar>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.<ref name=Rajwi>{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.<ref>{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}</ref> On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.<ref name=Clark>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}</ref> experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}</ref> ==Salyut 1== [[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).<ref>Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). "Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir" . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.</ref> The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&nbsp;Å at 2600&nbsp;Å (0.5&nbsp;nm at 260&nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&nbsp;Å (200 and 380&nbsp;nm).<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}</ref> The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Marett-Crosby2013">{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Salyut 3== [[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2<ref name=Zak>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> or Almaz 2<ref name=Portree1995>D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.</ref>) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.<ref name=Hall>Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.</ref> Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.<ref name=Zimmerman>Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.</ref> It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&nbsp;km on launch<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.</ref> and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&nbsp;km.<ref name=NASAcat>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.<ref name=Portree1995/> Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.<ref name=Portree/> It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.<ref name=Portree/> Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.<ref name=Portree1995/> The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.<ref name=Portree1995/> The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.<ref name=Portree/> Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.<ref name=Portree/> The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.<ref name=Portree1995/> The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;<ref name=Siddiqi/>. Another NASA source<ref name=Portree1995/> states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]</ref> The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.<ref name=Siddiqi/> The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.<ref name=Portree1995/> The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.<ref name=Zak/> Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&nbsp;mm gun.<ref name=Olberg>[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]</ref> Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.<ref>Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'') p. 162</ref> These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.<ref name=Olberg/> Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.<ref name=Zak/> The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.<ref name=Zak/><ref name=Olberg/> Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,<ref name=Olberg/> while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 4== [[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.<ref>[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]</ref> One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&nbsp;cm² in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&nbsp;cm² for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).<ref name=Salyut4>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}</ref> Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.<ref name=Salyut4/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 5== [[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.<ref name=Anikeev>{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}</ref> On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives. The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 6== [[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station. Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.<ref name=Chiara>{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}</ref> Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft. {{clear}} ==Salyut 7== [[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station<ref name=Portree1995/>) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.<ref name=Portree1995/> Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.<ref name=Portree1995/> Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.<ref name=Portree1995/> {{clear}} ==Skylab== [[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. {{clear}} ==Skylab 2== [[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy. {{clear}} ==Skylab 3== [[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount. {{clear}} ==Skylab 4== [[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home. During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems. Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F. The rectangular gold "parasol" over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew. {{clear}} ==Spacelabs== [[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.<ref name=Tramiel1984>{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}</ref> Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight. "Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]</ref> NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.<ref name=Portree>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}</ref> Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.<ref name="Angelo">{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}</ref> However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.<ref name="Angelo"/> The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.<ref name="Angelo"/> When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.<ref name="Angelo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mission name ! Space Shuttle orbiter ! Launch date ! Spacelab <br>mission name ! Pressurized <br>module ! Unpressurized <br>modules |- | STS-2 | ''Columbia'' | November 12, 1981 | OSTA-1 | | 1 Pallet (E002)<ref name=STS2>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-3 | ''Columbia'' | March 22, 1982 | OSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (E003)<ref name=STS3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-9 | ''Columbia'' | November 28, 1983 | Spacelab 1 | Module LM1 | 1 Pallet (F001) |- | STS-41-G | ''Challenger'' | October 5, 1984 | OSTA-3 | | 1 Pallet (F006)<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-51-A | ''Discovery'' | November 8, 1984 | Retrieval of 2 satellites | | 2 Pallets (F007+F008) |- | STS-51-B | ''Challenger'' | April 29, 1985 | Spacelab 3 | Module LM1 | Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS) |- | STS-51-F | ''Challenger'' | July 29, 1985 | Spacelab 2 | Igloo | 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS |- | STS-61-A | ''Challenger'' | October 30, 1985 | Spacelab D1 | Module LM2 | MPESS |- | STS-35 | ''Columbia'' | December 2, 1990 | ASTRO-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS |- | STS-40 | ''Columbia'' | June 5, 1991 | SLS-1 | Module LM1 | |- | STS-42 | ''Discovery'' | January 22, 1992 | IML-1 | Module LM2 | |- | STS-45 | ''Atlantis'' | March 24, 1992 | ATLAS-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F004+F005) |- | STS-50 | ''Columbia'' | June 25, 1992 | USML-1 | Module LM1 | Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) |- | STS-46 | ''Atlantis'' | July 31, 1992 | TSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=ESA-STS46>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}</ref> |- | STS-47 (J) | ''Endeavour'' | September 12, 1992 | Spacelab-J | Module LM2 | |- | STS-56 | ''Discovery'' | April 8, 1993 | ATLAS-2 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-55 (D2) | ''Columbia'' | April 26, 1993 | Spacelab D2 | Module LM1 | Unique Support Structure (USS) |- | STS-58 | ''Columbia'' | October 18, 1993 | SLS-2 | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-61 | ''Endeavour'' | December 2, 1993 | HST SM 01 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-59 | ''Endeavour'' | April 9, 1994 | SRL-1 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-65 | ''Columbia'' | July 8, 1994 | IML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-64 | ''Discovery'' | September 9, 1994 | LITE | | 1 Pallet (F007)<ref name=PraxisLog>{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}</ref> |- | STS-68 | ''Endeavour'' | September 30, 1994 | SRL-2 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-66 | ''Atlantis'' | November 3, 1994 | ATLAS-3 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-67 | ''Endeavour'' | March 2, 1995 | ASTRO-2 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO |- | STS-71 | ''Atlantis'' | June 27, 1995 | Spacelab-Mir | Module LM2 | |- | STS-73 | ''Columbia'' | October 20, 1995 | USML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-75 | ''Columbia'' | February 22, 1996 | TSS-1R / USMP-3 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=NASA28/> + 2 MPESS + EDO |- | STS-78 | ''Columbia'' | June 20, 1996 | LMS | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-82 | ''Discovery'' | February 21, 1997 | HST SM 02 | | 1 Pallet (F009)<ref name=NASA28/> |- | STS-83 | ''Columbia'' | April 4, 1997 | MSL-1 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-94 | ''Columbia'' | July 1, 1997 | MSL-1R | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-90 | ''Columbia'' | April 17, 1998 | Neurolab | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-103 | ''Discovery'' | December 20, 1999 | HST SM 03A | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-99 | ''Endeavour'' | February 11, 2000 | SRTM | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-92 | ''Discovery'' | Oktober 11, 2000 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F005) |- | STS-100 | ''Endeavour'' | April 19, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-104 | ''Atlantis'' | July 12, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) |- | STS-109 | ''Columbia'' | March 1, 2002 | HST SM 03B | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-123 | ''Endeavour'' | March 11, 2008 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-125 | ''Atlantis'' | May 11, 2009 | HST SM 04 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |} {{clear}} ==Spacelab 1== [[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.<ref name=Shayler>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 2== [[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible. The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.<ref name=Kent/> The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.<ref name=Kent>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]</ref> It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.<ref name=Kent/> Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.<ref name=Kent/> IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.<ref name="ipac.caltech.edu">{{cite web |title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}</ref> A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 3== [[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.<ref name=Engelen>{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}</ref><ref name="netwerk">{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut` |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}</ref> The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.<ref name=Engelen/><ref name="netwerk" /> {{clear}} ==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)== [[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars. The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms. {{clear}} ==STS-1== [[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography. {{clear}} ==STS-2== [[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.<ref name="NASA - STS-2">{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}</ref> On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html |title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}</ref> The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).<ref name=Becker>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-3== [[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay. {{clear}} ==STS-4== [[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,<ref name=oomops>{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}</ref> and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.<ref name=owastwrd>{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}</ref> The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen. In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.<ref name=JSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-5== [[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982. STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight. {{clear}} ==STS-6== [[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.. STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments. {{clear}} ==STS-7== [[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight. The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay. STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time. {{clear}} ==STS-8== [[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,<ref name="news 82-46">{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.<ref name="STS-8 Press Information, p. i">''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i</ref> It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.<ref>Press kit, p. 32</ref> The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.<ref>Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)</ref> Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.<ref>Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).</ref> The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.<ref>Press kit, p. 37</ref> A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.<ref>Press kit, p. 38</ref> A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39">Press kit, p. 39</ref> The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39"/> A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).<ref>''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-9== [[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) <ref>"Fun facts about STS numbering"|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27 |NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref> was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit. The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA. Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time. {{clear}} ==STS-10== [[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.<ref name=Ency>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm |title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}</ref> Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.<ref name=Ency/> {{clear}} ==STS-11== [[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.<ref name=Hoften>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref><ref name=Hart>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013</ref> The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base. On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32. {{clear}} ==STS-12== [[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984. A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS). The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS). A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out. {{clear}} ==STS-13== [[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.<ref name=mis41g>{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}</ref>. The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras. The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned. SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the "strain ellipsoid" model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an "irruptive") is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century. Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown. {{clear}} ==STS-14== STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984. STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985. Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2. {{clear}} ==STS-15== STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985. ==STS-16== STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.<ref name=PressKitit51D>{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref> The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC. ''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and "Toys in Space", an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> ==STS-17== [[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985. STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,<ref>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011</ref> the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center. On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth. {{clear}} ==STS-18== [[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),<ref name=SF51G>{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}</ref> and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system. The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed "Star Wars"); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64. {{clear}} ==STS-19== [[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the "Spacelab igloo", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success. The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.<ref name=report>{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}</ref> During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.<ref name=report/> In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two "holes" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-20== STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. ==STS-21== STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985. ==STS-22== STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ==STS-23== STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985. ==STS-24== STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986. ==STS-26== [[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988. The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research. * Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE) * Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC) * Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE) * Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD) * Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) * Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments * Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU) The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8). {{clear}} ==STS-27== [[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17. {{clear}} ==STS-28== [[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,<ref name="LATimes 1989-03-14">{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}</ref> and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. ''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.<ref name=Brown1990>{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}</ref> One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed "partially successful". The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.<ref name=Kosson>{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}</ref> All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',<ref name=Venant>{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet' |date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}</ref> including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.<ref name=Viereck>{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)'' |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-29== [[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).<ref name="MSER STS-30"/> [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA. Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.<ref name="MSER STS-30">{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-30== [[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989. The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]</ref> ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit. {{clear}} ==STS-31== [[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989. ''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully. STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space. {{clear}} ==STS-32== [[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST. STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.<ref name=Knecht>{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Kofsky>{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA241756 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-33== [[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above. Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: * Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA) * American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE) * Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * IMAX camera * Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. {{clear}} ==STS-34== [[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23. The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-35== [[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.<ref name=McDowell>{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell |title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km) |url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}</ref> The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR">{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR"/> The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name="MacKnight 1991">{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-36== [[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX) # INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE) # Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) # Voice Command System (VCS). By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible. Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment. {{clear}} ==STS-37== [[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33. {{clear}} ==STS-38== [[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990</ref> The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay. The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.</ref> Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could "talk" to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama. Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.</ref> A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville. {{clear}} ==STS-39== [[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33. During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= "S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission" |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}</ref> Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.<ref name="gulflink.osd.mil">{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&roll=152&frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}</ref> Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields # Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill) # Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II). {{clear}} ==STS-40== [[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas. Instruments: # Chemical Release Observation (CRO) # Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) # Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A) # Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) # Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC) # Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II) # Space Test Program (STP-01) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III). {{clear}} ==STS-41== [[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish. Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs). {{clear}} ==STS-42== [[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture. STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker. Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}</ref> Instruments: # Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) # Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) {{clear}} ==STS-43== [[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE) # Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE) # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) {{clear}} ==STS-44== [[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°. In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Bioreactor Flow # Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project # Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) # Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM) # Military Man in Space (M88-1) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) # Terra-Scout # Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI) # Visual Function Tester (VFT-1) {{clear}} ==Reflections== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}} [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity. This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}} [[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}} [[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf |title=Census & Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}</ref> living on 1.5&nbsp;km². The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.<ref>[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]</ref> The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953</ref> The total area is about six square kilometers.<ref>[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot</ref> Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk). {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}} [[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills. {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}} [[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.<ref name="NatGeoReport" /> It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.<ref name="NatGeoReport">{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}</ref> The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins. The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline. In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}} [[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area. {{clear}} ==Capes== [[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake"<ref name=CapeWikt>{{ cite book |title=cape |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> is called a '''cape'''. {{clear}} ==Coastlines== [[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water. {{clear}} ==Craters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}} [[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits. The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. {{clear}} ==Glaciology== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}} [[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field. This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore. Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier. {{clear}} ==Lakes== [[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large, [landlocked]<ref name=LakeWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> stretch of water"<ref name=LakeWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 July 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''lake'''. The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin. Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution. The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}} [[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking. The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view. The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. {{clear}} ==Volcanoes== [[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right. The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano. {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radio astronomy]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Spaceflight]] 29rnjfiyjsmeft2rrsnzhsnmkygt31d 2409183 2409173 2022-07-25T07:01:46Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* Reflections */ wikitext text/x-wiki <imagemap> File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}} rect 0 0 550 420 [[International Space Station]] rect 550 0 693 420 [[Tiangong Space Station]] rect 0 420 260 700 [[Mir]] rect 260 420 500 700 [[Skylab]] rect 500 420 693 700 [[Tiangong-2]] rect 0 700 160 921 [[Salyut 1]] rect 160 700 280 921 [[Salyut 2]] rect 280 700 420 921 [[Salyut 4]] rect 420 700 550 921 [[Salyut 6]] rect 550 700 693 921 [[Salyut 7]] </imagemap> '''Def.''' a "manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc."<ref name=SpaceStationWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=space station |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''space station'''. '''Def.''' "a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star"<ref name=OrbitalPlatform>{{ cite web |author=Roberts |title=Orbital platform |publisher=Roberts Space Industries |location= |date=2021 |url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called an '''orbital platform'''. {{clear}} ==International Space Station== [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. "Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."<ref name=Sheldon>{{ cite book |author=Sheldon |title=Materials: Out of This World |publisher=NASA News |location=Washington DC USA |date=April 29, 2011 |url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html |accessdate=2014-01-08 }}</ref> The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit. On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points. "The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration."<ref name=Choy/> "The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3."<ref name=Choy/> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name=Choy/> "The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period."<ref name=Choy/> {{clear}} ==Mir== [[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998). Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. ''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.<ref name=Jackman>{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}</ref> The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&nbsp;km/h (17,200&nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.<ref name="MirBIS">{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="FinalBIS">{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="OrbitCalc">{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Polar Satellite 4== [[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]] PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}</ref> Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}</ref> and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}</ref> PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for "docking experiments" on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Singh>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage "alive" in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=Rajasekhar>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.<ref name=Rajwi>{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.<ref>{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}</ref> On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.<ref name=Clark>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}</ref> experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}</ref> ==Salyut 1== [[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).<ref>Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). "Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir" . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.</ref> The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&nbsp;Å at 2600&nbsp;Å (0.5&nbsp;nm at 260&nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&nbsp;Å (200 and 380&nbsp;nm).<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}</ref> The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Marett-Crosby2013">{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Salyut 3== [[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2<ref name=Zak>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> or Almaz 2<ref name=Portree1995>D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.</ref>) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.<ref name=Hall>Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.</ref> Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.<ref name=Zimmerman>Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.</ref> It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&nbsp;km on launch<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.</ref> and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&nbsp;km.<ref name=NASAcat>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.<ref name=Portree1995/> Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.<ref name=Portree/> It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.<ref name=Portree/> Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.<ref name=Portree1995/> The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.<ref name=Portree1995/> The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.<ref name=Portree/> Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.<ref name=Portree/> The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.<ref name=Portree1995/> The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;<ref name=Siddiqi/>. Another NASA source<ref name=Portree1995/> states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]</ref> The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.<ref name=Siddiqi/> The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.<ref name=Portree1995/> The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.<ref name=Zak/> Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&nbsp;mm gun.<ref name=Olberg>[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]</ref> Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.<ref>Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'') p. 162</ref> These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.<ref name=Olberg/> Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.<ref name=Zak/> The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.<ref name=Zak/><ref name=Olberg/> Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,<ref name=Olberg/> while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 4== [[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.<ref>[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]</ref> One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&nbsp;cm² in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&nbsp;cm² for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).<ref name=Salyut4>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}</ref> Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.<ref name=Salyut4/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 5== [[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.<ref name=Anikeev>{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}</ref> On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives. The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 6== [[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station. Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.<ref name=Chiara>{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}</ref> Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft. {{clear}} ==Salyut 7== [[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station<ref name=Portree1995/>) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.<ref name=Portree1995/> Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.<ref name=Portree1995/> Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.<ref name=Portree1995/> {{clear}} ==Skylab== [[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. {{clear}} ==Skylab 2== [[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy. {{clear}} ==Skylab 3== [[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount. {{clear}} ==Skylab 4== [[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home. During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems. Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F. The rectangular gold "parasol" over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew. {{clear}} ==Spacelabs== [[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.<ref name=Tramiel1984>{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}</ref> Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight. "Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]</ref> NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.<ref name=Portree>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}</ref> Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.<ref name="Angelo">{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}</ref> However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.<ref name="Angelo"/> The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.<ref name="Angelo"/> When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.<ref name="Angelo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mission name ! Space Shuttle orbiter ! Launch date ! Spacelab <br>mission name ! Pressurized <br>module ! Unpressurized <br>modules |- | STS-2 | ''Columbia'' | November 12, 1981 | OSTA-1 | | 1 Pallet (E002)<ref name=STS2>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-3 | ''Columbia'' | March 22, 1982 | OSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (E003)<ref name=STS3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-9 | ''Columbia'' | November 28, 1983 | Spacelab 1 | Module LM1 | 1 Pallet (F001) |- | STS-41-G | ''Challenger'' | October 5, 1984 | OSTA-3 | | 1 Pallet (F006)<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-51-A | ''Discovery'' | November 8, 1984 | Retrieval of 2 satellites | | 2 Pallets (F007+F008) |- | STS-51-B | ''Challenger'' | April 29, 1985 | Spacelab 3 | Module LM1 | Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS) |- | STS-51-F | ''Challenger'' | July 29, 1985 | Spacelab 2 | Igloo | 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS |- | STS-61-A | ''Challenger'' | October 30, 1985 | Spacelab D1 | Module LM2 | MPESS |- | STS-35 | ''Columbia'' | December 2, 1990 | ASTRO-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS |- | STS-40 | ''Columbia'' | June 5, 1991 | SLS-1 | Module LM1 | |- | STS-42 | ''Discovery'' | January 22, 1992 | IML-1 | Module LM2 | |- | STS-45 | ''Atlantis'' | March 24, 1992 | ATLAS-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F004+F005) |- | STS-50 | ''Columbia'' | June 25, 1992 | USML-1 | Module LM1 | Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) |- | STS-46 | ''Atlantis'' | July 31, 1992 | TSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=ESA-STS46>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}</ref> |- | STS-47 (J) | ''Endeavour'' | September 12, 1992 | Spacelab-J | Module LM2 | |- | STS-56 | ''Discovery'' | April 8, 1993 | ATLAS-2 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-55 (D2) | ''Columbia'' | April 26, 1993 | Spacelab D2 | Module LM1 | Unique Support Structure (USS) |- | STS-58 | ''Columbia'' | October 18, 1993 | SLS-2 | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-61 | ''Endeavour'' | December 2, 1993 | HST SM 01 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-59 | ''Endeavour'' | April 9, 1994 | SRL-1 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-65 | ''Columbia'' | July 8, 1994 | IML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-64 | ''Discovery'' | September 9, 1994 | LITE | | 1 Pallet (F007)<ref name=PraxisLog>{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}</ref> |- | STS-68 | ''Endeavour'' | September 30, 1994 | SRL-2 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-66 | ''Atlantis'' | November 3, 1994 | ATLAS-3 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-67 | ''Endeavour'' | March 2, 1995 | ASTRO-2 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO |- | STS-71 | ''Atlantis'' | June 27, 1995 | Spacelab-Mir | Module LM2 | |- | STS-73 | ''Columbia'' | October 20, 1995 | USML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-75 | ''Columbia'' | February 22, 1996 | TSS-1R / USMP-3 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=NASA28/> + 2 MPESS + EDO |- | STS-78 | ''Columbia'' | June 20, 1996 | LMS | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-82 | ''Discovery'' | February 21, 1997 | HST SM 02 | | 1 Pallet (F009)<ref name=NASA28/> |- | STS-83 | ''Columbia'' | April 4, 1997 | MSL-1 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-94 | ''Columbia'' | July 1, 1997 | MSL-1R | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-90 | ''Columbia'' | April 17, 1998 | Neurolab | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-103 | ''Discovery'' | December 20, 1999 | HST SM 03A | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-99 | ''Endeavour'' | February 11, 2000 | SRTM | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-92 | ''Discovery'' | Oktober 11, 2000 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F005) |- | STS-100 | ''Endeavour'' | April 19, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-104 | ''Atlantis'' | July 12, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) |- | STS-109 | ''Columbia'' | March 1, 2002 | HST SM 03B | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-123 | ''Endeavour'' | March 11, 2008 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-125 | ''Atlantis'' | May 11, 2009 | HST SM 04 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |} {{clear}} ==Spacelab 1== [[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.<ref name=Shayler>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 2== [[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible. The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.<ref name=Kent/> The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.<ref name=Kent>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]</ref> It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.<ref name=Kent/> Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.<ref name=Kent/> IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.<ref name="ipac.caltech.edu">{{cite web |title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}</ref> A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 3== [[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.<ref name=Engelen>{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}</ref><ref name="netwerk">{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut` |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}</ref> The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.<ref name=Engelen/><ref name="netwerk" /> {{clear}} ==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)== [[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars. The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms. {{clear}} ==STS-1== [[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography. {{clear}} ==STS-2== [[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.<ref name="NASA - STS-2">{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}</ref> On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html |title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}</ref> The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).<ref name=Becker>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-3== [[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay. {{clear}} ==STS-4== [[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,<ref name=oomops>{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}</ref> and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.<ref name=owastwrd>{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}</ref> The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen. In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.<ref name=JSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-5== [[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982. STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight. {{clear}} ==STS-6== [[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.. STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments. {{clear}} ==STS-7== [[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight. The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay. STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time. {{clear}} ==STS-8== [[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,<ref name="news 82-46">{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.<ref name="STS-8 Press Information, p. i">''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i</ref> It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.<ref>Press kit, p. 32</ref> The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.<ref>Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)</ref> Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.<ref>Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).</ref> The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.<ref>Press kit, p. 37</ref> A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.<ref>Press kit, p. 38</ref> A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39">Press kit, p. 39</ref> The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39"/> A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).<ref>''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-9== [[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) <ref>"Fun facts about STS numbering"|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27 |NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref> was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit. The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA. Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time. {{clear}} ==STS-10== [[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.<ref name=Ency>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm |title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}</ref> Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.<ref name=Ency/> {{clear}} ==STS-11== [[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.<ref name=Hoften>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref><ref name=Hart>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013</ref> The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base. On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32. {{clear}} ==STS-12== [[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984. A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS). The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS). A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out. {{clear}} ==STS-13== [[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.<ref name=mis41g>{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}</ref>. The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras. The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned. SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the "strain ellipsoid" model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an "irruptive") is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century. Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown. {{clear}} ==STS-14== STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984. STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985. Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2. {{clear}} ==STS-15== STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985. ==STS-16== STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.<ref name=PressKitit51D>{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref> The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC. ''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and "Toys in Space", an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> ==STS-17== [[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985. STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,<ref>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011</ref> the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center. On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth. {{clear}} ==STS-18== [[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),<ref name=SF51G>{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}</ref> and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system. The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed "Star Wars"); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64. {{clear}} ==STS-19== [[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the "Spacelab igloo", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success. The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.<ref name=report>{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}</ref> During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.<ref name=report/> In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two "holes" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-20== STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. ==STS-21== STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985. ==STS-22== STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ==STS-23== STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985. ==STS-24== STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986. ==STS-26== [[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988. The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research. * Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE) * Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC) * Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE) * Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD) * Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) * Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments * Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU) The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8). {{clear}} ==STS-27== [[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17. {{clear}} ==STS-28== [[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,<ref name="LATimes 1989-03-14">{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}</ref> and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. ''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.<ref name=Brown1990>{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}</ref> One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed "partially successful". The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.<ref name=Kosson>{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}</ref> All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',<ref name=Venant>{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet' |date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}</ref> including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.<ref name=Viereck>{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)'' |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-29== [[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).<ref name="MSER STS-30"/> [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA. Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.<ref name="MSER STS-30">{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-30== [[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989. The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]</ref> ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit. {{clear}} ==STS-31== [[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989. ''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully. STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space. {{clear}} ==STS-32== [[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST. STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.<ref name=Knecht>{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Kofsky>{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA241756 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-33== [[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above. Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: * Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA) * American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE) * Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * IMAX camera * Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. {{clear}} ==STS-34== [[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23. The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-35== [[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.<ref name=McDowell>{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell |title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km) |url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}</ref> The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR">{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR"/> The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name="MacKnight 1991">{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-36== [[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX) # INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE) # Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) # Voice Command System (VCS). By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible. Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment. {{clear}} ==STS-37== [[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33. {{clear}} ==STS-38== [[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990</ref> The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay. The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.</ref> Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could "talk" to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama. Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.</ref> A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville. {{clear}} ==STS-39== [[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33. During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= "S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission" |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}</ref> Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.<ref name="gulflink.osd.mil">{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&roll=152&frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}</ref> Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields # Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill) # Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II). {{clear}} ==STS-40== [[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas. Instruments: # Chemical Release Observation (CRO) # Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) # Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A) # Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) # Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC) # Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II) # Space Test Program (STP-01) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III). {{clear}} ==STS-41== [[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish. Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs). {{clear}} ==STS-42== [[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture. STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker. Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}</ref> Instruments: # Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) # Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) {{clear}} ==STS-43== [[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE) # Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE) # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) {{clear}} ==STS-44== [[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°. In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Bioreactor Flow # Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project # Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) # Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM) # Military Man in Space (M88-1) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) # Terra-Scout # Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI) # Visual Function Tester (VFT-1) {{clear}} ==STS-45== ==STS-47== ==Reflections== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}} [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity. This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}} [[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}} [[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf |title=Census & Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}</ref> living on 1.5&nbsp;km². The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.<ref>[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]</ref> The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953</ref> The total area is about six square kilometers.<ref>[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot</ref> Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk). {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}} [[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills. {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}} [[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.<ref name="NatGeoReport" /> It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.<ref name="NatGeoReport">{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}</ref> The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins. The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline. In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}} [[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area. {{clear}} ==Capes== [[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake"<ref name=CapeWikt>{{ cite book |title=cape |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> is called a '''cape'''. {{clear}} ==Coastlines== [[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water. {{clear}} ==Craters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}} [[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits. The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. {{clear}} ==Glaciology== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}} [[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field. This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore. Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier. {{clear}} ==Lakes== [[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large, [landlocked]<ref name=LakeWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> stretch of water"<ref name=LakeWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 July 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''lake'''. The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin. Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution. The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}} [[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking. The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view. The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. {{clear}} ==Volcanoes== [[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right. The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano. {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radio astronomy]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Spaceflight]] 0yaw55vwx5l80vxvohom3yvkwfoydl9 2409184 2409183 2022-07-25T07:09:15Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* STS-47 */ wikitext text/x-wiki <imagemap> File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}} rect 0 0 550 420 [[International Space Station]] rect 550 0 693 420 [[Tiangong Space Station]] rect 0 420 260 700 [[Mir]] rect 260 420 500 700 [[Skylab]] rect 500 420 693 700 [[Tiangong-2]] rect 0 700 160 921 [[Salyut 1]] rect 160 700 280 921 [[Salyut 2]] rect 280 700 420 921 [[Salyut 4]] rect 420 700 550 921 [[Salyut 6]] rect 550 700 693 921 [[Salyut 7]] </imagemap> '''Def.''' a "manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc."<ref name=SpaceStationWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=space station |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''space station'''. '''Def.''' "a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star"<ref name=OrbitalPlatform>{{ cite web |author=Roberts |title=Orbital platform |publisher=Roberts Space Industries |location= |date=2021 |url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called an '''orbital platform'''. {{clear}} ==International Space Station== [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. "Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."<ref name=Sheldon>{{ cite book |author=Sheldon |title=Materials: Out of This World |publisher=NASA News |location=Washington DC USA |date=April 29, 2011 |url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html |accessdate=2014-01-08 }}</ref> The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit. On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points. "The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration."<ref name=Choy/> "The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3."<ref name=Choy/> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name=Choy/> "The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period."<ref name=Choy/> {{clear}} ==Mir== [[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998). Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. ''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.<ref name=Jackman>{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}</ref> The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&nbsp;km/h (17,200&nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.<ref name="MirBIS">{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="FinalBIS">{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="OrbitCalc">{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Polar Satellite 4== [[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]] PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}</ref> Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}</ref> and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}</ref> PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for "docking experiments" on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Singh>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage "alive" in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=Rajasekhar>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.<ref name=Rajwi>{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.<ref>{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}</ref> On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.<ref name=Clark>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}</ref> experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}</ref> ==Salyut 1== [[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).<ref>Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). "Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir" . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.</ref> The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&nbsp;Å at 2600&nbsp;Å (0.5&nbsp;nm at 260&nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&nbsp;Å (200 and 380&nbsp;nm).<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}</ref> The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Marett-Crosby2013">{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Salyut 3== [[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2<ref name=Zak>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> or Almaz 2<ref name=Portree1995>D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.</ref>) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.<ref name=Hall>Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.</ref> Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.<ref name=Zimmerman>Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.</ref> It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&nbsp;km on launch<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.</ref> and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&nbsp;km.<ref name=NASAcat>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.<ref name=Portree1995/> Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.<ref name=Portree/> It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.<ref name=Portree/> Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.<ref name=Portree1995/> The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.<ref name=Portree1995/> The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.<ref name=Portree/> Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.<ref name=Portree/> The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.<ref name=Portree1995/> The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;<ref name=Siddiqi/>. Another NASA source<ref name=Portree1995/> states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]</ref> The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.<ref name=Siddiqi/> The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.<ref name=Portree1995/> The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.<ref name=Zak/> Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&nbsp;mm gun.<ref name=Olberg>[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]</ref> Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.<ref>Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'') p. 162</ref> These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.<ref name=Olberg/> Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.<ref name=Zak/> The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.<ref name=Zak/><ref name=Olberg/> Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,<ref name=Olberg/> while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 4== [[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.<ref>[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]</ref> One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&nbsp;cm² in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&nbsp;cm² for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).<ref name=Salyut4>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}</ref> Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.<ref name=Salyut4/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 5== [[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.<ref name=Anikeev>{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}</ref> On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives. The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 6== [[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station. Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.<ref name=Chiara>{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}</ref> Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft. {{clear}} ==Salyut 7== [[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station<ref name=Portree1995/>) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.<ref name=Portree1995/> Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.<ref name=Portree1995/> Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.<ref name=Portree1995/> {{clear}} ==Skylab== [[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. {{clear}} ==Skylab 2== [[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy. {{clear}} ==Skylab 3== [[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount. {{clear}} ==Skylab 4== [[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home. During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems. Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F. The rectangular gold "parasol" over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew. {{clear}} ==Spacelabs== [[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.<ref name=Tramiel1984>{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}</ref> Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight. "Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]</ref> NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.<ref name=Portree>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}</ref> Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.<ref name="Angelo">{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}</ref> However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.<ref name="Angelo"/> The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.<ref name="Angelo"/> When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.<ref name="Angelo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mission name ! Space Shuttle orbiter ! Launch date ! Spacelab <br>mission name ! Pressurized <br>module ! Unpressurized <br>modules |- | STS-2 | ''Columbia'' | November 12, 1981 | OSTA-1 | | 1 Pallet (E002)<ref name=STS2>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-3 | ''Columbia'' | March 22, 1982 | OSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (E003)<ref name=STS3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-9 | ''Columbia'' | November 28, 1983 | Spacelab 1 | Module LM1 | 1 Pallet (F001) |- | STS-41-G | ''Challenger'' | October 5, 1984 | OSTA-3 | | 1 Pallet (F006)<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-51-A | ''Discovery'' | November 8, 1984 | Retrieval of 2 satellites | | 2 Pallets (F007+F008) |- | STS-51-B | ''Challenger'' | April 29, 1985 | Spacelab 3 | Module LM1 | Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS) |- | STS-51-F | ''Challenger'' | July 29, 1985 | Spacelab 2 | Igloo | 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS |- | STS-61-A | ''Challenger'' | October 30, 1985 | Spacelab D1 | Module LM2 | MPESS |- | STS-35 | ''Columbia'' | December 2, 1990 | ASTRO-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS |- | STS-40 | ''Columbia'' | June 5, 1991 | SLS-1 | Module LM1 | |- | STS-42 | ''Discovery'' | January 22, 1992 | IML-1 | Module LM2 | |- | STS-45 | ''Atlantis'' | March 24, 1992 | ATLAS-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F004+F005) |- | STS-50 | ''Columbia'' | June 25, 1992 | USML-1 | Module LM1 | Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) |- | STS-46 | ''Atlantis'' | July 31, 1992 | TSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=ESA-STS46>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}</ref> |- | STS-47 (J) | ''Endeavour'' | September 12, 1992 | Spacelab-J | Module LM2 | |- | STS-56 | ''Discovery'' | April 8, 1993 | ATLAS-2 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-55 (D2) | ''Columbia'' | April 26, 1993 | Spacelab D2 | Module LM1 | Unique Support Structure (USS) |- | STS-58 | ''Columbia'' | October 18, 1993 | SLS-2 | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-61 | ''Endeavour'' | December 2, 1993 | HST SM 01 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-59 | ''Endeavour'' | April 9, 1994 | SRL-1 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-65 | ''Columbia'' | July 8, 1994 | IML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-64 | ''Discovery'' | September 9, 1994 | LITE | | 1 Pallet (F007)<ref name=PraxisLog>{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}</ref> |- | STS-68 | ''Endeavour'' | September 30, 1994 | SRL-2 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-66 | ''Atlantis'' | November 3, 1994 | ATLAS-3 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-67 | ''Endeavour'' | March 2, 1995 | ASTRO-2 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO |- | STS-71 | ''Atlantis'' | June 27, 1995 | Spacelab-Mir | Module LM2 | |- | STS-73 | ''Columbia'' | October 20, 1995 | USML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-75 | ''Columbia'' | February 22, 1996 | TSS-1R / USMP-3 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=NASA28/> + 2 MPESS + EDO |- | STS-78 | ''Columbia'' | June 20, 1996 | LMS | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-82 | ''Discovery'' | February 21, 1997 | HST SM 02 | | 1 Pallet (F009)<ref name=NASA28/> |- | STS-83 | ''Columbia'' | April 4, 1997 | MSL-1 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-94 | ''Columbia'' | July 1, 1997 | MSL-1R | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-90 | ''Columbia'' | April 17, 1998 | Neurolab | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-103 | ''Discovery'' | December 20, 1999 | HST SM 03A | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-99 | ''Endeavour'' | February 11, 2000 | SRTM | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-92 | ''Discovery'' | Oktober 11, 2000 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F005) |- | STS-100 | ''Endeavour'' | April 19, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-104 | ''Atlantis'' | July 12, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) |- | STS-109 | ''Columbia'' | March 1, 2002 | HST SM 03B | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-123 | ''Endeavour'' | March 11, 2008 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-125 | ''Atlantis'' | May 11, 2009 | HST SM 04 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |} {{clear}} ==Spacelab 1== [[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.<ref name=Shayler>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 2== [[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible. The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.<ref name=Kent/> The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.<ref name=Kent>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]</ref> It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.<ref name=Kent/> Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.<ref name=Kent/> IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.<ref name="ipac.caltech.edu">{{cite web |title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}</ref> A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 3== [[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.<ref name=Engelen>{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}</ref><ref name="netwerk">{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut` |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}</ref> The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.<ref name=Engelen/><ref name="netwerk" /> {{clear}} ==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)== [[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars. The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms. {{clear}} ==STS-1== [[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography. {{clear}} ==STS-2== [[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.<ref name="NASA - STS-2">{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}</ref> On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html |title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}</ref> The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).<ref name=Becker>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-3== [[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay. {{clear}} ==STS-4== [[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,<ref name=oomops>{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}</ref> and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.<ref name=owastwrd>{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}</ref> The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen. In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.<ref name=JSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-5== [[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982. STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight. {{clear}} ==STS-6== [[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.. STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments. {{clear}} ==STS-7== [[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight. The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay. STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time. {{clear}} ==STS-8== [[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,<ref name="news 82-46">{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.<ref name="STS-8 Press Information, p. i">''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i</ref> It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.<ref>Press kit, p. 32</ref> The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.<ref>Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)</ref> Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.<ref>Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).</ref> The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.<ref>Press kit, p. 37</ref> A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.<ref>Press kit, p. 38</ref> A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39">Press kit, p. 39</ref> The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39"/> A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).<ref>''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-9== [[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) <ref>"Fun facts about STS numbering"|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27 |NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref> was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit. The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA. Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time. {{clear}} ==STS-10== [[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.<ref name=Ency>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm |title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}</ref> Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.<ref name=Ency/> {{clear}} ==STS-11== [[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.<ref name=Hoften>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref><ref name=Hart>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013</ref> The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base. On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32. {{clear}} ==STS-12== [[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984. A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS). The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS). A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out. {{clear}} ==STS-13== [[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.<ref name=mis41g>{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}</ref>. The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras. The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned. SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the "strain ellipsoid" model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an "irruptive") is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century. Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown. {{clear}} ==STS-14== STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984. STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985. Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2. {{clear}} ==STS-15== STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985. ==STS-16== STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.<ref name=PressKitit51D>{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref> The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC. ''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and "Toys in Space", an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> ==STS-17== [[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985. STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,<ref>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011</ref> the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center. On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth. {{clear}} ==STS-18== [[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),<ref name=SF51G>{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}</ref> and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system. The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed "Star Wars"); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64. {{clear}} ==STS-19== [[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the "Spacelab igloo", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success. The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.<ref name=report>{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}</ref> During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.<ref name=report/> In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two "holes" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-20== STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. ==STS-21== STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985. ==STS-22== STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ==STS-23== STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985. ==STS-24== STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986. ==STS-26== [[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988. The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research. * Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE) * Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC) * Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE) * Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD) * Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) * Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments * Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU) The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8). {{clear}} ==STS-27== [[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17. {{clear}} ==STS-28== [[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,<ref name="LATimes 1989-03-14">{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}</ref> and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. ''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.<ref name=Brown1990>{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}</ref> One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed "partially successful". The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.<ref name=Kosson>{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}</ref> All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',<ref name=Venant>{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet' |date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}</ref> including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.<ref name=Viereck>{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)'' |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-29== [[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).<ref name="MSER STS-30"/> [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA. Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.<ref name="MSER STS-30">{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-30== [[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989. The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]</ref> ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit. {{clear}} ==STS-31== [[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989. ''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully. STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space. {{clear}} ==STS-32== [[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST. STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.<ref name=Knecht>{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Kofsky>{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA241756 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-33== [[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above. Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: * Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA) * American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE) * Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * IMAX camera * Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. {{clear}} ==STS-34== [[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23. The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-35== [[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.<ref name=McDowell>{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell |title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km) |url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}</ref> The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR">{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR"/> The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name="MacKnight 1991">{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-36== [[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX) # INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE) # Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) # Voice Command System (VCS). By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible. Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment. {{clear}} ==STS-37== [[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33. {{clear}} ==STS-38== [[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990</ref> The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay. The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.</ref> Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could "talk" to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama. Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.</ref> A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville. {{clear}} ==STS-39== [[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33. During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= "S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission" |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}</ref> Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.<ref name="gulflink.osd.mil">{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&roll=152&frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}</ref> Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields # Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill) # Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II). {{clear}} ==STS-40== [[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas. Instruments: # Chemical Release Observation (CRO) # Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) # Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A) # Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) # Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC) # Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II) # Space Test Program (STP-01) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III). {{clear}} ==STS-41== [[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish. Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs). {{clear}} ==STS-42== [[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture. STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker. Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}</ref> Instruments: # Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) # Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) {{clear}} ==STS-43== [[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE) # Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE) # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) {{clear}} ==STS-44== [[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°. In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Bioreactor Flow # Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project # Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) # Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM) # Military Man in Space (M88-1) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) # Terra-Scout # Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI) # Visual Function Tester (VFT-1) {{clear}} ==STS-45== ==STS-47== STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992. Names: Space Transportation System-47. ==STS-50== STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. COSPAR ID: 1992-061A. ==Reflections== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}} [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity. This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}} [[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}} [[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf |title=Census & Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}</ref> living on 1.5&nbsp;km². The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.<ref>[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]</ref> The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953</ref> The total area is about six square kilometers.<ref>[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot</ref> Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk). {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}} [[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills. {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}} [[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.<ref name="NatGeoReport" /> It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.<ref name="NatGeoReport">{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}</ref> The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins. The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline. In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}} [[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area. {{clear}} ==Capes== [[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake"<ref name=CapeWikt>{{ cite book |title=cape |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> is called a '''cape'''. {{clear}} ==Coastlines== [[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water. {{clear}} ==Craters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}} [[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits. The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. {{clear}} ==Glaciology== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}} [[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field. This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore. Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier. {{clear}} ==Lakes== [[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large, [landlocked]<ref name=LakeWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> stretch of water"<ref name=LakeWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 July 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''lake'''. The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin. Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution. The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}} [[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking. The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view. The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. {{clear}} ==Volcanoes== [[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right. The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano. {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radio astronomy]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Spaceflight]] gd6dxabv60ra1mf5zrfoe36tplszt9g 2409185 2409184 2022-07-25T07:13:25Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* STS-45 */ wikitext text/x-wiki <imagemap> File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}} rect 0 0 550 420 [[International Space Station]] rect 550 0 693 420 [[Tiangong Space Station]] rect 0 420 260 700 [[Mir]] rect 260 420 500 700 [[Skylab]] rect 500 420 693 700 [[Tiangong-2]] rect 0 700 160 921 [[Salyut 1]] rect 160 700 280 921 [[Salyut 2]] rect 280 700 420 921 [[Salyut 4]] rect 420 700 550 921 [[Salyut 6]] rect 550 700 693 921 [[Salyut 7]] </imagemap> '''Def.''' a "manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc."<ref name=SpaceStationWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=space station |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''space station'''. '''Def.''' "a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star"<ref name=OrbitalPlatform>{{ cite web |author=Roberts |title=Orbital platform |publisher=Roberts Space Industries |location= |date=2021 |url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform |accessdate=6 July 2022 }}</ref> is called an '''orbital platform'''. {{clear}} ==International Space Station== [[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. "Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment."<ref name=Sheldon>{{ cite book |author=Sheldon |title=Materials: Out of This World |publisher=NASA News |location=Washington DC USA |date=April 29, 2011 |url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html |accessdate=2014-01-08 }}</ref> The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E > {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere. The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit. On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector "BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> "Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews."<ref name=Choy>{{ cite book |author=Tony Choy |title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) |publisher=NASA |location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States |date=July 25, 2012 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html |accessdate=2012-08-17 }}</ref> Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points. "The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration."<ref name=Choy/> "The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3."<ref name=Choy/> "BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region."<ref name=Choy/> "The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period."<ref name=Choy/> {{clear}} ==Mir== [[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998). Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed. ''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.<ref name=Jackman>{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}</ref> The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&nbsp;km/h (17,200&nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.<ref name="MirBIS">{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="FinalBIS">{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}</ref><ref name="OrbitCalc">{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Polar Satellite 4== [[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]] PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}</ref> Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}</ref> and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}</ref> PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for "docking experiments" on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,<ref>{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Singh>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage "alive" in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=Rajasekhar>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.<ref name=Rajwi>{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.<ref>{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}</ref> On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.<ref name=Clark>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}</ref> Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}</ref> experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}</ref> To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}</ref> ==Salyut 1== [[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for "Long-duration orbital station"), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).<ref>Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). "Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir" . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.</ref> The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&nbsp;Å at 2600&nbsp;Å (0.5&nbsp;nm at 260&nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&nbsp;Å (200 and 380&nbsp;nm).<ref name=Gurzadyan>{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}</ref> The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.<ref name="Marett-Crosby2013">{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Salyut 3== [[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2<ref name=Zak>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}</ref> or Almaz 2<ref name=Portree1995>D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). "Mir Hardware Heritage" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.</ref>) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.<ref name=Hall>Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.</ref> Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.<ref name=Zimmerman>Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.</ref> It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&nbsp;km on launch<ref name=Bond>Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.</ref> and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&nbsp;km.<ref name=NASAcat>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.<ref name=Zimmerman/> The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.<ref name=Portree1995/> Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.<ref name=Portree/> It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.<ref name=Portree/> Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.<ref name=Portree1995/> The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.<ref name=Portree1995/> The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.<ref name=Portree/> Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.<ref name=Portree/> The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.<ref name=Portree1995/> The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;<ref name=Siddiqi/>. Another NASA source<ref name=Portree1995/> states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]</ref> The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.<ref name=Siddiqi/> The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.<ref name=Portree1995/> The Salyut 3, although called a "civilian" station, was equipped with a "self-defence" gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.<ref name=Zak/> Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter "Vulkan" gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&nbsp;mm gun.<ref name=Olberg>[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]</ref> Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.<ref>Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'') p. 162</ref> These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.<ref name=Olberg/> Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.<ref name=Zak/> The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.<ref name=Zak/><ref name=Olberg/> Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,<ref name=Olberg/> while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 4== [[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.<ref>[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]</ref> One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&nbsp;cm² in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&nbsp;cm² for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).<ref name=Salyut4>{{cite web |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}</ref> Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.<ref name=Salyut4/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 5== [[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.<ref name=Anikeev>{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}</ref> On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives. The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.<ref name=Zak/> {{clear}} ==Salyut 6== [[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station. Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.<ref name=Chiara>{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}</ref> Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft. {{clear}} ==Salyut 7== [[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station<ref name=Portree1995/>) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.<ref name=Portree1995/> It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.<ref name=Portree1995/> Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.<ref name=Portree1995/> Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.<ref name=Portree1995/> {{clear}} ==Skylab== [[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions. {{clear}} ==Skylab 2== [[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy. {{clear}} ==Skylab 3== [[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount. {{clear}} ==Skylab 4== [[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home. During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems. Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F. The rectangular gold "parasol" over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew. {{clear}} ==Spacelabs== [[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.<ref name=Tramiel1984>{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}</ref> Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight. "Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena."<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]</ref> NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.<ref name=Portree>{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}</ref> Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.<ref name="Angelo">{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}</ref> However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.<ref name="Angelo"/> The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.<ref name="Angelo"/> When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.<ref name="Angelo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mission name ! Space Shuttle orbiter ! Launch date ! Spacelab <br>mission name ! Pressurized <br>module ! Unpressurized <br>modules |- | STS-2 | ''Columbia'' | November 12, 1981 | OSTA-1 | | 1 Pallet (E002)<ref name=STS2>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-3 | ''Columbia'' | March 22, 1982 | OSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (E003)<ref name=STS3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-9 | ''Columbia'' | November 28, 1983 | Spacelab 1 | Module LM1 | 1 Pallet (F001) |- | STS-41-G | ''Challenger'' | October 5, 1984 | OSTA-3 | | 1 Pallet (F006)<ref name=NASA28>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref> |- | STS-51-A | ''Discovery'' | November 8, 1984 | Retrieval of 2 satellites | | 2 Pallets (F007+F008) |- | STS-51-B | ''Challenger'' | April 29, 1985 | Spacelab 3 | Module LM1 | Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS) |- | STS-51-F | ''Challenger'' | July 29, 1985 | Spacelab 2 | Igloo | 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS |- | STS-61-A | ''Challenger'' | October 30, 1985 | Spacelab D1 | Module LM2 | MPESS |- | STS-35 | ''Columbia'' | December 2, 1990 | ASTRO-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS |- | STS-40 | ''Columbia'' | June 5, 1991 | SLS-1 | Module LM1 | |- | STS-42 | ''Discovery'' | January 22, 1992 | IML-1 | Module LM2 | |- | STS-45 | ''Atlantis'' | March 24, 1992 | ATLAS-1 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F004+F005) |- | STS-50 | ''Columbia'' | June 25, 1992 | USML-1 | Module LM1 | Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) |- | STS-46 | ''Atlantis'' | July 31, 1992 | TSS-1 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=ESA-STS46>{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}</ref> |- | STS-47 (J) | ''Endeavour'' | September 12, 1992 | Spacelab-J | Module LM2 | |- | STS-56 | ''Discovery'' | April 8, 1993 | ATLAS-2 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-55 (D2) | ''Columbia'' | April 26, 1993 | Spacelab D2 | Module LM1 | Unique Support Structure (USS) |- | STS-58 | ''Columbia'' | October 18, 1993 | SLS-2 | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-61 | ''Endeavour'' | December 2, 1993 | HST SM 01 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-59 | ''Endeavour'' | April 9, 1994 | SRL-1 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-65 | ''Columbia'' | July 8, 1994 | IML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-64 | ''Discovery'' | September 9, 1994 | LITE | | 1 Pallet (F007)<ref name=PraxisLog>{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}</ref> |- | STS-68 | ''Endeavour'' | September 30, 1994 | SRL-2 | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-66 | ''Atlantis'' | November 3, 1994 | ATLAS-3 | Igloo | 1 Pallet (F008) |- | STS-67 | ''Endeavour'' | March 2, 1995 | ASTRO-2 | Igloo | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO |- | STS-71 | ''Atlantis'' | June 27, 1995 | Spacelab-Mir | Module LM2 | |- | STS-73 | ''Columbia'' | October 20, 1995 | USML-2 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-75 | ''Columbia'' | February 22, 1996 | TSS-1R / USMP-3 | | 1 Pallet (F003)<ref name=NASA28/> + 2 MPESS + EDO |- | STS-78 | ''Columbia'' | June 20, 1996 | LMS | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-82 | ''Discovery'' | February 21, 1997 | HST SM 02 | | 1 Pallet (F009)<ref name=NASA28/> |- | STS-83 | ''Columbia'' | April 4, 1997 | MSL-1 | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-94 | ''Columbia'' | July 1, 1997 | MSL-1R | Module LM1 | EDO |- | STS-90 | ''Columbia'' | April 17, 1998 | Neurolab | Module LM2 | EDO |- | STS-103 | ''Discovery'' | December 20, 1999 | HST SM 03A | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-99 | ''Endeavour'' | February 11, 2000 | SRTM | | 1 Pallet (F006) |- | STS-92 | ''Discovery'' | Oktober 11, 2000 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F005) |- | STS-100 | ''Endeavour'' | April 19, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-104 | ''Atlantis'' | July 12, 2001 | ISS assembly | | 2 Pallets (F002+F010) |- | STS-109 | ''Columbia'' | March 1, 2002 | HST SM 03B | | 1 Pallet (F009) |- | STS-123 | ''Endeavour'' | March 11, 2008 | ISS assembly | | 1 Pallet (F004) |- | STS-125 | ''Atlantis'' | May 11, 2009 | HST SM 04 | | 1 Pallet (F009) |} {{clear}} ==Spacelab 1== [[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.<ref name=Shayler>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 2== [[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible. The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.<ref name=Kent/> The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.<ref name=Kent>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]</ref> It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.<ref name=Kent/> Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.<ref name=Kent/> IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.<ref name="ipac.caltech.edu">{{cite web |title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}</ref> A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Spacelab 3== [[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.<ref name=Engelen>{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}</ref><ref name="netwerk">{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut` |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}</ref> The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.<ref name=Engelen/><ref name="netwerk" /> {{clear}} ==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)== [[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars. The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms. {{clear}} ==STS-1== [[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography. {{clear}} ==STS-2== [[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.<ref name="NASA - STS-2">{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}</ref> On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html |title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}</ref> The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography. Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).<ref name=Becker>{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-3== [[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay. {{clear}} ==STS-4== [[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,<ref name=oomops>{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}</ref> and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.<ref name=owastwrd>{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}</ref> The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen. In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.<ref name=JSC>{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-5== [[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982. STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight. {{clear}} ==STS-6== [[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.. STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments. {{clear}} ==STS-7== [[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983. Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight. The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay. STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time. {{clear}} ==STS-8== [[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983. The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as "space sickness"). The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,<ref name="news 82-46">{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}</ref> but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.<ref name="STS-8 Press Information, p. i">''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i</ref> It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.<ref>Press kit, p. 32</ref> The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.<ref>Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)</ref> Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.<ref>Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).</ref> The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.<ref>Press kit, p. 37</ref> A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.<ref>Press kit, p. 38</ref> A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39">Press kit, p. 39</ref> The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.<ref name="Press kit, p. 39"/> A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).<ref>''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-9== [[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) <ref>"Fun facts about STS numbering"|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27 |NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref> was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit. The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA. Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time. {{clear}} ==STS-10== [[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.<ref name=Ency>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm |title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}</ref> Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.<ref name=Ency/> {{clear}} ==STS-11== [[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.<ref name=Hoften>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013</ref><ref name=Hart>[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013</ref> The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base. On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32. {{clear}} ==STS-12== [[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984. A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS). The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS). A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out. {{clear}} ==STS-13== [[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.<ref name=mis41g>{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}</ref>. The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras. The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned. SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the "strain ellipsoid" model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an "irruptive") is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century. Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown. {{clear}} ==STS-14== STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984. STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985. Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2. {{clear}} ==STS-15== STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985. ==STS-16== STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.<ref name=PressKitit51D>{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}</ref> The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC. ''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and "Toys in Space", an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}</ref> ==STS-17== [[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985. STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,<ref>|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011</ref> the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center. On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth. {{clear}} ==STS-18== [[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),<ref name=SF51G>{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}</ref> and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system. The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed "Star Wars"); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64. {{clear}} ==STS-19== [[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the "Spacelab igloo", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success. The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.<ref name=report>{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}</ref> During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.<ref name=report/> In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two "holes" – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-20== STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985. ==STS-21== STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985. ==STS-22== STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ==STS-23== STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985. ==STS-24== STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986. ==STS-26== [[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988. The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company. Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research. * Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE) * Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC) * Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE) * Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD) * Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) * Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments * Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU) The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8). {{clear}} ==STS-27== [[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17. {{clear}} ==STS-28== [[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,<ref name="LATimes 1989-03-14">{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}</ref> and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. ''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.<ref name=Brown1990>{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}</ref> One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed "partially successful". The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.<ref name=Kosson>{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}</ref> All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',<ref name=Venant>{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet' |date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}</ref> including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.<ref name=Viereck>{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)'' |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-29== [[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).<ref name="MSER STS-30"/> [[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA. Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.<ref name="MSER STS-30">{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-30== [[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989. The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.<ref>[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]</ref> ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit. {{clear}} ==STS-31== [[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989. ''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully. STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space. {{clear}} ==STS-32== [[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST. STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.<ref name=Knecht>{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Kofsky>{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA241756 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-33== [[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above. Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: * Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) * Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) * Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA) * American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE) * Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3) * Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) * IMAX camera * Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. {{clear}} ==STS-34== [[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23. The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name=Macknight>Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-35== [[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments. At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.<ref name=McDowell>{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell |title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km) |url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}</ref> The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits. Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR">{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.<ref name="STS-31 SSMR"/> The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of "Detailed Secondary Objective 469", also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.<ref name="MacKnight 1991">{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}</ref> {{clear}} ==STS-36== [[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX) # INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE) # Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) # Voice Command System (VCS). By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible. Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment. {{clear}} ==STS-37== [[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33. {{clear}} ==STS-38== [[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22. The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990</ref> The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay. The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.</ref> Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could "talk" to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.<ref>Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005</ref> ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama. Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.<ref>STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.</ref> A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville. {{clear}} ==STS-39== [[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33. During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= "S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission" |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}</ref> Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.<ref name="gulflink.osd.mil">{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&roll=152&frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}</ref> Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields # Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill) # Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II). {{clear}} ==STS-40== [[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas. Instruments: # Chemical Release Observation (CRO) # Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS) # Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A) # Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) # Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC) # Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II) # Space Test Program (STP-01) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III). {{clear}} ==STS-41== [[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology. The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish. Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs). {{clear}} ==STS-42== [[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15. On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture. STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker. Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}</ref> Instruments: # Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW) # Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) # Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II) # Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) # Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) {{clear}} ==STS-43== [[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) # Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) # Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE) # Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE) # Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) {{clear}} ==STS-44== [[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°. In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass. Instruments: # Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) # Bioreactor Flow # Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM) # Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project # Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) # Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM) # Military Man in Space (M88-1) # Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III) # Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM) # Terra-Scout # Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI) # Visual Function Tester (VFT-1) {{clear}} ==STS-45== COSPAR ID: 1992-015A. ==STS-47== STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992. Names: Space Transportation System-47. ==STS-50== STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. COSPAR ID: 1992-061A. ==Reflections== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}} [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity. This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. {{clear}} ==Visuals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}} [[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}} [[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf |title=Census & Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}</ref> living on 1.5&nbsp;km². The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.<ref>[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]</ref> The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.<ref>Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953</ref> The total area is about six square kilometers.<ref>[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot</ref> Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk). {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}} [[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]] A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills. {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}} [[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean. The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.<ref name="NatGeoReport" /> It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.<ref name="NatGeoReport">{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}</ref> The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins. The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline. In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. {{clear}} ==Reds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}} [[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area. {{clear}} ==Capes== [[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake"<ref name=CapeWikt>{{ cite book |title=cape |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> is called a '''cape'''. {{clear}} ==Coastlines== [[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water. {{clear}} ==Craters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}} [[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits. The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest. {{clear}} ==Glaciology== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}} [[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field. This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore. Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier. {{clear}} ==Lakes== [[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large, [landlocked]<ref name=LakeWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 December 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> stretch of water"<ref name=LakeWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]] |title=lake |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 July 2003 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake |accessdate=15 July 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''lake'''. The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin. Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution. The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}} [[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking. The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view. The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. {{clear}} ==Volcanoes== [[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]] Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right. The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano. {{clear}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radio astronomy]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Spaceflight]] s6tykow1drbzxuas48qvovvm5moktjo 0 285217 2409074 2405822 2022-07-24T15:28:41Z Ncharamut 2824970 /* Onboarding with HGAPS */ fixed typo wikitext text/x-wiki = Onboarding with HGAPS = Welcome new member! So, you're interested in joining your university's chapter of HGAPS? This onboarding guide should help. Onboarding is the process of integrating a member into a group, specifically for this Instructable, the process of getting a new member integrated into HGAPS (particularly HGAPS at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). This document explains how to become onboarded into HGAPS including what training needs to be completed and how to become a member of a project team. This is especially important for new members or current members preparing for new members on their team. This page is long, focusing on HGAPS itself and getting involved, so feel free to skip sections if you feel you already know all the information. You may also search this Instructable for key words (such as "water carrier") if you find yourself with a particular question. However, '''''please ensure all onboarding steps are complete!''''' = What is HGAPS? = Although many new members may already know of HGAPS and it's goals, if you are a new member and do not, this section entails more about how the organization functions. === Background === Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) began as a student-led organization at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) but has grown into an official nonprofit and a student-led organization seen in many universities across the US. ==== Goals ==== HGAPS strives to disseminate psychological information to those who need it most, creating better access to reliable science. We mostly do this through Wikiversity (Wikipedia’s sister site for research and learning materials) and other free sites such as YouTube. By creating granting access to free, reliable resources, we can help clinics and researchers that lack funding and resources. Overall, the hope is to create tools and trainings to help future generations of practitioners and researchers while educating the general public. === Membership in a University Chapter of HGAPS === ==== Requirements ==== In the university chapter, members are decided by the university's individual Bylaws. For UNC-CH, students must be '''full-time''' '''undergraduate''' '''or graduate''' '''students'''. Members must attend 30% of meetings performed in a given semester after they have joined the club. This means that if you joined mid-semester, you only need to attend 30% of the meetings after you join. Attendance is taken by the HGAPS Secretary on the RSVP sheet. Dues must also be paid according to the amount set in a given semester/year–typically $12 per semester or $20 per year. Finally, '''all members must have wiki accounts and perform the necessary trainings before making their own edits.''' Members intending on pursuing future leadership positions should try to attend most meetings and refer to [moving up whatever add page]. ==== Project Teams ==== HGAPS splits members into different project teams focusing on different tasks that aid psychological dissemination. Often this is because these projects are paid from different grants. In the case of UNC–CH, projects are also enumerated, so 1022 equates to the team working on updating the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Sometimes, these team goals may overlap, get passed between different teams, or end up involving more than one team at the same time. For instance, at UNC-CH the Translations team translates assessment measures into different languages, then the Social Media group could their accomplishments on Twitter! Members may participate in more than one group, but during the school year, focusing on one is advisable (see Meetings below). Each group has a leader position designated as a "Water Carrier (WC)". This is a business term and our version of a team leader–the difference is, a water carrier doesn't indicate prior experience or seniority. Water carriers mainly lead by organizing the group and planning meetings, but they need no experience–in fact, a water carrier's job may entail asking others to help with their expertise. The term water carrier is used for this reason–to decrease feelings of superiority/inferiority while maintaining a structure to the groups. ==== Meetings ==== UNC-CH HGAPS meets in a hybrid format on the President's zoom and in a designated location on campus on Thursday evenings from 6–8pm ET. The zoom links are sent in advance and you can sign up for weekly reminders through our Luma calendar. These meetings are working meetings, so during these two hours, members split into breakout rooms (in groups in person) to work with their teams. These meetings are typically outlined as follows: * Introduction: 6:00–6:15pm ** Members share how they are doing and any personal updates. Then, the Professor (Dr. Youngstrom in our case) or the President may give overall updates, such as different grant updates. This gives a chance for the President to organize breakout rooms. * Breakout rooms: 6:15–7:45pm ** Members work in their groups. At the end, the water carrier (see Project Teams above) notes the teams accomplishments on a Google Doc used by the President and Professor to keep track of the team's accomplishments. * Report out: 7:45–8:00pm ** This is when each water carrier says to the group what was accomplished and the Professor gives final updates. You may see that these meetings continue through school breaks–don't worry, those are optional for UNC students. == Onboarding Steps == Now that you know what you're joining, here are the steps you should follow in order to involve yourself in HGAPS as quickly and easily as possible. '''Step 1: Create a Wikipedia account and join the main means of communication.''' Before your first meeting, it’s helpful to at least have a Wikipedia account created. That way, if you’re interested in becoming a member, you can follow along with the page changes being made by the rest of your team members during the meetings. Read '''<u>Getting Step Up</u>''' on [[Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Standard_Operating_Procedures/_Getting_Started|this page]] to learn how create a Wikipedia account. Luckily, this will create a Wikiversity link too! As for communication, for UNC-CH, we primarily use Slack. Slack is a business platform where people can easily message, @ each other and communicate with people through multiple channels and even an app. Although email reminders will still be sent, most meeting reminders and general information will be sent on Slack, so go ahead and join! '''Step 2: Attend your first meeting.''' As a new member, simply ask the President to stay behind or create a breakout room for new members–they’ll introduce you to the current projects, and you’ll have the opportunity to sit in and see if that project interests you! At that point, the water carrier will introduce you to the specifics and see what they can do about getting you up to speed as soon as possible. However, it's important to note that editing cannot be performed before completing the necessary trainings, so this introduction is just to help you understand the project's layout. * Tip: if you and your water carrier are unsure of where to start, ask them to share their screen and walk you through their slack channel and project! With that said, if you are currently unable to help and are given permission by your group's water carrier to do so during the meeting, you may move on to steps 3-4. '''Step 3: Create your accounts.''' HGAPS uses a variety of free platforms for different purposes as seen on the RSVP sheet. Two prominent examples are OSF and Zotero. used for uploading documents and creating citations, respectfully. Although not all projects require these accounts, it's good to have them in case a future project needs them. So make sure you: * Follow this link to create an OSF and add it to your RSVP sheet. * Follow this link to create a Zotero and add it to your RSVP sheet. * Ask your project if any other platforms are being used! '''Step 4: Complete your trainings and report back.''' There are two trainings that must be complete in order to edit. More information regarding those can be found [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures/ Getting Started|here]]. After completing those, report that to your water carrier and your President or Professor. Your President/Professor so that they can add you to the HGAPS WikiUser Group (a group tracking our collective changes to better monitor our impact) and your water carrier so they can help you get more involved on their specific project. = Further information = If you'd like more information about the history of HGAPS and different events you can be involved in through HGAPS, feel free to check out this HGAPS User Guide, the HGAPS site linked here, or this page of other Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Happy editing. r2qdoxol3865e71c0czb23mig0ctoz9 2409076 2409074 2022-07-24T15:37:09Z Ncharamut 2824970 /* Project Teams */ fixed typo wikitext text/x-wiki = Onboarding with HGAPS = Welcome new member! So, you're interested in joining your university's chapter of HGAPS? This onboarding guide should help. Onboarding is the process of integrating a member into a group, specifically for this Instructable, the process of getting a new member integrated into HGAPS (particularly HGAPS at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). This document explains how to become onboarded into HGAPS including what training needs to be completed and how to become a member of a project team. This is especially important for new members or current members preparing for new members on their team. This page is long, focusing on HGAPS itself and getting involved, so feel free to skip sections if you feel you already know all the information. You may also search this Instructable for key words (such as "water carrier") if you find yourself with a particular question. However, '''''please ensure all onboarding steps are complete!''''' = What is HGAPS? = Although many new members may already know of HGAPS and it's goals, if you are a new member and do not, this section entails more about how the organization functions. === Background === Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) began as a student-led organization at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) but has grown into an official nonprofit and a student-led organization seen in many universities across the US. ==== Goals ==== HGAPS strives to disseminate psychological information to those who need it most, creating better access to reliable science. We mostly do this through Wikiversity (Wikipedia’s sister site for research and learning materials) and other free sites such as YouTube. By creating granting access to free, reliable resources, we can help clinics and researchers that lack funding and resources. Overall, the hope is to create tools and trainings to help future generations of practitioners and researchers while educating the general public. === Membership in a University Chapter of HGAPS === ==== Requirements ==== In the university chapter, members are decided by the university's individual Bylaws. For UNC-CH, students must be '''full-time''' '''undergraduate''' '''or graduate''' '''students'''. Members must attend 30% of meetings performed in a given semester after they have joined the club. This means that if you joined mid-semester, you only need to attend 30% of the meetings after you join. Attendance is taken by the HGAPS Secretary on the RSVP sheet. Dues must also be paid according to the amount set in a given semester/year–typically $12 per semester or $20 per year. Finally, '''all members must have wiki accounts and perform the necessary trainings before making their own edits.''' Members intending on pursuing future leadership positions should try to attend most meetings and refer to [moving up whatever add page]. ==== Project Teams ==== HGAPS splits members into different project teams focusing on different tasks that aid psychological dissemination. Often this is because these projects are paid from different grants. In the case of UNC–CH, projects are also enumerated, so 1022 equates to the team working on updating the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Sometimes, these team goals may overlap, get passed between different teams, or end up involving more than one team at the same time. For instance, at UNC-CH the Translations team translates assessment measures into different languages, then the Social Media group could post their accomplishments on Twitter! Members may participate in more than one group, but during the school year, focusing on one is advisable (see Meetings below). Each group has a leader position designated as a "Water Carrier (WC)". This is a business term and our version of a team leader–the difference is, a water carrier doesn't indicate prior experience or seniority. Water carriers mainly lead by organizing the group and planning meetings, but they need no experience–in fact, a water carrier's job may entail asking others to help with their expertise. The term water carrier is used for this reason–to decrease feelings of superiority/inferiority while maintaining a structure to the groups. ==== Meetings ==== UNC-CH HGAPS meets in a hybrid format on the President's zoom and in a designated location on campus on Thursday evenings from 6–8pm ET. The zoom links are sent in advance and you can sign up for weekly reminders through our Luma calendar. These meetings are working meetings, so during these two hours, members split into breakout rooms (in groups in person) to work with their teams. These meetings are typically outlined as follows: * Introduction: 6:00–6:15pm ** Members share how they are doing and any personal updates. Then, the Professor (Dr. Youngstrom in our case) or the President may give overall updates, such as different grant updates. This gives a chance for the President to organize breakout rooms. * Breakout rooms: 6:15–7:45pm ** Members work in their groups. At the end, the water carrier (see Project Teams above) notes the teams accomplishments on a Google Doc used by the President and Professor to keep track of the team's accomplishments. * Report out: 7:45–8:00pm ** This is when each water carrier says to the group what was accomplished and the Professor gives final updates. You may see that these meetings continue through school breaks–don't worry, those are optional for UNC students. == Onboarding Steps == Now that you know what you're joining, here are the steps you should follow in order to involve yourself in HGAPS as quickly and easily as possible. '''Step 1: Create a Wikipedia account and join the main means of communication.''' Before your first meeting, it’s helpful to at least have a Wikipedia account created. That way, if you’re interested in becoming a member, you can follow along with the page changes being made by the rest of your team members during the meetings. Read '''<u>Getting Step Up</u>''' on [[Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Standard_Operating_Procedures/_Getting_Started|this page]] to learn how create a Wikipedia account. Luckily, this will create a Wikiversity link too! As for communication, for UNC-CH, we primarily use Slack. Slack is a business platform where people can easily message, @ each other and communicate with people through multiple channels and even an app. Although email reminders will still be sent, most meeting reminders and general information will be sent on Slack, so go ahead and join! '''Step 2: Attend your first meeting.''' As a new member, simply ask the President to stay behind or create a breakout room for new members–they’ll introduce you to the current projects, and you’ll have the opportunity to sit in and see if that project interests you! At that point, the water carrier will introduce you to the specifics and see what they can do about getting you up to speed as soon as possible. However, it's important to note that editing cannot be performed before completing the necessary trainings, so this introduction is just to help you understand the project's layout. * Tip: if you and your water carrier are unsure of where to start, ask them to share their screen and walk you through their slack channel and project! With that said, if you are currently unable to help and are given permission by your group's water carrier to do so during the meeting, you may move on to steps 3-4. '''Step 3: Create your accounts.''' HGAPS uses a variety of free platforms for different purposes as seen on the RSVP sheet. Two prominent examples are OSF and Zotero. used for uploading documents and creating citations, respectfully. Although not all projects require these accounts, it's good to have them in case a future project needs them. So make sure you: * Follow this link to create an OSF and add it to your RSVP sheet. * Follow this link to create a Zotero and add it to your RSVP sheet. * Ask your project if any other platforms are being used! '''Step 4: Complete your trainings and report back.''' There are two trainings that must be complete in order to edit. More information regarding those can be found [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures/ Getting Started|here]]. After completing those, report that to your water carrier and your President or Professor. Your President/Professor so that they can add you to the HGAPS WikiUser Group (a group tracking our collective changes to better monitor our impact) and your water carrier so they can help you get more involved on their specific project. = Further information = If you'd like more information about the history of HGAPS and different events you can be involved in through HGAPS, feel free to check out this HGAPS User Guide, the HGAPS site linked here, or this page of other Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Happy editing. rsagta0vgcyinxo9r8ci7xsl0jlqrpr 2409104 2409076 2022-07-24T20:40:32Z JBondareva3x7 2927239 /* Onboarding with HGAPS */ updated according to natalie's comments wikitext text/x-wiki = Onboarding with HGAPS = Welcome new member! So, you're interested in joining your university's chapter of HGAPS? This onboarding guide should help. Onboarding is the process of integrating a member into a group, in this case, the process of getting a new member integrated into HGAPS (particularly HGAPS at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). This document explains how to become onboarded into HGAPS including what training needs to be completed and how to become a member of a project team. This is especially important for new members or current members preparing for new members on their team. '''''Please ensure all onboarding steps are complete!''''' = What is HGAPS? = Although many new members may already know of HGAPS and it's goals, if you are a new member and do not, this section entails more about how the organization functions. === Background === Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) began as a student-led organization at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) but has grown into an official nonprofit and a student-led organization seen in many universities across the US including the University of Maryland, Appalachian State University and the University of California, Los Angeles. ==== Goals ==== Our mission is to bridge the science-practice gap by collecting, distilling, and sharing psychological science to promote well-being in the community. To do this, HGAPS strives to disseminate evidence-based psychological information to those who need it most, creating better access to reliable science. We mostly do this through free platforms such as Wikiversity (Wikipedia’s sister site for research and learning materials), YouTube, Open Science Framework (OSF) and Zotero. By creating granting access to free, reliable resources, we can help clinics and researchers that lack funding and resources. Overall, the hope is to create tools and trainings to help future generations of practitioners and researchers while educating the general public. === Membership in a University Chapter of HGAPS === ==== Requirements ==== In the university chapter, members are decided by the university's individual Bylaws. For UNC-CH, students must be '''full-time''' '''undergraduate''' '''or graduate''' '''students'''. Members must attend 30% of meetings performed in a given semester after they have joined the club. This means that if you joined mid-semester, you only need to attend 30% of the meetings after you join. Attendance is taken by the HGAPS Secretary on the RSVP sheet. Dues must also be paid according to the amount set in a given semester/year–typically $12 per semester or $20 per year. Finally, '''all members must have wiki accounts and perform the necessary trainings before making their own edits.''' Members intending on pursuing future leadership positions should try to attend most meetings and refer to this [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures/Growth in HGAPS|page]]. ==== Project Teams ==== HGAPS splits members into different project teams focusing on different tasks that aid psychological dissemination. In the case of UNC–CH, projects are also enumerated, so 1022 equates to the team working on updating the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). Sometimes, these team goals may overlap, get passed between different teams, or end up involving more than one team at the same time. For instance, at UNC-CH the Translations team translates assessment measures into different languages, then the Social Media group could post their accomplishments on Twitter! Members may participate in more than one group, but during the school year, focusing on one is advisable (see Meetings below). Each group has a leader position designated as a "Water Carrier (WC)". This is a business term and our version of a team leader–the difference is, a water carrier doesn't indicate prior experience or seniority. Water carriers mainly lead by organizing the group and planning meetings, but they need no experience–in fact, a water carrier's job may entail asking others to help with their expertise. The term water carrier is used for this reason–to decrease feelings of superiority/inferiority while maintaining a structure to the groups. For more information, please refer to this SOP. ==== Meetings ==== UNC-CH HGAPS holds general "working" meetings on Thursday evenings from 6–8pm ET in a hybrid format utilizing the President's zoom and a designated meeting room on campus. The zoom links are sent in advance and you can sign up for weekly reminders through our Luma calendar. These meetings are working meetings, so during these two hours, members split into breakout rooms (in groups in person) to work with their teams. These meetings are typically outlined as follows: * Introduction: 6:00–6:15pm ** Members share how they are doing and any personal updates. Then, the Professor (Dr. Youngstrom in our case) or the President may give overall updates, such as different grant updates. This gives a chance for the President to organize breakout rooms. * Breakout rooms: 6:15–7:45pm ** Members work in their groups. At the end, the water carrier (see Project Teams above) notes the teams accomplishments on a Google Doc used by the President and Professor to keep track of the team's accomplishments. * Report out: 7:45–8:00pm ** This is when each water carrier says to the group what was accomplished and the Professor gives final updates. Aside from the general working meetings, specific teams may choose to meet outside of the general meeting time, so there may be instances where teams meet at a different time. You may also see that these working meetings continue through school breaks–don't worry, those are optional for UNC students. == Onboarding Steps == Now that you know what you're joining, here are the steps you should follow in order to involve yourself in HGAPS as quickly and easily as possible. '''Step 1: Create a Wikipedia account and join the main means of communication.''' Before your first meeting, it’s helpful to at least have a Wikipedia account created. That way, if you’re interested in becoming a member, you can follow along with the page changes being made by the rest of your team members during the meetings. Read '''<u>Getting Step Up</u>''' on [[Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Standard_Operating_Procedures/_Getting_Started|this page]] to learn how create a Wikipedia account. Luckily, this will create a Wikiversity link too! As for communication, for UNC-CH, we primarily use Slack. Slack is a business platform where people can easily message, @ each other and communicate with people through multiple channels and even an app. Although email reminders will still be sent, most meeting reminders and general information will be sent on Slack, so go ahead and join! '''Step 2: Attend your first meeting.''' As a new member, simply ask the President to stay behind or create a breakout room for new members–they’ll introduce you to the current projects, and you’ll have the opportunity to sit in and see if that project interests you! At that point, the water carrier will introduce you to the specifics and see what they can do about getting you up to speed as soon as possible. However, it's important to note that editing cannot be performed before completing the necessary trainings, so this introduction is just to help you understand the project's layout. * Tip: if you and your water carrier are unsure of where to start, ask them to share their screen and walk you through their slack channel and project! With that said, if you are currently unable to help and are given permission by your group's water carrier to do so during the meeting, you may move on to steps 3-4. '''Step 3: Create your accounts.''' HGAPS uses a variety of free platforms for different purposes as seen on the RSVP sheet. Two prominent examples are OSF and Zotero. used for uploading documents and creating citations, respectfully. Although not all projects require these accounts, it's good to have them in case a future project needs them. So make sure you: * Follow [https://osf.io/register?campaign=&next=&view_only= this link] to create an OSF and add it to your RSVP sheet. It's recommended to use a personal email to ensure access to the account after graduation. * Follow [https://www.zotero.org/user/register this link] to create a Zotero and add it to your RSVP sheet. It's recommended to use a personal email to ensure access to the account after graduation. * Ask your project if any other platforms are being used! '''Step 4: Complete your trainings and report back.''' There are two trainings that must be complete in order to edit. More information regarding those can be found [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures/ Getting Started|here]]. After completing those, report that to your water carrier and your President or Professor. Your President/Professor so that they can add you to the HGAPS WikiUser Group (a group tracking our collective changes to better monitor our impact) and your water carrier so they can help you get more involved on their specific project. = Further information = If you'd like more information about the history of HGAPS and different events you can be involved in through HGAPS, feel free to check out this HGAPS User Guide, the HGAPS site linked [https://www.hgaps.org/ here], or this page of other [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures|Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)]]. Happy editing! kw4ck804reyprojowsygz8zszf8znnr 1 285233 2409080 2405826 2022-07-24T15:42:21Z Ncharamut 2824970 added comments for suggested edits wikitext text/x-wiki == Audit Log: Summer 2022 == ''Please adjust to the given year and type any comments/edit ideas you have under the given section they apply to. Then please sign your name using four tildas (~) If replicated for another audit, please copy this template and paste above, adjusting the year. This ensures those edits are seen first.'' === Overall === * == Questions? == ''Please type any questions you have under the given section they apply to. Then please sign your name using four tildas (~)'' === Overall === * With the trainings, could I just get rid of the Getting Started page linked there? Like include that information in a better format possibly? [[User:JBondareva3x7|JBondareva3x7]] ([[User talk:JBondareva3x7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JBondareva3x7|contribs]]) 06:25, 12 July 2022 (UTC) == Comments == ''Please type any questions you have under the given section they apply to. Then please sign your name using four tildas (~)'' === Overall === *I will note I didn't hyperlink everything yet sorry [[User:JBondareva3x7|JBondareva3x7]] ([[User talk:JBondareva3x7|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JBondareva3x7|contribs]]) 06:25, 12 July 2022 (UTC) == Natalie's Comments For Edits == * Under what is HGAPS, I would list the other chapters outside of UNC * Under goals I would make sure to align it more with the mission statement and focus on the fact that we disseminate evidence based information * For other free sites I would include OSF and Zotero along with YouTube * Is there an SOP on wiki trainings for HGAPS that we can link under requirements? I know Colin made a guide that is in a google doc that we could link if not * Under requirements it looks like there is a link missing * I would not say split into teams because they are paid since only summer team is paid. We don't want new members expecting to get paid. We split into teams because people have different interests and the teams allow members to work on projects that are interesting to them * Do we have a WC SOP we could link? If not, I think it would be good to make one * I would add under meetings that some teams decide to meet outside of the Thursday working meeting so there may be times where they will meet at another time * Links are missing under creating accounts * Further information is missing links fe343ncdvngysmiklb3st1dzl5zz5ux 2 285377 2409206 2408341 2022-07-25T10:24:50Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Carlsson, Arvid (1923 - 2018) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Arvid Carlsson|Carlsson, Arvid (1923 - 2018)]] === <hr/> [[File:Arvid Carlsson 2011a.jpg|thumb|Arvid Carlsson]] [[File:Dopamine.svg|thumb|Dopamine]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1999/blobel/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000] -shared with Eric Kandel and Paul Greengard, "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system." <br /><hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Carlsson, Arvid}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> gd8sh3s3h4vu587vq8446iahf53wdkx 0 285384 2409187 2408786 2022-07-25T07:58:52Z Young1lim 21186 /* Workings of the GNU Compiler */ wikitext text/x-wiki === Workings of the GNU Compiler === * Overview ([[Media:Overview.20200211.pdf |pdf]]) * Access ([[Media:Access.20200409.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Operator.20200427.pdf |pdf]]) * Conditions ([[Media:Condition.20220725.pdf |pdf]]) * Control ([[Media:Control.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) * Procedure ([[Media:Procedure.20220412.pdf |pdf]]) * Recursion ([[Media:Recursion.20210824-2.pdf |pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:Array.20211018.pdf |pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:Structure.20220101.pdf |pdf]]) * Alignment ([[Media:Alignment.20201117.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointers ([[Media:Pointer.20201106.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Workings of the GNU Linker === ==== Overview ==== * Static Linking Overview ([[Media:Link.1.StaticOverview.20181120.pdf |pdf]]) * Dynamic Linking Overview ([[Media:Link.2.DynamicOverview.20181120.pdf |pdf]]) ==== Linking Process ==== * Object Files ([[Media:Link.3.A.Object.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.3.B.Object.20190405.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Symbols ([[Media:Link.4.A.Symbol.20190312.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.4.B.Symbol.20190312.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Relocation ([[Media:Link.5.A.Relocation.20190320.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.5.B.Relocation.20190322.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Loading ([[Media:Link.6.A.Loading.20190501.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.6.B.Loading.20190126.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Static Linking ([[Media:Link.7.A.StaticLink.20190122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.7.B.StaticLink.20190128.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Dynamic Linking ([[Media:Link.8.A.DynamicLink.20190207.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.8.B.DynamicLink.20190209.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Position Independent Code ([[Media:Link.9.A.PIC.20190304.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Link.9.B.PIC.20190309.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Example I ==== * Vector addition ([[Media:Eg1.1A.Vector.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.1B.Vector.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Swapping array elements ([[Media:Eg1.2A.Swap.20190302.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.2B.Swap.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Nested functions ([[Media:Eg1.3A.Nest.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Eg1.3B.Nest.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples II ==== * analysis of static linking ([[Media:Ex1.A.StaticLinkEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Ex2.B.StaticLinkEx.20190121.pdf |B.pdf]]) * analysis of dynamic linking ([[Media:Ex2.A.DynamicLinkEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * analysis of PIC ([[Media:Ex3.A.PICEx.20190121.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming]] 7h9ym1wpq6mpub3ve087sgkkrw55oje 2 285471 2409205 2408338 2022-07-25T10:17:57Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Brown, Herbert C. (1912 - 2004) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Herbert C. Brown|Brown, Herbert C. (1912 - 2004)]] === <hr /> [[File:Ketone diborane reduction.png|thumb|Ketone diborane reduction]] [[File:Hydroboration-Oxidation.jpg|thumb|Hydroboration-Oxidation]] [[File:Structural formula of (+)-Diisopinocampheylborane.svg|thumb|(+)-Diisopinocampheylborane]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1979/brown/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1979] - shared with [[w:George Wittig|George Wittig]], "for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis." <br /><hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Brown, Herbert C.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> cn1ikzfcxud8xpanevfld0fmdm7e4vz 4 285491 2409186 2408989 2022-07-25T07:21:17Z Alexis Jazz 791434 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}} The following data is cached, and was last updated 2022-07-23T01:34:44Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |CleanDeletions || 75 || 0 |- |EnhancedTalk || 1304 || 3 |- |HideFundraisingNotice || 749 || 7 |- |HotCat || 816 || 10 |- |LintHint || 71 || 1 |- |ReferenceTooltips || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |- |Round Corners || 1108 || 4 |- |contribsrange || 347 || 1 |- |dark-mode || 14 || 1 |- |dark-mode-toggle || 27 || 3 |- |edittop || 457 || 6 |- |popups || 788 || 3 |- |purge || 664 || 7 |- |sidebartranslate || 496 || 2 |- |usurper-count || 75 || 0 |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[w:en:Wikipedia:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: CleanDeletions,75,0 EnhancedTalk,1304,3 HideFundraisingNotice,749,7 HotCat,816,10 LintHint,71,1 ReferenceTooltips,default,default Round Corners,1108,4 contribsrange,347,1 dark-mode,14,1 dark-mode-toggle,27,3 edittop,457,6 popups,788,3 purge,664,7 sidebartranslate,496,2 usurper-count,75,0 --> 7bx63ew9md9idkzlwy2tiqmdy27c50z 2 285524 2409207 2408384 2022-07-25T10:30:53Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Noller, Harry F. */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Harry F. Noller|Noller, Harry F. (1939 - )]] === <hr /> '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://campusdirectory.ucsc.edu/cd_detail?uid=hnoller UCSC Physical & Biological Sciences Division, Molecular, Cell, & Developmental Biology Department, Faculty Professor - Director, Center for Molecular Biology of RNA] * Ribosome structural and functional determination <br /><hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Noller, Harry F.}} <hr /> Green et al.<br /><hr /> {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Green, Rachel}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> 9hvc11w2b41qyh0ddrns1jgdocl2wab 2 285632 2409065 2409060 2022-07-24T13:15:34Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Crustacea */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (about 15 Classes). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans jmapufly3ao6b7pc4o3te2rzf7h7uym 2409066 2409065 2022-07-24T13:16:23Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Crustacea */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (about 15 Classes). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans maxwv1bql8dillv4621y5bc0h4f8xt5 2409075 2409066 2022-07-24T15:34:43Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Hexapoda */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (about 15 Classes). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans sb4gymkt3kw32atqlq0c4jptayc3gy5 2409078 2409075 2022-07-24T15:37:58Z Alandmanson 1669821 <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] </gallery> wikitext text/x-wiki The extant of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (about 15 Classes). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans 05plpt14eu7li52008oyanptpxph7k7 2409085 2409078 2022-07-24T18:18:03Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Hexapoda */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (about 15 Classes). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans ml3v0a0c5qlhixjw4d0fkkkpxymsx3v 2409089 2409085 2022-07-24T18:37:02Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Hexapoda */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (about 15 Classes). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans akgq8uxz00re7epgx4chqirsf6qms7y 2409090 2409089 2022-07-24T18:39:42Z Alandmanson 1669821 This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022) wikitext text/x-wiki The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans 0q0g4805plhylkms880p0os1dksurq6 2409091 2409090 2022-07-24T18:41:46Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Chelicerata */ — wikitext text/x-wiki The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans o3uk5ayfar8yw4ipzfnxus162p81ccm 2409092 2409091 2022-07-24T18:43:32Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Crustacea */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida]] Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans 4m1f96m19bgjxcov2ikrvqj43o4jc45 2409093 2409092 2022-07-24T18:44:18Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Crustacea */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans ktfees7a5zdrfrgljkvndcn1s7g0mxk 2409094 2409093 2022-07-24T18:45:05Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Hexapoda */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] Symphylans 1tb77b0dnt9lrw4pxwzvm05nyppqdhs 2409095 2409094 2022-07-24T18:45:44Z Alandmanson 1669821 /* Subphylum Myriapoda */ wikitext text/x-wiki The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022). == Subphylum Chelicerata == * Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]] Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]] Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]] Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]] Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]] </gallery> == Subphylum Crustacea == * Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]] Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]] Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]] <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]] </gallery> * Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]] Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg </gallery> == Subphylum Hexapoda == * Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails <gallery mode=packed heights=200> Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]] Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]] Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> == Subphylum Myriapoda == * Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes <gallery mode=packed heights=200> |[[w:|]] </gallery> * Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes * Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans * Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans 8ptdb06gv5udxn90cqw2hh060yup7nu 2 285670 2409107 2408964 2022-07-24T21:30:09Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geopolitics''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]</u> - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus Geopolitcus YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]</u> - Good Times Bad Times explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology, which shape the world of today. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} 9jp948edfjlt8lcdn5o4krlfs2aor47 2409108 2409107 2022-07-24T21:31:15Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geopolitics''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]</u> - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus Geopolitcus - YouTube Channel]</u> [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]</u> - Good Times Bad Times explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology, which shape the world of today. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} b6detfg8pl6q4v41dymnmgsefzyjnxz 2409111 2409108 2022-07-24T21:57:48Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geopolitics''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]</u> - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics]</u> - Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus Geopolitcus - YouTube Channel]</u> [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]</u> - Good Times Bad Times explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology, which shape the world of today. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} qyd73r0hcnijkpu1zgyugr0tavepctv 2409127 2409111 2022-07-25T00:07:14Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geopolitics''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]</u> - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics]</u> - Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgZg-9ZL0h85g1Jt3Aj5D-Ydj5t2Jcl1K On Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] - Podcast series hosted by Suzanne Raine and Ali Ansari. [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus Geopolitcus - YouTube Channel]</u> [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * <u>[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]</u> - Good Times Bad Times explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology, which shape the world of today. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] {{RoundBoxBottom}} n7o0c18f60yoa7a27h9pyceo5vma22i 2 285675 2409162 2409037 2022-07-25T02:13:42Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Doudna, Jennifer A. (1964 - ) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Jennifer Doudna|Doudna, Jennifer A. (1964 - )]] === <hr /> [[File:Jennifer Doudna in 2021 by Christopher Michel.jpg|thumb|Jennifer Doudna]] [[File:GRNA-Cas9.svg|thumb|CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/doudna/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020] shared with Emmanuelle Charpentier “for the development of a method for genome editing.” * CRISPR-Cas9 System <br /> <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doudna, Jennifer A.}} <hr /> Doherty et al.<br /><hr /> {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doherty, Elizabeth A.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> dnr6tbfwuqijpliu8re8txy6zvwfht7 2409163 2409162 2022-07-25T02:25:30Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 /* Doudna, Jennifer A. (1964 - ) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Jennifer Doudna|Doudna, Jennifer A. (1964 - )]] === <hr /> [[File:Jennifer Doudna in 2021 by Christopher Michel.jpg|thumb|Jennifer Doudna]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/doudna/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020] shared with Emmanuelle Charpentier “for the development of a method for genome editing.” * CRISPR-Cas9 System <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 480px |{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/CRISPR-Cas9}} <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doudna, Jennifer A.}} <hr /> Doherty et al.<br /><hr /> {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doherty, Elizabeth A.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> sdp4cn12uft4sq0eatvgu0ju0wxfuw6 2409174 2409163 2022-07-25T05:14:36Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Jennifer Doudna|Doudna, Jennifer A. (1964 - )]] === <hr /> [[File:Jennifer Doudna in 2021 by Christopher Michel.jpg|thumb|Jennifer Doudna]] [[File:CRISPR transfection.png|thumb|CRISPR transfection]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/doudna/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020] shared with Emmanuelle Charpentier “for the development of a method for genome editing.” * CRISPR-Cas9 System <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 480px |{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/CRISPR-Cas9}} <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doudna, Jennifer A.}} <hr /> Doherty et al.<br /><hr /> {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doherty, Elizabeth A.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> oenxkf68izx3kbkpzt36jtyimvv5c04 2409176 2409174 2022-07-25T05:17:08Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Jennifer Doudna|Doudna, Jennifer A. (1964 - )]] === <hr /> [[File:Jennifer Doudna in 2021 by Christopher Michel.jpg|thumb|Jennifer Doudna]] [[File:CRISPR transfection.png|thumb|CRISPR transfection]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/doudna/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020] shared with Emmanuelle Charpentier “for the development of a method for genome editing.” * CRISPR-Cas9 System <br /><hr /> {| align= center | width= 640px |{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/CRISPR-Cas9}} <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doudna, Jennifer A.}} <hr /> Doherty et al.<br /><hr /> {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Doherty, Elizabeth A.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> cwmimhnq0h85dg0xp03vofsvljm5cjk 0 285677 2409082 2022-07-24T16:17:04Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 creation wikitext text/x-wiki =Congruences= The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. This means that: * A modulo N equals B modulo N, * the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or * <math>A-B = K\cdot N.</math> where p modulo N or <code>p % N</code> is the remainder when p is divided by N. For example: <math>23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}</math> because division <math>\frac{23-8}{5}</math> is exact without remainder. Similarly, <math>39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}</math> because division <math>\frac{39-29}{7}</math> is not exact. ==Law of addition== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}, </math> then: <math>A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A-B = K\cdot N</math>, therefore <math>A = B + K\cdot N.</math> <math>(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of Common Congruence== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv B \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A \equiv C \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = B + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of Multiplication== ===by a constant=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===by another congruence=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv D \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = D + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A\cdot C - B\cdot D</math> <math>= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D</math> <math>= B\cdot D + B\cdot K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot D + K_1\cdot N\cdot K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D</math> <math>= N( B\cdot K_2 + K_1\cdot D + K_1\cdot K_2\cdot N )</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of squares== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of Division?== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} A simple example shows that a "law of division" does not exist. <math>24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.</math> However <math>\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}</math> Because <math>12 - 7 = 5</math> is not exactly divisible by <math>10</math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} h540k6x9wxaunxn6ih9jdnk4n2dml88 2409208 2409082 2022-07-25T10:53:59Z ThaniosAkro 2805358 /* Law of Division? */ wikitext text/x-wiki =Congruences= The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other. Expressed mathematically: :<math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}</math> read as: A is congruent with B modulo N. This means that: * A modulo N equals B modulo N, * the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or * <math>A-B = K\cdot N.</math> where p modulo N or <code>p % N</code> is the remainder when p is divided by N. For example: <math>23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}</math> because division <math>\frac{23-8}{5}</math> is exact without remainder. Similarly, <math>39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}</math> because division <math>\frac{39-29}{7}</math> is not exact. ==Law of addition== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N}, </math> then: <math>A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A-B = K\cdot N</math>, therefore <math>A = B + K\cdot N.</math> <math>(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of Common Congruence== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv B \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A \equiv C \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = B + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of Multiplication== ===by a constant=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===by another congruence=== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> and <math>C \equiv D \pmod{N},</math> then: <math>A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A = B + K_1\cdot N</math> and <math>C = D + K_2\cdot N.</math> <math>A\cdot C - B\cdot D</math> <math>= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D</math> <math>= B\cdot D + B\cdot K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot D + K_1\cdot N\cdot K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D</math> <math>= N( B\cdot K_2 + K_1\cdot D + K_1\cdot K_2\cdot N )</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of squares== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} If <math>A \equiv B \pmod{N} </math> then: <math>A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)</math> which is exactly divisible by N. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Law of Division?== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} A simple example shows that a "law of division" does not exist. <math>24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.</math> However <math>\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}</math> Because <math>12 - 7 = 5</math> is not exactly divisible by <math>10</math> {{RoundBoxBottom}} =Quadratic Congruences= A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square, for example: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}</math> or <math>x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.</math> Initially, let us consider the congruence: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> If <math>y = x^2 - N,</math> then: <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.</math> Proof: <math>x^2 - y = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N</math> which is exactly divisible by <math>N.</math> Consider an example with real numbers. Let <math>N = 257</math> and <math>26 \ge x \ge 6.</math> <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 6 | -221 7 | -208 8 | -193 9 | -176 10 | -157 11 | -136 12 | -113 13 | -88 14 | -61 15 | -32 16 | -1 17 | 32 18 | 67 19 | 104 20 | 143 21 | 184 22 | 227 23 | 272 24 | 319 25 | 368 26 | 419 </syntaxhighlight> A cursory glance at the values of <math>x^2 - N</math> indicates that the value <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5.</math> Proof: <math>N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}</math> therefore <math>N - 2 = k5</math> or <math>N = 5k + 2.</math> The table shows all possible values of <math>x\ %\ 5:</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | y = x^2 - N ------ | --------------- | ----------------------------------------------- 5p + 0 | 25pp | 25pp - (5k+2) = 25pp - 5k - 2 5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 | 25pp + 10p + 1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k - 1 5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p + 4 | 25pp + 20p + 4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k + 2 5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p + 9 | 25pp + 30p + 9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k + 7 5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14 </syntaxhighlight> As you can see, the value <math>y = x^2 - N</math> is never exactly divisible by <math>5.</math> If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by <math>3.</math> Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues. ==Quadratic Residues== Consider all the congruences for prime number <math>5:</math> <math>x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}</math> for <math>5 > x \ge 0.</math> <syntaxhighlight> x | x^2 | (x^2) % 5 ---|---------|----------- 0 | 0 | 0 1 | 1 | 1 2 | 4 | 4 3 | 9 | 4 4 | 16 | 1 </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>5</math> are <math>0,1,4.</math> Values <math>2,3</math> are not quadratic residues of <math>5.</math> These values are quadratic non-residues. To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime <math>p:</math> <syntaxhighlight lang=python> # python code: def quadResidues(p) : L1 = [] for v in range (p>>1, -1, -1) : L1 += [(v*v) % p] return L1 print (quadResidues(11)) </syntaxhighlight> <syntaxhighlight> [3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0] </syntaxhighlight> Quadratic residues of <math>11</math> are <math>0,1,3,4,5,9.</math> The method presented here answers the question, "What are the quadratic residues of p?" If <math>p</math> is a very large prime, the question is often, "Is r a quadratic residue of p?" The answer is found in advanced number theory. Let us return to quadratic residues mod <math>N = 257.</math> <math>N\ %\ 5 = 2,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is not a quadratic residue of <math>5.</math> This is why <math>x^2 - N</math> is never divisible by <math>5</math> exactly. <math>N\ %\ 11 = 4,</math> therefore <math>N</math> is a quadratic residue of <math>11</math> and a value of <math>x</math> that satisfies the congruence <math>x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}</math> has form <math>11p \pm 2.</math> From the table above: <syntaxhighlight> N = 257 x | x^2 - N ----|-------- 9 | -176 13 | -88 20 | 143 24 | 319 </syntaxhighlight> These <math>4</math> values of <math>x^2 - N</math> are exactly divisible by <math>11.</math> <math>x = 9</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 - 2.</math> <math>x = 13</math> is <math>11\cdot 1 + 2.</math> <math>x = 20</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 - 2.</math> <math>x = 24</math> is <math>11\cdot 2 + 2.</math> s9nkoequwufaj4aya90jlwive178n3q 2 285678 2409084 2022-07-24T18:08:12Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "* {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018a | title= 1: Early B Cell Development: A Look at the Defining Questions in Immunology | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2AO1CMLV9A&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=11 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:37:29) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018b | title..." wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018a | title= 1: Early B Cell Development: A Look at the Defining Questions in Immunology | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2AO1CMLV9A&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=11 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:37:29) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018b | title= 2: Bruton Tyrosine Kinase Signaling | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkLG6p_0Bcg&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=12 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:23:27) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018c | title= 3: IgG4-Related Disease: Collaboration Between B and T Cells | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1D5IizE00o&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=13 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:26:53) diqx4tluurm7pxm0stt3b1xjh0pma95 2409086 2409084 2022-07-24T18:18:41Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018a | title= 1: Early B Cell Development: A Look at the Defining Questions in Immunology | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard University | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2AO1CMLV9A&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=11 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:37:29) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018b | title= 2: Bruton Tyrosine Kinase Signaling | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkLG6p_0Bcg&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=12 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:23:27) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018c | title= 3: IgG4-Related Disease: Collaboration Between B and T Cells | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Harvard University | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1D5IizE00o&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=13 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:26:53) elpzpwp1utouy5xed1oa2c2gh2eti54 2409102 2409086 2022-07-24T20:21:43Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018a | title= 1: Early B Cell Development: A Look at the Defining Questions in Immunology | series= iBiology - Immunology Lectures | publisher= Harvard University | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2AO1CMLV9A&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=11 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:37:29) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018b | title= 2: Bruton Tyrosine Kinase Signaling | series= iBiology - Immunology Lectures | publisher= Harvard | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkLG6p_0Bcg&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=12 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:23:27) * {{cite AV media | last= Pillai | first= Shiv | year= 2018c | title= 3: IgG4-Related Disease: Collaboration Between B and T Cells | series= iBiology - Immunology Lectures | publisher= Harvard University | publication-date= June 4, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y1D5IizE00o&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=13 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:26:53) hb0djvi3ht01beq6iy6eqs1ajqenmtj 2 285679 2409098 2022-07-24T19:43:12Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "* {{cite AV media | last= Baltimore | first= David | year= 2018 | title= microRNAs Create Regulatory Tension in Mammalian Blood Cells | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= CalTech | publication-date= May 16, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4zeXrgefZY&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=14 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:27:01)" wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last= Baltimore | first= David | year= 2018 | title= microRNAs Create Regulatory Tension in Mammalian Blood Cells | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= CalTech | publication-date= May 16, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4zeXrgefZY&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=14 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:27:01) fabwo3wc518qig7ko94bu0hy1foldjr 2409103 2409098 2022-07-24T20:22:24Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last= Baltimore | first= David | year= 2018 | title= microRNAs Create Regulatory Tension in Mammalian Blood Cells | series= iBiology - Immunology Lectures | publisher= CalTech | publication-date= May 16, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4zeXrgefZY&list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&index=14 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:27:01) h9a3h4ztu62wadw4xmp0wqmr1c2897v 0 285680 2409109 2022-07-24T21:51:35Z 41.115.100.159 New resource with "Linear 4×4y=" wikitext text/x-wiki Linear 4×4y= 2d5oof0dtv1lecf31sdtumzv85adn20 2409110 2409109 2022-07-24T21:56:04Z 41.115.100.159 Luyanda wikitext text/x-wiki Linear 4×4y= You can use the table to adertfind the graph of y and x exis oj6xcykqc8785xqiqjmpr3ubi0btpnp 2409112 2409110 2022-07-24T21:58:11Z 41.115.100.159 wikitext text/x-wiki Linear 4×4y= You can use the table to adertfind the graph of y and x exis 📓 snm0lalh23h1x7gveeyyqiesh3yyr8e 2 285681 2409115 2022-07-24T23:32:11Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "* {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022 | title= The Norway-Russia Border | series= On Geopolitics | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 22, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfhF_cqe-c0 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:33)" wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022 | title= The Norway-Russia Border | series= On Geopolitics | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 22, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfhF_cqe-c0 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:33) hc3plwrbc5idyz3jupk73sse19kx60o 2409117 2409115 2022-07-24T23:34:56Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022 | title= The Norway-Russia Border | series= On Geopolitics | medium= podcast | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 22, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfhF_cqe-c0 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:33) cclbjvzbvynjf08uxzt0hg673ook1in 2409124 2409117 2022-07-24T23:46:41Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022 | title= The Norway-Russia Border | series= On Geopolitics - Podcast | medium= Episode 15 | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 22, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfhF_cqe-c0 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:33) m77e4at3tsqjysi8qrexm8k8pqpibax 2409128 2409124 2022-07-25T00:10:23Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022a | title= Is Russia European At All? | series= On Geopolitics - Podcast | medium= Episode 14 | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 9, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ItJ9dG6zEO4 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:44:03) * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022b | title= The Norway-Russia Border | series= On Geopolitics - Podcast | medium= Episode 15 | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 22, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfhF_cqe-c0 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:33) ke77swcwjwu3yggvf70a9nbj6aunmuy 2409161 2409128 2022-07-25T01:58:59Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022a | title= Is Russia European At All? | series= On Geopolitics - Podcast | medium= Episode 14 | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 9, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ItJ9dG6zEO4 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:44:03) * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022b | title= The Norway-Russia Border | series= On Geopolitics - Podcast | medium= Episode 15 | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= June 22, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KfhF_cqe-c0 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:33) * {{cite AV media | last1= Raine | first1= Suzanne | last2= Ansari | first2= Ali | year= 2022c | title= What Next for Iran? | series= On Geopolitics - Podcast | medium= Episode 16 | publisher= Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge | publication-date= July 8, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hcLGkx6xyeQ }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:39:34) 12040hvtfjb887oo03cu9wh0b3r7s70 2 285682 2409133 2022-07-25T00:26:09Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Vilayanur S. Ramachandran|Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.]] === <hr /> [[File:Vilayanur S Ramachandran 2011 Shankbone.JPG|thumb|Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]] [[File:Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and psychology student Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box.jpg|thumb|Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box]] [[File:Ramachandran-mirrorbox.svg|thumb|Ramachandran-mirrorbox]] '''Notable Accomplishments'..." wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Vilayanur S. Ramachandran|Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.]] === <hr /> [[File:Vilayanur S Ramachandran 2011 Shankbone.JPG|thumb|Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]] [[File:Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and psychology student Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box.jpg|thumb|Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box]] [[File:Ramachandran-mirrorbox.svg|thumb|Ramachandran-mirrorbox]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Research in neurology, visual perception, phantom limbs, synesthesia, autism, body integrity identity disorder, mirror therapy <br /> <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> c0mmvv15crid4eje17tr4g17vz86eaf 2409136 2409133 2022-07-25T00:39:36Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Vilayanur S. Ramachandran|Ramachandran, Vilayanur S. (1951 - )]] === <hr /> [[File:Vilayanur S Ramachandran 2011 Shankbone.JPG|thumb|Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]] [[File:Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and psychology student Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box.jpg|thumb|Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box]] [[File:Ramachandran-mirrorbox.svg|thumb|Ramachandran-mirrorbox]] [[File:Synaesthesiabrain.jpg|thumb|Synaesthesia]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Research in neurology, visual perception, phantom limbs, synesthesia, autism, body integrity identity disorder, mirror therapy <br /> <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> 492d382ohqygk0gs4s9bc6h5sko9znf 2409159 2409136 2022-07-25T01:41:20Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Vilayanur S. Ramachandran|Ramachandran, Vilayanur S. (1951 - )]] === <hr /> [[File:Vilayanur S Ramachandran 2011 Shankbone.JPG|thumb|Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Research in neurology, visual perception, phantom limbs, synesthesia, autism, body integrity identity disorder, mirror therapy <br /><hr /> {| align= center |{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/Vilayanur S. Ramachandran}} <br /> |} <hr /> '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Ramachandran, Vilayanur S.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} <hr /> d1qf2zfoj1lwv7cgjr61lydo7ucvcxi 2 285683 2409158 2022-07-25T01:40:58Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "{| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''Mirror images & Synaesthesia'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and psychology student Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box.jpg | alt1= Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box | Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box | File:Ramachandran-mirrorbox.svg | alt2= Rama..." wikitext text/x-wiki {| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''Mirror images & Synaesthesia'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and psychology student Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box.jpg | alt1= Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box | Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran & Matthew Marradi holding the original Mirror Box | File:Ramachandran-mirrorbox.svg | alt2= Ramachandran Mirrorbox | Ramachandran Mirrorbox | File:Synaesthesiatest.jpg | alt3= Test for Synaesthesia | Test for Synaesthesia | File:Synaesthesiabrain.jpg | alt3= Synaesthesia | Synaesthesia }} |} elzd0x8v54idghvcj1lc8qi4cz30z7m 2 285684 2409165 2022-07-25T02:40:50Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "{| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''HOX-Clusters and Anterior-Posterior Homeotic Segmentation'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:GRNA-Cas9.svg |thumb|CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA]] | File:DNA Repair.png|thumb|DNA Repair]] | File:CRISPR overview - en.svg|thumb|CRISPR overview - en]] | File:CRISPR transfection.png|thumb|CRISPR transfection]] | File:Dead-Cas9 potential applica..." wikitext text/x-wiki {| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''HOX-Clusters and Anterior-Posterior Homeotic Segmentation'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:GRNA-Cas9.svg |thumb|CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA]] | File:DNA Repair.png|thumb|DNA Repair]] | File:CRISPR overview - en.svg|thumb|CRISPR overview - en]] | File:CRISPR transfection.png|thumb|CRISPR transfection]] | File:Dead-Cas9 potential applications.png|thumb|Dead-Cas9 potential applications]] }} |} 6ivt859e785w9epo4d0v3zcx4tax4nf 2409175 2409165 2022-07-25T05:16:46Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 wikitext text/x-wiki {| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''CRISPR-Cas9 & Gene Editing'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:CRISPR overview - en.svg | alt1= CRISPR-Cas9 overview | CRISPR-Cas9 overview | File:GRNA-Cas9.svg | alt2= CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA | CRISPR-Cas9 Complex showing Target & PAM as well as dsDNA and the gRNA | File:DNA Repair.png | alt3= DNA Repair | DNA Repair | File:Dead-Cas9 potential applications.png| alt4= Dead-Cas9 potential applications | Dead-Cas9 potential applications }} |} fvl56u4cdz4wnz531qnxgf7ucolji4c 2 285685 2409177 2022-07-25T05:36:50Z Jtwsaddress42 234843 New resource with "{| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''René Descartes'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:L'homme V00083 00000004.tif | alt1= L'homme | L'homme | File:Descartes Discours de la Methode.jpg | alt2= Discours de la méthode | Discours de la méthode | File:DescartesMeditations.png | alt3= Meditationes de prima philosophia| Meditationes de prima philosophia }} |}" wikitext text/x-wiki {| align= center | style="font-size:85%" |{{Gallery | title = ''René Descartes'' | width = 100 | height = 100 | align= center | File:L'homme V00083 00000004.tif | alt1= L'homme | L'homme | File:Descartes Discours de la Methode.jpg | alt2= Discours de la méthode | Discours de la méthode | File:DescartesMeditations.png | alt3= Meditationes de prima philosophia| Meditationes de prima philosophia }} |} ko9yng3gpn0nf0j9ifxcn3xljozze0k 6 285686 2409188 2022-07-25T07:59:34Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Condition (20220725 - 20220723) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-07-25 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Condition (20220725 - 20220723) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-07-25 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} m6ws6awt7a7uimustskk99mx0ytr5he 0 285687 2409189 2022-07-25T08:06:35Z Peter.mlich 2946719 New resource with "== Description == {{Aligned table |cols=2|class=wikitable |col1header=on |col1align=left | Category | Sorting algorithm | Sub category | Insert sort | Name | '''InsertionSortMiddle''' | Data structure | Array | Comparations | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Timing | long for log array (base code need to do lot of moves) | Spacing | (original array, input is output) | Stability | Stable algorithm }} How it work? '''InsertionSortMiddle''' work as insert sort. Get next value (i..." wikitext text/x-wiki == Description == {{Aligned table |cols=2|class=wikitable |col1header=on |col1align=left | Category | Sorting algorithm | Sub category | Insert sort | Name | '''InsertionSortMiddle''' | Data structure | Array | Comparations | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Timing | long for log array (base code need to do lot of moves) | Spacing | (original array, input is output) | Stability | Stable algorithm }} How it work? '''InsertionSortMiddle''' work as insert sort. Get next value (i+1) and insert to sorted array. Check possition from middle of sorted array, then middle of part... Properties: Algoritm not need extra memory. Ist slow for large array (moving a large array takes a lot of time). Have minimal comparation operations of all know algorithms (without counting sorts). Stable. == Statistics from real code execution (average) == <pre> n = 1.024 value-min = 0 value-max = n/2 // 50% of array contain some repeating value ------------------ compares ~ 8.825 (Tim-sort ~8.961) cycles ~ 273.362 (Tim-sort ~16.097) moves ~ 263.514 (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054) stability = stable </pre> == Schematic of work == <pre style="overflow:auto; width:auto;"> 3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0 // input 3 // is first sorted array, (left = 0), half = 0, mid = 0 + floor(half / 2) (first pos_b), ''' cmp = 0 ''' . 1 // next i = 1, value = array[i] = 1, mid = 0 3-1 // compare 3-1 1 3 // 13 is now output, half = i, mid = 0 + floor(half / 2), ''' cmp + 1 ''' . . 2 // next i, array[i], mid = 0 1---2 // compare(array[i], array[mid]), compare>=0, half = floor(half / 2), left = mid, mid = left + half 3-2 // compare(array[i], array[mid]), compare<0, end (because half = 0, cannot more divide), half = i, mid = 0 + round(half / 2), ''' cmp + 2 ''' 1 2 3 . // ... note: for simplify, i remove lot of repeating text 2 // next i, mid = 1 2---2 // compare>=0, mid = left + half . 3-2 // compare<0, end, ''' cmp + 2 ''' 1 2 2 3 . . 0 // next i, mid = 1 2-----0 // compare<0, mid = left - half 1-------0 // compare<0, end, ''' cmp + 2 ''' 0 1 2 2 3 . 3 // next i, mid = 2 2-----3 // compare>=0, mid = left + half . 2---3 // compare>=0, mid = left + half . 3-3 // compare>=0, end, ''' cmp + 3 ''' 0 1 2 2 3 3 . . 1 // next i, mid = 2 2-------1 // compare<0, mid = left - half 1---------1 // compare>=0, end, ''' cmp + 2 ''' (my alg. code here compute cmp+3, because compare zero) 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 . 0 // next i, mid = 3 2-------0 // compare<0, mid = left - half 1-----------0 // compare<0, mid = left - half 0-------------0 // compare>=0, end, ''' cmp + 3 ''' =============== 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 // output, suma(cmp) = 1+2+2+2+3+2+3 = 15 </pre> == Code (javascript) == <syntaxhighlight lang="JavaScript"> <div></div> <script> // Created by Peter Mlich (2017) // insert new item into sorted array, check position from middle of array // note: algorithm code is differend from schema, but simplest function sortInsertMiddle(cmp, start, end, n) { if (o.size<2) {return o.n;} var i, i_start, i_end, left, right, mid, mid_sub; i_start = o.start + 1; i_end = o.end; i = i_start; while (i<i_end) { glob.cycles++; // find position left = o.start - 1; right = i; mid_sub = right - left; while (true) { glob.cycles++; mid = left + (mid_sub>>1); if (o.fn_cmp(arr[o.n][i], arr[o.n][mid])>=0) { left = mid; mid_sub = right - left; if (mid_sub<=1) {mid++; break;} } else { right = mid; mid_sub = right - left; if (mid_sub<=1) {break;} } } // move to position, shift array arrShift(arr[o.n], mid, i); i++; } return o.n; } // ------ // note: code is not optimalized - draft version from my tester function sortCompare (a, b) { glob.cmps++; var c = a - b; return c>0 ? 1 : (c<0 ? -1 : 0); }; function arrShift(list, a, b) // move last (b) on top (a), alternation: splice or copyWithin { if (b<=a || a<0 || b<0) {return;} var tmp = list[b]; glob.cycles += b - a; glob.moves += b - a; while (a<b) { list[b] = list[--b]; } list[a] = tmp; } var arr = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]] var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0}; var o = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare}; var log = [], i=0, n; log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1]) o.n = sortInsertMiddle(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n); log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n]) log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob) log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start) document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('<br>') /* array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4] array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7] glob {"moves":66,"cycles":125,"cmps":44} n 16 */ </script> </syntaxhighlight> bh3w58pxbq9hv04u29pvzdk1wc1qqse 0 285688 2409191 2022-07-25T08:14:34Z Peter.mlich 2946719 New resource with "== Description == {{Aligned table |cols=2|class=wikitable |col1header=on |col1align=left | Category | Sorting algorithm | Sub category | Merge sort | Name | '''SortedListMergingSort''' | Data structure | Array | Comparations | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Timing | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Spacing | <math>2*n (+ n)</math> (input + output (+ index table)) | Stability | Stable algorithm }} How it work? '''SortedListMergingSort''' merge sorted list. First, you must detect s..." wikitext text/x-wiki == Description == {{Aligned table |cols=2|class=wikitable |col1header=on |col1align=left | Category | Sorting algorithm | Sub category | Merge sort | Name | '''SortedListMergingSort''' | Data structure | Array | Comparations | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Timing | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Spacing | <math>2*n (+ n)</math> (input + output (+ index table)) | Stability | Stable algorithm }} How it work? '''SortedListMergingSort''' merge sorted list. First, you must detect sorted sub-arrays (by compare values on positions 0-1, 1-2, 2-3...). Or, we can say, always have sorted array size=1. Then merge two arrays (best, arrays with the smallest size) to one. Repeat merging. Trick lies in it, sorted array can compare from top, smaller value move to save, not need more compare with any value in any in this two arrays. Properties: Algoritm need extra memory (copy from array 1 to array 2 and back). Ist fast. Stable. Can be modified to multi-thread. Version with detect sorted sub-arrays can be modified, return ascendecy (asc), descendency (desc) array as <math>O(n)</math>. Can save longer from one of asc or desc sub-arrays. == Statistics (average) == <pre> n = 1.024 value-min = 0 value-max = n/2 // 50% of array contain some repeating value ------------------ compares ~ 8.886 (Tim-sort ~8.961) cycles ~ 11.273 (Tim-sort ~16.097) moves ~ 10.240 (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054) stability = stable </pre> == Schematic of work == <pre style="overflow:auto; width:auto;"> 3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0 // input (array_1) 3-1 2-2 0-3 1-0 // compare top of sorted list A (list array-size = 1) with top of sorted list B (list length 1), C-D, E-F, G-H 1 3 2 2 0 3 0 1 // saved output at end in array_2, cmp = 4 (you still copy from array 1 to array 2 and back, need two array or two array with indexes) 1 3 | 2 2 | 0 3 | 0 1 // input (array_2; A-B, C-D, E-F, G-H is now new sorted array with array-size = 2) 1-----2 // compare first from AB with first from CD, smaller save 1 // save 3---2 // compare next from AB with first from CD, smaller save 2 // save 3-----2 // compare from last AB with last from CD, smaller save 2 // save 3 // save (copy) 1 2 2 3 // saved output at end (in array_1), cmp + 3 0-----0 // compare first (EF) with first (GH) 0 // save 3---0 // compare next (EF) with first (GH) 0 // save 3-----1 // compare last (EF) with last (GH) 1 // save 3 // save (copy) 0 0 1 3 // saved output at end (in array_1), cmp + 3 1 2 2 3 | 0 0 1 3 // new sorted lists 1---------0 // compare first (ABCD) with first (EFGH) 0 // save 1-----------0 // compare first (ABCD) with second (EFGH) 0 // save 1-------------1 // compare first (ABCD) with third (EFGH) 1 // save 2------------1 // compare second (ABCD) with third (EFGH) 1 // save 2--------------3 // compare second (ABCD) with last (EFGH) 2 // save 2------------3 // compare third (ABCD) with last (EFGH) 2 // save 3----------3 // compare last (ABCD) with last (EFGH) 3 // save 3 // save (copy), cmp + 7 ================== 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 // output in array_2, return handle to array, suma(cmp) = 4+3+3+7 = 17 </pre> == Code (javascript) == <syntaxhighlight lang="JavaScript"> <div></div> <script> // Created by Peter Mlich (2013) // note: code use too Honzik (? Jaroslav) from VUT Brno, but, i create code before seen his document // merging part function listMerging_bounds_part(cmp, i_start, i_end, j_end, m, n) { var cycles = 0; var i,j,k; i = i_start; j = i_end; // i_end = j_start k = i_start; // k_start = i_start while (i<i_end && j<j_end) { cycles++; if (cmp(arr[m][i],arr[m][j])>0) {arr[n][k] = arr[m][j]; j++; k++;} else {arr[n][k] = arr[m][i]; i++; k++;} } while (i<i_end) { cycles++; arr[n][k] = arr[m][i]; i++; k++; } while (j<j_end) { cycles++; arr[n][k] = arr[m][j]; j++; k++; } glob.cycles += cycles; glob.moves += cycles; return n; } // Merge sorted list, first sorted lists have length 1 (or can detect sorted, compare(a,b), b-c, c-d...) function sortedListMergingTop(cmp, start, end, n) { if (o.size<2) {return o.n;} var step, stepmax, tmp, a,b,c, m, n; stepmax = ((o.size + 1) >> 1) << 1; m = o.n; n = o.n==1 ? 2 : 1; for (step=1; step<stepmax; step<<=1) //bounds 1-1, 2-2, 4-4, 8-8... { glob.cycles++; a = o.start; while (a<o.end) { glob.cycles++; b = a + step; c = a + (step<<1); // c = a + step + step; b = b<o.end ? b : o.end; c = c<o.end ? c : o.end; listMerging_bounds_part(o.fn_cmp, a, b, c, m, n); a = c; } tmp = m; m = n; n = tmp; } return m; } // ------ // note: code is not optimalized - draft version from my tester function sortCompare (a, b) { glob.cmps++; var c = a - b; return c>0 ? 1 : (c<0 ? -1 : 0); }; var arr = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]] var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0}; var o = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare}; var log = [], i=0, n; log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1]) o.n = sortedListMergingTop(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n); log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n]) log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob) log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start) document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('<br>') /* array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4] array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7] glob {"moves":64,"cycles":83,"cmps":47} n 16 */ </script> </syntaxhighlight> iiwcemefohu2ml2q6dudbhwyzd4tsw8 2409192 2409191 2022-07-25T08:16:15Z Peter.mlich 2946719 /* Description */ wikitext text/x-wiki == Description == {{Aligned table |cols=2|class=wikitable |col1header=on |col1align=left | Category | Sorting algorithm | Sub category | Merge sort | Name | '''SortedListMergingSort''' | Data structure | Array | Comparations | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Timing | <math>O(n\log n)</math> | Spacing | <math>2*n (+ n)</math> (input + output (+ index table)) | Stability | Stable algorithm }} How it work? '''SortedListMergingSort''' merge sorted list. First, you must detect sorted sub-arrays (by compare values on positions 0-1, 1-2, 2-3...). Or, we can say, always have sorted array size=1. Then merge two arrays (best, arrays with the smallest size) to one. Repeat merging. Trick lies in it, sorted array can compare from top, smaller value move to save, not need more compare with any value in any in this two arrays. Properties: Algoritm need extra memory (copy from array 1 to array 2 and back). Ist fast. Stable. Can be modified to multi-thread. Version with detect sorted sub-arrays can be modified, return ascendecy (asc), descendency (desc) array as <math>O(n)</math>. Can save longer from one of asc or desc sub-arrays. Note: Merging sorted arrays use TimSort, WikiSort. == Statistics (average) == <pre> n = 1.024 value-min = 0 value-max = n/2 // 50% of array contain some repeating value ------------------ compares ~ 8.886 (Tim-sort ~8.961) cycles ~ 11.273 (Tim-sort ~16.097) moves ~ 10.240 (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054) stability = stable </pre> == Schematic of work == <pre style="overflow:auto; width:auto;"> 3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0 // input (array_1) 3-1 2-2 0-3 1-0 // compare top of sorted list A (list array-size = 1) with top of sorted list B (list length 1), C-D, E-F, G-H 1 3 2 2 0 3 0 1 // saved output at end in array_2, cmp = 4 (you still copy from array 1 to array 2 and back, need two array or two array with indexes) 1 3 | 2 2 | 0 3 | 0 1 // input (array_2; A-B, C-D, E-F, G-H is now new sorted array with array-size = 2) 1-----2 // compare first from AB with first from CD, smaller save 1 // save 3---2 // compare next from AB with first from CD, smaller save 2 // save 3-----2 // compare from last AB with last from CD, smaller save 2 // save 3 // save (copy) 1 2 2 3 // saved output at end (in array_1), cmp + 3 0-----0 // compare first (EF) with first (GH) 0 // save 3---0 // compare next (EF) with first (GH) 0 // save 3-----1 // compare last (EF) with last (GH) 1 // save 3 // save (copy) 0 0 1 3 // saved output at end (in array_1), cmp + 3 1 2 2 3 | 0 0 1 3 // new sorted lists 1---------0 // compare first (ABCD) with first (EFGH) 0 // save 1-----------0 // compare first (ABCD) with second (EFGH) 0 // save 1-------------1 // compare first (ABCD) with third (EFGH) 1 // save 2------------1 // compare second (ABCD) with third (EFGH) 1 // save 2--------------3 // compare second (ABCD) with last (EFGH) 2 // save 2------------3 // compare third (ABCD) with last (EFGH) 2 // save 3----------3 // compare last (ABCD) with last (EFGH) 3 // save 3 // save (copy), cmp + 7 ================== 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 // output in array_2, return handle to array, suma(cmp) = 4+3+3+7 = 17 </pre> == Code (javascript) == <syntaxhighlight lang="JavaScript"> <div></div> <script> // Created by Peter Mlich (2013) // note: code use too Honzik (? Jaroslav) from VUT Brno, but, i create code before seen his document // merging part function listMerging_bounds_part(cmp, i_start, i_end, j_end, m, n) { var cycles = 0; var i,j,k; i = i_start; j = i_end; // i_end = j_start k = i_start; // k_start = i_start while (i<i_end && j<j_end) { cycles++; if (cmp(arr[m][i],arr[m][j])>0) {arr[n][k] = arr[m][j]; j++; k++;} else {arr[n][k] = arr[m][i]; i++; k++;} } while (i<i_end) { cycles++; arr[n][k] = arr[m][i]; i++; k++; } while (j<j_end) { cycles++; arr[n][k] = arr[m][j]; j++; k++; } glob.cycles += cycles; glob.moves += cycles; return n; } // Merge sorted list, first sorted lists have length 1 (or can detect sorted, compare(a,b), b-c, c-d...) function sortedListMergingTop(cmp, start, end, n) { if (o.size<2) {return o.n;} var step, stepmax, tmp, a,b,c, m, n; stepmax = ((o.size + 1) >> 1) << 1; m = o.n; n = o.n==1 ? 2 : 1; for (step=1; step<stepmax; step<<=1) //bounds 1-1, 2-2, 4-4, 8-8... { glob.cycles++; a = o.start; while (a<o.end) { glob.cycles++; b = a + step; c = a + (step<<1); // c = a + step + step; b = b<o.end ? b : o.end; c = c<o.end ? c : o.end; listMerging_bounds_part(o.fn_cmp, a, b, c, m, n); a = c; } tmp = m; m = n; n = tmp; } return m; } // ------ // note: code is not optimalized - draft version from my tester function sortCompare (a, b) { glob.cmps++; var c = a - b; return c>0 ? 1 : (c<0 ? -1 : 0); }; var arr = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]] var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0}; var o = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare}; var log = [], i=0, n; log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1]) o.n = sortedListMergingTop(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n); log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n]) log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob) log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start) document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('<br>') /* array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4] array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7] glob {"moves":64,"cycles":83,"cmps":47} n 16 */ </script> </syntaxhighlight> tasvzgxn1s7nwxvng1j9ey8xvmt1h95 0 285689 2409194 2022-07-25T08:20:41Z Peter.mlich 2946719 New resource with "== Description == '''PyramidSelectionSort''' get first pair of values, compare it and save minimal value (index) to new array. Repeat for all pair, create row 0. Repeat for row 0, create row 1... Find minimal value. Create tournament table of winners. Then remove minimal and rebuild pyramid branch (where minimal figured) and again find minimal value. {{Aligned table|cols=2|class=wikitable|col1header=on|col1align=left|Category|Sorting algorithm|Sub category|Selection so..." wikitext text/x-wiki == Description == '''PyramidSelectionSort''' get first pair of values, compare it and save minimal value (index) to new array. Repeat for all pair, create row 0. Repeat for row 0, create row 1... Find minimal value. Create tournament table of winners. Then remove minimal and rebuild pyramid branch (where minimal figured) and again find minimal value. {{Aligned table|cols=2|class=wikitable|col1header=on|col1align=left|Category|Sorting algorithm|Sub category|Selection sort|Name|'''PyramidSelectionSort'''|Data structure|Array|Comparations|<math>O(n\log n)</math>|Timing|<math>O(n\log n)</math>|Spacing|<math>2*n + n</math> (input + output + index table)|Stability|Stable algorithm}} == Statistics from real code execution (average) == <pre> n = 1.024 value-min = 0 value-max = n/2 // 50% of array contain some repeating value ------------------ compares ~ 8.886 (Tim-sort ~8.961, Select-sort ~523.776) cycles ~ 11.262 (Tim-sort ~16.097) moves ~ 1.798 (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054) stability = stable </pre> == Schematic of work == <pre style="overflow:auto; width:auto;"> pavel vs. tomas zdenek vs. michal | | | | +----+----+ +----+----+ | | tomas zdenek | | +---------+---------+ | zdenek --- out: zdenek pavel vs. tomas - michal --- remove winner and find new winner in this branch | | | | +----+----+ +----+----+ | | tomas michal | | +---------+---------+ | tomas --- out: zdenek, tomas pavel - - michal | | | | +----+----+ +----+----+ | | pavel michal | | +---------+---------+ | pavel --- out: zdenek, tomas, pavel, michal 3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0 // input 3-1 2-2 0-3 1-0 // compare pair from input and create row 0 of minimal 1-2 0-----0 // row 0, pyramid of minimal values / index of position (for scheme i use value, use position in alg. code) 1-----0 . . // row 1 0 . . // row 2, save minimal to out "0", cmp = 7 . . 1 2 3---0 // rebuild branch (row[0][4,5,6,7], row[1][3,4], row[2][1]) and compare new winner in branch 1-----------0 . 0 // save "0", cmp + 2 . x 1 2 3-1 x // rebuild branch 1---------1 1 // save "1", cmp + 2 x 3---2 3 1 // rebuild branch 2-------1 1 // save "1", cmp + 2 x 3 2 3 x // rebuild branch (when not even or odd value from input, use "x" (-1 in alg. code), when "x" copy second index to next level) 2-----3 2 // save "2", cmp + 1 x 3-----2 3 // rebuild branch (when "x", copy index to next level) 2---3 2 // save "2", cmp + 2 x 3 x 3 // rebuild branch (when "x", copy index to next level) 3---------3 3 // save "3", cmp + 1 3 // save last "3" =============== 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 // output, suma(cmp) = 7+2+2+2+1+2+1 = 17 </pre> == Code (javascript) == <syntaxhighlight lang="JavaScript"> <div></div> <script> // Created by Peter Mlich (2022) // build first pyramid of minimal values function pyramid_part1_buildPyramid(list, cmp, i_start, i_end, size) { var i,j,k, k_end, lvl, lvlp1; var pyramid = []; i = i_start; j = i_start+1; k = 0; lvl = 0; pyramid[lvl] = []; while (j<i_end) { glob.cycles++; if (cmp(list[i], list[j])>0) {swap(list, i, j);} pyramid[lvl][k] = i; i+=2; j+=2; k++; } if (i<i_end) // pokud je size liche cislo, pak pridej posledni prvek a preswapuj to (toho vyuziji pozdeji v part2) { if (cmp(list[i-2], list[i])>0) { tmp = list[i]; list[i ] = list[i-1]; list[i-1] = list[i-2]; list[i-2] = tmp; glob.moves += 4; pyramid[lvl][k] = i; } else {if (cmp(list[i-1], list[i])>0) { tmp = list[i]; list[i ] = list[i-1]; list[i-1] = tmp; glob.moves += 3; }} } i_end = k; lvlp1 = lvl + 1; while (i_end>1) { glob.cycles++; pyramid[lvlp1] = []; k = 0; i = 0; j = 1; // =i+1 while (j<i_end) { glob.cycles++; if (cmp(list[ pyramid[lvl][i] ], list[ pyramid[lvl][j] ])>0) {pyramid[lvlp1][k] = pyramid[lvl][j]; i+=2; j+=2; k++; continue;} else {pyramid[lvlp1][k] = pyramid[lvl][i]; i+=2; j+=2; k++; continue;} } if (i<i_end) {pyramid[lvlp1][k] = pyramid[lvl][i]; k++;} lvl++; lvlp1++; i_end = k; } return [pyramid, lvl, pyramid[lvl][0], (size>>1)<<1 != size]; // return pyramid, last lvl, last index, boolean for odd-size) } function pyramid_part3_rebuildPyramidEven(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, pos) { var lvl, val2, empty = -1, a, b; val2 = pyramid[0][pos]; for (lvl=0; lvl<lvl_end; lvl++) { glob.cycles++; if ((pos & 0x01) == 0) { if (pos==pyramid[lvl].length-1) { pos = pos>>1; pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = val2; //val2 = val2; continue; } b = pyramid[lvl][pos+1]; a = pyramid[lvl][pos]; pos = pos>>1; if (b==empty) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;} if (cmp(list[a], list[b])>0) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;} pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; } else { a = pyramid[lvl][pos-1]; b = pyramid[lvl][pos]; pos = pos>>1; if (a==empty) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;} if (cmp(list[a], list[b])>0) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;} pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; } } return [pyramid, lvl_end, pyramid[lvl_end][0], bool]; } // rebuild pyramid, rewrite branch by new value function pyramid_part2_rebuildPyramid(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, i_endm3) { var cycles = 0; var lvl, pos, val, val2, a, b, empty=-1; val = pyramid[lvl_end][0]; pos = val>>1; // pozice zleva if (bool==true && ((pos<<1)==i_endm3) && ((val & 0x01) == 0) ) // kdyz je size liche cislo a dojde k eliminaci n-2, tak posun posledni 2 cisla { bool = false; list[val] = list[val+1]; list[val+1] = list[val+2]; glob.moves += 2; // je sude, pak vymen za liche a prepocitej vsechna nutna porovnani pyramid[0][pos] = val; // pozn.: tento kod je prepsany na funkci, protoze by byl duplicitne return pyramid_part3_rebuildPyramidEven(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, pos); } else {if ((val & 0x01) == 0) // je sude, pak vymen za liche a prepocitej vsechna nutna porovnani { pyramid[0][pos] = val + 1; return pyramid_part3_rebuildPyramidEven(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, pos); } else { // je liche, pak odstran a prepocitej vsechna nutna porovnani val2 = empty; pyramid[0][pos] = val2; for (lvl=0; lvl<lvl_end; lvl++) { glob.cycles++; if ((pos & 0x01) == 0) { if (pos==pyramid[lvl].length-1) { pos = pos>>1; pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = val2; //val2 = val2 continue; } a = pyramid[lvl][pos]; b = pyramid[lvl][pos+1]; pos = pos>>1; if (a!==empty && b!==empty) { if (cmp(list[a], list[b])>0) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;} else {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;} } if (b!==empty) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;} pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; } else { a = pyramid[lvl][pos-1]; b = pyramid[lvl][pos]; pos = pos>>1; if (a!==empty && b!==empty) { if (cmp(list[a], list[b])>0) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;} else {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;} } if (a!==empty) {pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;} pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; } } }} return [pyramid, lvl_end, pyramid[lvl_end][0], bool]; } // princip: vyber minimum z kazdeho paru, pak porovnej minima, minima minim ... az ziskas nejmensi cislo // pak vyrad nejmensi cislo z pyramidy a propocitej celou vetev, opet ziskej minimum function PyramidSelectSort(cmp, start, end, n) { if (o.size<2) {return o.n;} var pyramid_data, i, x, y, endm3 = o.end-3; x = o.n; y = o.n==1 ? 2 : 1; pyramid_data = pyramid_part1_buildPyramid(arr[x], o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.size); // create pyramid of index from minimal values of pair i = o.start; arr[y][i] = arr[x][pyramid_data[2]]; glob.moves++; i++; while (i<o.end) { glob.cycles++; pyramid_data = pyramid_part2_rebuildPyramid(pyramid_data[0], pyramid_data[1], pyramid_data[3], arr[x], o.fn_cmp, o.end, endm3) arr[y][i] = arr[x][pyramid_data[2]]; glob.moves++; i++; } return y; } // note: code is optimalized for my tester function sortCompare (a, b) { glob.cmps++; var c = a - b; return c>0 ? 1 : (c<0 ? -1 : 0); }; function swap (list, a, b) { if (a==b) {return;} var tmp = list[a]; list[a] = list[b]; list[b] = tmp; glob.moves += 3; }; var arr = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]] var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0}; var o = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare}; var log = [], i=0, n; log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1]) o.n = PyramidSelectSort(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n); log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n]) log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob) log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start) document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('<br>') /* array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4] array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7] glob {"moves":22,"cycles":78,"cmps":47} n 16 */ </script> </syntaxhighlight> oo7nwrmvehgw9osasj2pr05kd1lk101 0 285690 2409199 2022-07-25T09:49:43Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill moved page [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] over redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] oy6e9qv12ft98r1zpww39m0vjvbikof 1 285691 2409201 2022-07-25T09:49:44Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill moved page [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] to [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] over redirect wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy]] 46ad62h8mx1htlf1ow2ffivyezkt6wg