Wikiversity:Colloquium

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== Warning templates ==

We do not have any warning templates here at Wikiversity yet. Why not import them? [[User:Lightbluerain|Lightbluerain]] ([[User talk:Lightbluerain|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lightbluerain|contribs]]) 17:40, 13 May 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Lightbluerain|Lightbluerain]]: I'm not sure which warnings you are looking for, but see [[Wikiversity:Import]] to add you request(s). Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:38, 13 May 2022 (UTC)

:We do have a couple of templates in [[:Category:User warning templates]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:40, 17 June 2022 (UTC)

== Next steps on the Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) Enforcement guidelines ==

Hey all - I have an update on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Project|Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) project]].

[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Voting/Report|'''A report is available on Meta-Wiki''']]. about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Vote|2022 March ratification vote]] on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines|UCoC Enforcement guidelines]]. Voters cast votes from at least 137 communities. At least 650 participants added comments with their vote. ''([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Voting/Report/Announcement|See full announcement]])''

Following the vote, the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee|Community Affairs committee (CAC)]] of the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees  [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikimedia-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/JAYQN3NYKCHQHONMUONYTI6WRKZFQNSC/ asked that several areas be reviewed for improvements]. A [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Drafting committee#Revisions Committee|Revision Drafting Committee]] will refine the enforcement guidelines based on community feedback.

To help the Revisions committee, input from the community is requested. Visit the Meta-wiki pages ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines/Revision_discussions|Enforcement Guidelines revision discussions]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Policy text/Revision_discussions|Policy text revision discussions]]) to provide thoughts for the new drafting committee. ''([[m:Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Revision discussions/Announcement|See full announcement]])''

Let me know if you have any questions about these next steps. [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeno (WMF)|contribs]]) 02:23, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

== Chris Tolworthy ==

A blogger by the name of [https://answersanswers.com/index.html Chris Tolworthy] has written a lot of essays about the Bible and other subjects. Personally, I think that while some of these essays are pretty much just drivel, others might be worth including on Wikiversity. However, I don't know what kind of license Tolworthy uses on his work- the main page just says, &quot;If you find these pages useful please share and copy them.&quot; How that would be expressed in the form of a Creative Commons license, I'm not entirely sure. Also, if we did include Tolworthy's works, he has [https://www.facebook.com/HeyLookThatsMe/ a Facebook account], which would satisfy criteria no. 3 on the [[Help:Essay]] page. What do you think?

--[[User:Lizardcreator|Lizardcreator]] ([[User talk:Lizardcreator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lizardcreator|contribs]]) 23:34, 15 June 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Lizardcreator|Lizardcreator]] You are welcome to link to these resources and create learning projects around them. You cannot copy them and host them at Wikiversity. Only Chris Tolworthy can do that. Any resource that doesn't explicitly include a Creative Commons or other open license isn't licensed for sharing on Wikiversity. [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:57, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

== Desktop Improvements update ==

[[File:Table of contents shown on English Wikipedia 02.webm|thumb]]
; Making this the new default
Hello. I wanted to give you an update about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements|Desktop Improvements]] project, which the Wikimedia Foundation Web team has been working on for the past few years. Our work is almost finished! 🎉

We would love to see these improvements become the default for readers and editors across all wikis. &lt;span style=&quot;background-color:#fc3;&quot;&gt;In the coming weeks, we will begin conversations on more wikis, including yours. 🗓️&lt;/span&gt; We will gladly read your suggestions!

The goals of the project are to make the interface more welcoming and comfortable for readers and useful for advanced users. The project consists of a series of feature improvements which make it easier to read and learn, navigate within the page, search, switch between languages, use article tabs and the user menu, and more. The improvements are already visible by default for readers and editors on more than 30 wikis, including Wikipedias in [[:fr:|French]], [[:pt:|Portuguese]], and [[:fa:|Persian]].

The changes apply to the [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}|useskin=vector}} Vector] skin only, although it will always be possible to revert to the previous version on an individual basis. [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}|useskin=monobook}} Monobook] or [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}|useskin=timeless}} Timeless] users will not notice any changes.

; The newest features
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Features/Table of contents|Table of contents]] - our version is easier to reach, gain context of the page, and navigate throughout the page without needing to scroll. It is currently tested across our pilot wikis.  It is also available for editors who have opted into the Vector 2022 skin.
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Features/Page tools|Page tools]] - now, there are two types of links in the sidebar. There are actions and tools for individual pages (like [[Special:RecentChangesLinked|Related changes]]) and links of the wiki-wide nature (like [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]]). We are going to separate these into two intuitive menus.
; How to enable/disable the improvements
[[File:Desktop Improvements - how to enable globally.png|thumb|[[Special:GlobalPreferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|{{int:globalpreferences}}]]]]
* It is possible to opt-in individually [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|in the appearance tab within the preferences]] by selecting &quot;{{int:skinname-vector-2022}}&quot;. Also, it is possible to opt-in on all wikis using the [[Special:GlobalPreferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|global preferences]].
* On wikis where the changes are visible by default for all, logged-in users can always opt-out to the Legacy Vector. There is an easily accessible link in the sidebar of the new Vector.

; Learn more and join our events

If you would like to follow the progress of our project, you can [[mw:Special:Newsletter/28/subscribe|subscribe to our newsletter]]. You can read the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements|pages of the project]], check [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Frequently_asked_questions|our FAQ]], write on the [[mw:Talk:Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements|project talk page]], and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|join an online meeting with us]].

Thank you! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|talk]]) 16:59, 21 June 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:SGrabarczuk_(WMF)/sandbox/MM/En_fallback&amp;oldid=23430301 --&gt;

== TemplateScripts = Templates + JavaScript ==

Hi! I'd like to propose enabling [[c:Help:TemplateScripts|TemplateScripts]] on the English Wikiversity. It's not a MediaWiki extension, but a few lines of JavaScript added to [[MediaWiki:Common.js]] that basically allow to run JavaScript from templates, '''as long as the code is on the MediaWiki namespace and with the &quot;TemplateScript-&quot; prefix''', which requires an authorized user and community consensus to get there.

The system is enabled on the Spanish Wikipedia where it's used for easy signing of polls and projects (see blue button [[:es:Wikiproyecto:Veganismo/participantes|here]]), for navigating [[Template:Excerpt#Excerpt trees|excerpt trees]] (see box with tree icon [[:es:Discusión:Ciencia|here]]), for injecting interactive widgets on some articles ([[:es:Hormiga de Langton|here]] and [[:es:Juego de la vida|here]]) and more recently for creating interactive forms that inject content into other pages (see template [[:es:Plantilla:Formulario|here]], soon to be used on admin boards).

My immediate goal on Wikiversity is to use it to develop a tool to make [[Wikidebate|wikidebates]] more friendly. However I believe some of the existing scripts, particularly the ones for creating forms and signing pages, can be very useful on Wikiversity overall, as well as in some specific projects like [[Automata theory]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]]. So what do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|talk]]) 21:12, 29 June 2022 (UTC)

== Results of Wiki Loves Folklore 2022 is out! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{{int:please-translate}}
[[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|150px|frameless]]

Hi, Greetings

The winners for '''[[c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2022|Wiki Loves Folklore 2022]]''' is announced!

We are happy to share with you winning images for this year's edition. This year saw over 8,584 images represented on commons in over 92 countries. Kindly see images '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2022/Winners|here]]'''

Our profound gratitude to all the people who participated and organized local contests and photo walks for this project.

We hope to have you contribute to the campaign next year.

'''Thank you,'''

'''Wiki Loves Folklore International Team'''

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2022 (UTC)

&lt;/div&gt;
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== Wikiversity ==

What can i do with wikiversity

--[[User:Goku Sakaki|Goku Sakaki]] ([[User talk:Goku Sakaki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Goku Sakaki|contribs]]) 16:58, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Goku Sakaki|Goku Sakaki]] Welcome! Start with [[What is Wikiversity?]]. Then look around and see what interests you. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:06, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

== How to graphically design a park ==

How do I design a park {{unsigned|Darelle Meyer}}
:That would be a pretty involved process and I don't think that Wikiversity or our sister project [[:b:en:|Wikibooks]] has a resource on that yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:36, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

== Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees Election: Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
:''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]''
:''&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass}}&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]&lt;/div&gt;''

Hi all,

Community members in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022|2022 Board of Trustees election]] are invited to '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Election_Compass|propose statements to use in the Election Compass.]]'''

An Election Compass is a tool to help voters select the candidates that best align with their beliefs and views. The community members will propose statements for the candidates to answer using a Lickert scale (agree/neutral/disagree). The candidates’ answers to the statements will be loaded into the Election Compass tool. Voters will use the tool by entering in their answer to the statements (agree/disagree/neutral). The results will show the candidates that best align with the voter’s beliefs and views.

{{collapse|heading=Timeline for the Election Compass|content=

July 8 - 20: Community members propose statements for the Election Compass

July 21 - 22: Elections Committee reviews statements for clarity and removes off-topic statements

July 23 - August 1: Volunteers vote on the statements

August 2 - 4: Elections Committee selects the top 15 statements

August 5 - 12: candidates align themselves with the statements

August 15: The Election Compass opens for voters to use to help guide their voting decision
}}

The Elections Committee will select the top 15 statements at the beginning of August. The Elections Committee will oversee the process, supported by the Movement Strategy and Governance team. MSG will check that the questions are clear, there are no duplicates, no typos, and so on.

Best,

Movement Strategy and Governance

''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt; [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeno (WMF)|contribs]]) 17:00, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

== Movement Strategy and Governance News – Issue 7 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;msg-newsletter&quot;/&gt;
&lt;div style = &quot;line-height: 1.2&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:200%;&quot;&gt;'''Movement Strategy and Governance News'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:120%; color:#404040;&quot;&gt;'''Issue 7, July–⁠September 2022'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:120%; float:right;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7|'''Read the full newsletter''']]&lt;/span&gt; 
----
Welcome to the 7th issue of Movement Strategy and Governance News! The newsletter distributes relevant news and events about the implementation of Wikimedia's [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Initiatives|Movement Strategy recommendations]], other relevant topics regarding Movement governance, as well as different projects and activities supported by the Movement Strategy and Governance (MSG) team of the Wikimedia Foundation.  

The MSG Newsletter is delivered quarterly, while the more frequent [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Updates|Movement Strategy Weekly]] will be delivered weekly. Please remember to subscribe [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/MSG Newsletter Subscription|here]] if you would like to receive future issues of this newsletter.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:3px; padding:10px 10px 10px 20px; background:#fffff; border:2px solid #808080; border-radius:4px; font-size:100%;&quot;&gt; 

* '''Movement sustainability''': Wikimedia Foundation's annual sustainability report has been published. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A1|continue reading]])
* '''Improving user experience''': recent improvements on the desktop interface for Wikimedia projects. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A2|continue reading]])
* '''Safety and inclusion''': updates on the revision process of the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A3|continue reading]])
* '''Equity in decisionmaking''': reports from Hubs pilots conversations, recent progress from the Movement Charter Drafting Committee, and a new white paper for futures of participation in the Wikimedia movement. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A4|continue reading]])
* '''Stakeholders coordination''': launch of a helpdesk for Affiliates and volunteer communities working on content partnership. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A5|continue reading]])
* '''Leadership development''': updates on leadership projects by Wikimedia movement organizers in Brazil and Cape Verde. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A6|continue reading]])
* '''Internal knowledge management''': launch of a new portal for technical documentation and community resources. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A7|continue reading]])
* '''Innovate in free knowledge''': high-quality audiovisual resources for scientific experiments and a new toolkit to record oral transcripts. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A8|continue reading]])
* '''Evaluate, iterate, and adapt''': results from the Equity Landscape project pilot ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A9|continue reading]])
* '''Other news and updates''': a new forum to discuss Movement Strategy implementation, upcoming Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election, a new podcast to discuss Movement Strategy, and change of personnel for the Foundation's Movement Strategy and Governance team. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A10|continue reading]])
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;msg-newsletter&quot;/&gt; [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeno (WMF)|contribs]]) 00:29, 17 July 2022 (UTC)

== Master/doctoral theses publication here ==

Hello, I am a somewhat long-time Wikipedian but a novice in Wikiversity. I have a few of questions: 

#Does Wikiversity allow for the publication here of masters and doctoral theses? 
##If the answer is yes, can an editor do so on behalf of the author, if the author has granted the editor permission?
#If an academic paper has been published in a peer-reviewed journal that is open access, can the paper be re-published in Wikiversity?
#Does Wikiversity allow for the publication of research papers written as part of a university course?
#Can syllabi and reading lists from graduate courses be published here? (with the permission of the Professors who created them)

Thank you. [[User:Al83tito|Al83tito]] ([[User talk:Al83tito|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Al83tito|contribs]]) 04:39, 22 July 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Al83tito|Al83tito]] Welcome to Wikiversity! The answer to all of these questions is yes. You can find some or many examples of each of these here. The only hesitation would be republishing &quot;open access&quot; papers. Be careful to verify that the open access license it was published under is consistent with CC-BY-SA, and always reference sources. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:55, 23 July 2022 (UTC)

== Let's talk about the Desktop Improvements ==

[[File:Vector 2022 showing language menu with a blue menu trigger and blue menu items 01.jpg|thumb]]
Join an online meeting with the team working on the [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]! It will take place on '''26 July 2022 at [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20220726T1200 12:00 UTC] and [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20220726T1900 19:00 UTC]''' on Zoom. '''[https://wikimedia.zoom.us/j/5304280674 Click here to join]'''. Meeting ID: 5304280674. [https://wikimedia.zoom.us/u/kc2hamfYz9 Dial by your location].

[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|Read more]]. See you! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|talk]]) 16:19, 25 July 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:SGrabarczuk_(WMF)/sandbox/MM/En_fallback&amp;oldid=23430301 --&gt;</text>
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== Warning templates ==

We do not have any warning templates here at Wikiversity yet. Why not import them? [[User:Lightbluerain|Lightbluerain]] ([[User talk:Lightbluerain|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lightbluerain|contribs]]) 17:40, 13 May 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Lightbluerain|Lightbluerain]]: I'm not sure which warnings you are looking for, but see [[Wikiversity:Import]] to add you request(s). Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:38, 13 May 2022 (UTC)

:We do have a couple of templates in [[:Category:User warning templates]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:40, 17 June 2022 (UTC)

== Next steps on the Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) Enforcement guidelines ==

Hey all - I have an update on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Project|Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) project]].

[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Voting/Report|'''A report is available on Meta-Wiki''']]. about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Vote|2022 March ratification vote]] on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines|UCoC Enforcement guidelines]]. Voters cast votes from at least 137 communities. At least 650 participants added comments with their vote. ''([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Voting/Report/Announcement|See full announcement]])''

Following the vote, the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee|Community Affairs committee (CAC)]] of the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees  [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikimedia-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/JAYQN3NYKCHQHONMUONYTI6WRKZFQNSC/ asked that several areas be reviewed for improvements]. A [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Drafting committee#Revisions Committee|Revision Drafting Committee]] will refine the enforcement guidelines based on community feedback.

To help the Revisions committee, input from the community is requested. Visit the Meta-wiki pages ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines/Revision_discussions|Enforcement Guidelines revision discussions]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Policy text/Revision_discussions|Policy text revision discussions]]) to provide thoughts for the new drafting committee. ''([[m:Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines/Revision discussions/Announcement|See full announcement]])''

Let me know if you have any questions about these next steps. [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeno (WMF)|contribs]]) 02:23, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

== Chris Tolworthy ==

A blogger by the name of [https://answersanswers.com/index.html Chris Tolworthy] has written a lot of essays about the Bible and other subjects. Personally, I think that while some of these essays are pretty much just drivel, others might be worth including on Wikiversity. However, I don't know what kind of license Tolworthy uses on his work- the main page just says, &quot;If you find these pages useful please share and copy them.&quot; How that would be expressed in the form of a Creative Commons license, I'm not entirely sure. Also, if we did include Tolworthy's works, he has [https://www.facebook.com/HeyLookThatsMe/ a Facebook account], which would satisfy criteria no. 3 on the [[Help:Essay]] page. What do you think?

--[[User:Lizardcreator|Lizardcreator]] ([[User talk:Lizardcreator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lizardcreator|contribs]]) 23:34, 15 June 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Lizardcreator|Lizardcreator]] You are welcome to link to these resources and create learning projects around them. You cannot copy them and host them at Wikiversity. Only Chris Tolworthy can do that. Any resource that doesn't explicitly include a Creative Commons or other open license isn't licensed for sharing on Wikiversity. [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:57, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

== Desktop Improvements update ==

[[File:Table of contents shown on English Wikipedia 02.webm|thumb]]
; Making this the new default
Hello. I wanted to give you an update about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements|Desktop Improvements]] project, which the Wikimedia Foundation Web team has been working on for the past few years. Our work is almost finished! 🎉

We would love to see these improvements become the default for readers and editors across all wikis. &lt;span style=&quot;background-color:#fc3;&quot;&gt;In the coming weeks, we will begin conversations on more wikis, including yours. 🗓️&lt;/span&gt; We will gladly read your suggestions!

The goals of the project are to make the interface more welcoming and comfortable for readers and useful for advanced users. The project consists of a series of feature improvements which make it easier to read and learn, navigate within the page, search, switch between languages, use article tabs and the user menu, and more. The improvements are already visible by default for readers and editors on more than 30 wikis, including Wikipedias in [[:fr:|French]], [[:pt:|Portuguese]], and [[:fa:|Persian]].

The changes apply to the [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}|useskin=vector}} Vector] skin only, although it will always be possible to revert to the previous version on an individual basis. [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}|useskin=monobook}} Monobook] or [{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}|useskin=timeless}} Timeless] users will not notice any changes.

; The newest features
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Features/Table of contents|Table of contents]] - our version is easier to reach, gain context of the page, and navigate throughout the page without needing to scroll. It is currently tested across our pilot wikis.  It is also available for editors who have opted into the Vector 2022 skin.
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Features/Page tools|Page tools]] - now, there are two types of links in the sidebar. There are actions and tools for individual pages (like [[Special:RecentChangesLinked|Related changes]]) and links of the wiki-wide nature (like [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]]). We are going to separate these into two intuitive menus.
; How to enable/disable the improvements
[[File:Desktop Improvements - how to enable globally.png|thumb|[[Special:GlobalPreferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|{{int:globalpreferences}}]]]]
* It is possible to opt-in individually [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|in the appearance tab within the preferences]] by selecting &quot;{{int:skinname-vector-2022}}&quot;. Also, it is possible to opt-in on all wikis using the [[Special:GlobalPreferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|global preferences]].
* On wikis where the changes are visible by default for all, logged-in users can always opt-out to the Legacy Vector. There is an easily accessible link in the sidebar of the new Vector.

; Learn more and join our events

If you would like to follow the progress of our project, you can [[mw:Special:Newsletter/28/subscribe|subscribe to our newsletter]]. You can read the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements|pages of the project]], check [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Frequently_asked_questions|our FAQ]], write on the [[mw:Talk:Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements|project talk page]], and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|join an online meeting with us]].

Thank you! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|talk]]) 16:59, 21 June 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:SGrabarczuk_(WMF)/sandbox/MM/En_fallback&amp;oldid=23430301 --&gt;

== TemplateScripts = Templates + JavaScript ==

Hi! I'd like to propose enabling [[c:Help:TemplateScripts|TemplateScripts]] on the English Wikiversity. It's not a MediaWiki extension, but a few lines of JavaScript added to [[MediaWiki:Common.js]] that basically allow to run JavaScript from templates, '''as long as the code is on the MediaWiki namespace and with the &quot;TemplateScript-&quot; prefix''', which requires an authorized user and community consensus to get there.

The system is enabled on the Spanish Wikipedia where it's used for easy signing of polls and projects (see blue button [[:es:Wikiproyecto:Veganismo/participantes|here]]), for navigating [[Template:Excerpt#Excerpt trees|excerpt trees]] (see box with tree icon [[:es:Discusión:Ciencia|here]]), for injecting interactive widgets on some articles ([[:es:Hormiga de Langton|here]] and [[:es:Juego de la vida|here]]) and more recently for creating interactive forms that inject content into other pages (see template [[:es:Plantilla:Formulario|here]], soon to be used on admin boards).

My immediate goal on Wikiversity is to use it to develop a tool to make [[Wikidebate|wikidebates]] more friendly. However I believe some of the existing scripts, particularly the ones for creating forms and signing pages, can be very useful on Wikiversity overall, as well as in some specific projects like [[Automata theory]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]]. So what do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|talk]]) 21:12, 29 June 2022 (UTC)

== Results of Wiki Loves Folklore 2022 is out! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
{{int:please-translate}}
[[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|150px|frameless]]

Hi, Greetings

The winners for '''[[c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2022|Wiki Loves Folklore 2022]]''' is announced!

We are happy to share with you winning images for this year's edition. This year saw over 8,584 images represented on commons in over 92 countries. Kindly see images '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2022/Winners|here]]'''

Our profound gratitude to all the people who participated and organized local contests and photo walks for this project.

We hope to have you contribute to the campaign next year.

'''Thank you,'''

'''Wiki Loves Folklore International Team'''

--[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 16:12, 4 July 2022 (UTC)

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&amp;oldid=23454230 --&gt;

== Wikiversity ==

What can i do with wikiversity

--[[User:Goku Sakaki|Goku Sakaki]] ([[User talk:Goku Sakaki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Goku Sakaki|contribs]]) 16:58, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Goku Sakaki|Goku Sakaki]] Welcome! Start with [[What is Wikiversity?]]. Then look around and see what interests you. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:06, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

== How to graphically design a park ==

How do I design a park {{unsigned|Darelle Meyer}}
:That would be a pretty involved process and I don't think that Wikiversity or our sister project [[:b:en:|Wikibooks]] has a resource on that yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 21:36, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

== Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees Election: Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
:''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]''
:''&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Propose statements for the 2022 Election Compass}}&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]&lt;/div&gt;''

Hi all,

Community members in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022|2022 Board of Trustees election]] are invited to '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Election_Compass|propose statements to use in the Election Compass.]]'''

An Election Compass is a tool to help voters select the candidates that best align with their beliefs and views. The community members will propose statements for the candidates to answer using a Lickert scale (agree/neutral/disagree). The candidates’ answers to the statements will be loaded into the Election Compass tool. Voters will use the tool by entering in their answer to the statements (agree/disagree/neutral). The results will show the candidates that best align with the voter’s beliefs and views.

{{collapse|heading=Timeline for the Election Compass|content=

July 8 - 20: Community members propose statements for the Election Compass

July 21 - 22: Elections Committee reviews statements for clarity and removes off-topic statements

July 23 - August 1: Volunteers vote on the statements

August 2 - 4: Elections Committee selects the top 15 statements

August 5 - 12: candidates align themselves with the statements

August 15: The Election Compass opens for voters to use to help guide their voting decision
}}

The Elections Committee will select the top 15 statements at the beginning of August. The Elections Committee will oversee the process, supported by the Movement Strategy and Governance team. MSG will check that the questions are clear, there are no duplicates, no typos, and so on.

Best,

Movement Strategy and Governance

''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt; [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeno (WMF)|contribs]]) 17:00, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

== Movement Strategy and Governance News – Issue 7 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;msg-newsletter&quot;/&gt;
&lt;div style = &quot;line-height: 1.2&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:200%;&quot;&gt;'''Movement Strategy and Governance News'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:120%; color:#404040;&quot;&gt;'''Issue 7, July–⁠September 2022'''&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:120%; float:right;&quot;&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7|'''Read the full newsletter''']]&lt;/span&gt; 
----
Welcome to the 7th issue of Movement Strategy and Governance News! The newsletter distributes relevant news and events about the implementation of Wikimedia's [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Initiatives|Movement Strategy recommendations]], other relevant topics regarding Movement governance, as well as different projects and activities supported by the Movement Strategy and Governance (MSG) team of the Wikimedia Foundation.  

The MSG Newsletter is delivered quarterly, while the more frequent [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Updates|Movement Strategy Weekly]] will be delivered weekly. Please remember to subscribe [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/MSG Newsletter Subscription|here]] if you would like to receive future issues of this newsletter.
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:3px; padding:10px 10px 10px 20px; background:#fffff; border:2px solid #808080; border-radius:4px; font-size:100%;&quot;&gt; 

* '''Movement sustainability''': Wikimedia Foundation's annual sustainability report has been published. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A1|continue reading]])
* '''Improving user experience''': recent improvements on the desktop interface for Wikimedia projects. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A2|continue reading]])
* '''Safety and inclusion''': updates on the revision process of the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A3|continue reading]])
* '''Equity in decisionmaking''': reports from Hubs pilots conversations, recent progress from the Movement Charter Drafting Committee, and a new white paper for futures of participation in the Wikimedia movement. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A4|continue reading]])
* '''Stakeholders coordination''': launch of a helpdesk for Affiliates and volunteer communities working on content partnership. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A5|continue reading]])
* '''Leadership development''': updates on leadership projects by Wikimedia movement organizers in Brazil and Cape Verde. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A6|continue reading]])
* '''Internal knowledge management''': launch of a new portal for technical documentation and community resources. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A7|continue reading]])
* '''Innovate in free knowledge''': high-quality audiovisual resources for scientific experiments and a new toolkit to record oral transcripts. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A8|continue reading]])
* '''Evaluate, iterate, and adapt''': results from the Equity Landscape project pilot ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A9|continue reading]])
* '''Other news and updates''': a new forum to discuss Movement Strategy implementation, upcoming Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election, a new podcast to discuss Movement Strategy, and change of personnel for the Foundation's Movement Strategy and Governance team. ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy and Governance/Newsletter/7#A10|continue reading]])
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;msg-newsletter&quot;/&gt; [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeno (WMF)|contribs]]) 00:29, 17 July 2022 (UTC)

== Master/doctoral theses publication here ==

Hello, I am a somewhat long-time Wikipedian but a novice in Wikiversity. I have a few of questions: 

#Does Wikiversity allow for the publication here of masters and doctoral theses? 
##If the answer is yes, can an editor do so on behalf of the author, if the author has granted the editor permission?
#If an academic paper has been published in a peer-reviewed journal that is open access, can the paper be re-published in Wikiversity?
#Does Wikiversity allow for the publication of research papers written as part of a university course?
#Can syllabi and reading lists from graduate courses be published here? (with the permission of the Professors who created them)

Thank you. [[User:Al83tito|Al83tito]] ([[User talk:Al83tito|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Al83tito|contribs]]) 04:39, 22 July 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Al83tito|Al83tito]] Welcome to Wikiversity! The answer to all of these questions is yes. You can find some or many examples of each of these here. The only hesitation would be republishing &quot;open access&quot; papers. Be careful to verify that the open access license it was published under is consistent with CC-BY-SA, and always reference sources. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:55, 23 July 2022 (UTC)

== Let's talk about the Desktop Improvements ==

[[File:Vector 2022 showing language menu with a blue menu trigger and blue menu items 01.jpg|thumb]]
Join an online meeting with the team working on the [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]! It will take place on '''26 July 2022 at [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20220726T1200 12:00 UTC] and [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20220726T1900 19:00 UTC]''' on Zoom. '''[https://wikimedia.zoom.us/j/5304280674 Click here to join]'''. Meeting ID: 5304280674. [https://wikimedia.zoom.us/u/kc2hamfYz9 Dial by your location].

[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|Read more]]. See you! [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|talk]]) 16:19, 25 July 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:SGrabarczuk_(WMF)/sandbox/MM/En_fallback&amp;oldid=23430301 --&gt;

== Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

: ''[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Announcing the six candidates for the 2022 Board of Trustees election}}&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]&lt;/div&gt;''

Hi everyone,

'''The Affiliate voting process has concluded.''' Representatives from each Affiliate organization learned about the candidates by reading candidates’ statements, reviewing candidates’ answers to questions, and considering the candidates’ ratings provided by the Analysis Committee. The selected 2022 Board of Trustees candidates are:

* Tobechukwu Precious Friday ([[metawiki:User:Tochiprecious|Tochiprecious]])
* Farah Jack Mustaklem ([[metawiki:User:Fjmustak|Fjmustak]])
* Shani Evenstein Sigalov ([[metawiki:User:Esh77|Esh77]])
* Kunal Mehta ([[metawiki:User:Legoktm|Legoktm]])
* Michał Buczyński ([[metawiki:User:Aegis Maelstrom|Aegis Maelstrom]])
* Mike Peel ([[metawiki:User:Mike Peel|Mike Peel]])

You may see more information about the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Results|Results]] and [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Stats|Statistics]] of this Board election.

Please take a moment to appreciate the Affiliate Representatives and Analysis Committee members for taking part in this process and helping to grow the Board of Trustees in capacity and diversity. These hours of volunteer work connect us across understanding and perspective. Thank you for your participation.

Thank you to the community members who put themselves forward as candidates for the Board of Trustees. Considering joining the Board of Trustees is no small decision. The time and dedication candidates have shown to this point speaks to their commitment to this movement. Congratulations to those candidates who have been selected. A great amount of appreciation and gratitude for those candidates not selected. Please continue to share your leadership with Wikimedia.

Thank you to those who followed the Affiliate process for this Board election. You may review the results of the Affiliate selection process.

'''The next part of the Board election process is the community voting period.''' [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022#Timeline|You may view the Board election timeline here]]. To prepare for the community voting period, there are several things community members can engage with in the following ways:

* [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Candidates|Read candidates’ statements]] and read the candidates’ answers to the questions posed by the Affiliate Representatives.
* [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Community_Voting/Questions_for_Candidates|Propose and select the 6 questions for candidates to answer during their video Q&amp;A]].
* See the [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Candidates|Analysis Committee’s ratings of candidates on each candidate’s statement]].
* [[metawiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Community Voting/Election Compass|Propose statements for the Election Compass]] voters can use to find which candidates best fit their principles.
* Encourage others in your community to take part in the election.

Best,

Movement Strategy and Governance

''This message was sent on behalf of the Board Selection Task Force and the Elections Committee''

&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt; [[User:MNadzikiewicz (WMF)|MNadzikiewicz (WMF)]] ([[User talk:MNadzikiewicz (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MNadzikiewicz (WMF)|contribs]]) 20:36, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>p2twvz270adgjm1fvr37xattlcwd01n</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Support staff</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>55</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409220</id>
      <parentid>2409113</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:26:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update to remove inactive members</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6759" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Wikiversity organization}}
Wikiversity staff are trusted Wikiversity users who volunteer as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They would be happy to assist you and answer any of your questions. You may also request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]].

; Curator : A user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, such as the ability to [[Wikiversity:Deletions|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[Wikiversity:Page_protection|protect]].  
; Custodians : Known as administrators or sysops on other projects, these users are able to perform maintenance-related tasks including protecting and deleting pages and images, blocking other users and editing the user interface text. See [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]].
; Bureaucrats : Users who can promote other users to custodian status, grant and revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot rights]]. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]].
; Checkusers : Users who have access to the [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]], used to investigate situations where a disruptive user may be using multiple accounts.  See: [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]. Currently has no members.
; Bots : Bots are accounts used by other Wikiversity users to perform repetitive automated or semi-automated tasks such as fixing links, eliminating typos, changing categories, etc. See [[Wikiversity:Bots]].
__NOTOC__
== Help ==
'''If you need help you can [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request assistance]] from a custodian'''.
{{clear}}
== Support staff directory ==

Listed below are the Wikiversity support staff. For a automatically-generated list of staff, please see the [[Special:ListUsers/curator|curator list]], [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|custodian list]], and the [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat list]]. 

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''Custodians who have been active in the last three months (as of December 2020 based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold.&lt;br&gt; Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance.'''&lt;/div&gt;

{|class=&quot;sortable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;width:100%&quot;
 |- style=&quot;background-color:#ccccee;&quot;
 ! User
 ! Role
 ! Appointed
 ! Time Zone
 ! Babel
 ! Logs

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|December 18 2015}}
 |
 | en, de-2
 |[[Special:Log/Atcovi|Atcovi]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|August 22 2017}}
 | 
 |  de, en-3
 | [[Special:Log/Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Cody naccarato|Cody naccarato]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|February 19 2021}}
 | EST (UTC-5)
 | en, it-2, es-1, ar-1
 | [[Special:Log/Cody naccarato|Cody naccarato]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Cromium|Cromium]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|April 25 2017}}
 | 
 | 
 | [[Special:Log/Cromium|Cromium]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|October 20 2019}}
 | 
 | 
 | [[Special:Log/DannyS712|DannyS712]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] &amp; [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|September 4 2013}}
 | CST (UTC-6)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|October 30 2017}}
 | AEDT (UTC+11)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|July 24 2022}}
 | EST (UTC-5)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|March 5 2015}}
 | EST (UTC-5)
 | en, ru-2
 | [[Special:Log/Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Hasley|Hasley]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] 
 | {{dts|November 8 2019}}
 | UTC-4
 | es, en-3, ca-2, it-1, pt-1, gl-1
 | [[Special:Log/Hasley|Hasley]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] &amp; [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|April 16 2008}}
 | AEST (UTC+10:00)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Jtneill|Jtneill]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|October 21 2016}}
 | 
 | 
 | [[Special:Log/Koavf|Koavf]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|February 29 2016}}
 | 
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | [[User:Mu301|Mu301]]
 | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] &amp; [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|January 7 2008}}
 | EST/EDT (UTC-5/-4)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Mu301|Mu301]]

 |}

== Candidates ==
'''If you would like to help out as a custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]].''' You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a custodian. See [[Wikiversity:Catalyst]] for example.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Sysops]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Administrator Creation and Behavioral Criteria Guidelines and Policy]] - historical interest only; there is a newer page
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] - information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodians| ]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>5ujtxaqcz5jkwgq6t1ora1wscns76l4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409225</id>
      <parentid>2409220</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:30:23Z</timestamp>
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        <id>426084</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6763" xml:space="preserve">{{Shortcut|WV:STAFF}}&lt;br /&gt;
{{Wikiversity organization}}
Wikiversity staff are trusted Wikiversity users who volunteer as [[Wikiversity:Curators|curators]], [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodians]], or [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrats]]. They would be happy to assist you and answer any of your questions. You may also request assistance at [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]].

; Curator : A user who has rights to manage content on Wikiversity, such as the ability to [[Wikiversity:Deletions|delete]], [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]], [[Wikiversity:Import|import]] from other wikis, and [[Wikiversity:Page_protection|protect]].  
; Custodians : Known as administrators or sysops on other projects, these users are able to perform maintenance-related tasks including protecting and deleting pages and images, blocking other users and editing the user interface text. See [[Wikiversity:Custodianship]].
; Bureaucrats : Users who can promote other users to custodian status, grant and revoke [[Wikiversity:Bots|bot rights]]. See [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship]].
; Checkusers : Users who have access to the [[meta:Checkuser|CheckUser tool]], used to investigate situations where a disruptive user may be using multiple accounts.  See: [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]. Currently has no members.
; Bots : Bots are accounts used by other Wikiversity users to perform repetitive automated or semi-automated tasks such as fixing links, eliminating typos, changing categories, etc. See [[Wikiversity:Bots]].
__NOTOC__
== Help ==
'''If you need help you can [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action|request assistance]] from a custodian'''.
{{clear}}
== Support staff directory ==

Listed below are the Wikiversity support staff. For a automatically-generated list of staff, please see the [[Special:ListUsers/curator|curator list]], [[Special:ListUsers/sysop|custodian list]], and the [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat list]]. 

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''Custodians who have been active in the last three months (as of December 2020 based on [[Special:Log]] actions) are shown in bold.&lt;br&gt; Inactive staff members may not be available to provide assistance.'''&lt;/div&gt;

{|class=&quot;sortable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;width:100%&quot;
 |- style=&quot;background-color:#ccccee;&quot;
 ! User
 ! Role
 ! Appointed
 ! Time Zone
 ! Babel
 ! Logs

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|December 18 2015}}
 |
 | en, de-2
 |[[Special:Log/Atcovi|Atcovi]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|August 22 2017}}
 | 
 |  de, en-3
 | [[Special:Log/Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Cody naccarato|Cody naccarato]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|February 19 2021}}
 | EST (UTC-5)
 | en, it-2, es-1, ar-1
 | [[Special:Log/Cody naccarato|Cody naccarato]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Cromium|Cromium]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|April 25 2017}}
 | 
 | 
 | [[Special:Log/Cromium|Cromium]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|October 20 2019}}
 | 
 | 
 | [[Special:Log/DannyS712|DannyS712]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] &amp; [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|September 4 2013}}
 | CST (UTC-6)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|October 30 2017}}
 | AEDT (UTC+11)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|July 24 2022}}
 | EST (UTC-5)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|March 5 2015}}
 | EST (UTC-5)
 | en, ru-2
 | [[Special:Log/Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Hasley|Hasley]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]] 
 | {{dts|November 8 2019}}
 | UTC-4
 | es, en-3, ca-2, it-1, pt-1, gl-1
 | [[Special:Log/Hasley|Hasley]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] &amp; [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|April 16 2008}}
 | AEST (UTC+10:00)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Jtneill|Jtneill]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|October 21 2016}}
 | 
 | 
 | [[Special:Log/Koavf|Koavf]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | '''[[User:Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]'''
 | [[Wikiversity:Curators|Curator]]
 | {{dts|February 29 2016}}
 | 
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Lbeaumont|Lbeaumont]]

 |- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeff;&quot;
 | [[User:Mu301|Mu301]]
 | [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|Bureaucrat]] &amp; [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|Custodian]]
 | {{dts|January 7 2008}}
 | EST/EDT (UTC-5/-4)
 | en
 | [[Special:Log/Mu301|Mu301]]

 |}

== Candidates ==
'''If you would like to help out as a custodian on Wikiversity, please list yourself at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship|Candidates for Custodianship]].''' You are strongly advised to familiarise yourself with [[Wikiversity:Maintenance|the maintenance page]] and  [[Wikiversity:Policy|Wikiversity policies]], and to involve yourself with non-custodial maintenance tasks before you apply. There are lots of ways you can help Wikiversity without/before becoming a custodian. See [[Wikiversity:Catalyst]] for example.

==See also==
*[[Special:ListUsers|List of users]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|Bureaucrats]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/sysop|Custodians]]
**[[Special:ListUsers/checkuser|Checkusers]]
*[[Wikiversity:Maintenance]]
*[[Wikiversity:Administrator Creation and Behavioral Criteria Guidelines and Policy]] - historical interest only; there is a newer page
*[[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians|Custodian notice board]] - information for custodians
*[[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]]
*[https://xtools.wmflabs.org/adminstats/en.wikiversity.org?actions=delete|revision-delete|log-delete|restore|re-block|unblock|re-protect|unprotect|rights|merge|import|abusefilter Staff activity on Wikiversity]

[[Category:Wikiversity administration]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodians| ]]
[[Category:Wikiversity support staff]]</text>
      <sha1>e2y0mkgzhlu6tsydvsj9arnilb1ublv</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:HappyCamper</title>
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      <text bytes="13652" xml:space="preserve">Welcome to my talk page! Feel free to post anywhere below the archives.
[http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:HappyCamper&amp;oldid=137050 1]
[http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:HappyCamper&amp;oldid=196072 2]
[http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:HappyCamper&amp;oldid=769288 3]

== Used the protocol CC+ (The Beatles) ==

When uses this protocol, any material becomes free for change of its parameters. Please, learn more: http://wiki.creativecommons.org/CCPlus ! &lt;small&gt;(''The preceding [[Wikiversity:Signature|unsigned]] comment was added by'' [[User:Julius2012|Julius2012]] ([[User talk:Julius2012|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Julius2012|contribs]]) .)&lt;/small&gt;
:No. You didn't create that material. You can't release that work under the Creative Commons license! --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 19:06, 1 December 2011 (UTC)

== RE:Welcome! ==

Now that you mention it.... what is the difference between wikibooks and this, I mean i found tutorials in wikibooks, shouldn't they be here?
I apologize for any grammar mistakes.. also.. {{babel|en-3}} ROFL! --[[User:Sistemx|Sistemx]] 19:16, 1 December 2011 (UTC) 
:Well I think I know the difference between wikibooks and wikiversity but I know plenty of wikibook articles that should be here instead of there... Can I massive transfer the articles?! lol jk. --[[User:Sistemx|Sistemx]] 19:24, 1 December 2011 (UTC)
::for example there are tutorials in wikibooks about rubik's cube. (there are also at wikipedia!) PD: Yes I like rubik's cube!! (I olny know 3x3x3 :/ but im learning...) --[[User:Sistemx|Sistemx]] 19:29, 1 December 2011 (UTC)
Thanks!, is still got some doubts.... Especifically, What should I submitt here that I shouldn't submitt in wikibooks? and vice-versa.

== Thanks ==
Thank you, Happy Camper, for your greetings! 
I think I am one of those &quot;incremental&quot; page editors. Ususally, I start finding my typos seconds after pushhing the &quot;save page&quot; button. 
(I have lost several hours of work before I learned how to navigate back from the &quot;preview&quot; screen.) [[User:Ray Calvin Baker|Ray Calvin Baker]] 00:23, 29 November 2011 (UTC)

Thanks for the tip on using the &quot;watch this page&quot; button. I'm sure that that feature will help me a lot to find other contributers for articles of mutual interest.

I noticed that you have gotten a note from another Rubik's Cube fan. I'd like to say &quot;hello!&quot;. How should one (I, me) go about consolidating material on a given topic? 

I'm also exploring the dialects of the &quot;BASIC&quot; language family. There seems to be a fair-sized community for this topic, also. I found the &quot;QB64&quot; site on Wikipedia, and am delighted with the compiler I downloaded.

In all of my years of computer programming, what I have missed most is helpful tips from others who were just too shy to mention something. What is &quot;obvious&quot; to you may easily be something I have not even heard of yet. &quot;Be BOLD!&quot;

[[User:Ray Calvin Baker|Ray Calvin Baker]] 23:06, 1 December 2011 (UTC)

&lt;HR&gt;

You asked me if the book on Rubik's Cube is complete. Yes, at least ninety-five per cent complete. It contains text diagrams to help explain the notation I created.

An attentive, industrious reader should be able to solve a standard Cube by using the material presented. I wrote the material for upper primary/middle school level students. 
Chapter Ten is a brief summary of the methods I use myself. Using the &quot;cheat sheet&quot; from this chapter, I can usually solve a scrambled Cube in less than ten minutes (certainly no world speed record!). I need to use the methods I describe to find how to solve a sub-group which is not visible on a standard Cube (This will be Chapter Eleven). Chapter Twelve is intended as a place for the reader to include his/her own &quot;improvements&quot; on my crude methods. 

I intend to make a complete revision of the work ASAP. Obviously, some of the techniques I used did not fare well when &quot;Wikimedia-fied&quot;. My diagrams were especially sensitive to misinterpretation by the upload processes I used. [[User:Ray Calvin Baker|Ray Calvin Baker]] 23:37, 1 December 2011 (UTC)

== Scrapbook ==

Just wondering.. where is your scrapbook? --[[User:Sistemx|Sistemx]] &lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:Sistemx|LET'S TALK!]] &lt;/sub&gt; 17:02, 2 December 2011 (UTC)

== Thanks for the W/B :) ==

I'm looking around, and most of the names I don't recognize -- but it's good to be back, and I thank you for the re-welcome. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 07:25, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

== Did I do this correctly? ==

I do not know where to go or who I should ask for help. Since you're a custodian, I though that maybe you could help me. I created [[Topic:Comics Code Authority]] and I am not sure if I did correctly. I am also not sure what pages are the most important to read for new editors. [[User:Joe Chill|Joe Chill]] 18:35, 11 December 2011 (UTC)
:Thanks for the help. I appreciate it. [[User:Joe Chill|Joe Chill]] 21:20, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

== Re: Welcome ==

Thanks for the welcoming message. I hope I have enough time to actually develop something. See you around!
[[User:Fabianhjr|Fabianhjr]] 15:17, 20 December 2011 (UTC)

== Deletion of website ==

Noticed you deleted this page (which I totally support), should I go ahead and delete the [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Psychic_Reading-_How_to_Perform_Psychic_Readings|RfD discussion]] I had started earlier today? If you haven't seen it and are willing to act unilaterally, there are like 4 other similarly useless and spammy pages promoting the same website, all noted there on the RfD. [[User:MyNameWasTaken|MyNameWasTaken]] 20:24, 20 December 2011 (UTC)

==Wikiversity vs. Wikipedia==
I read the FAQ, but I'm still a bit confused, what is the difference between a Wikiversity and a Wikipedia page, at least for the humanities?  Wikipedia can explain a topic pretty well, and is easy to learn from, how should Wikiversity differ?  I started writing [[ufology]] but it kept seeming like I'm just writing a Wikipedia page that probably has already been written.  Btw, I just found out there is already a page @ [[talk:UFO research]], what should I do about that since I already started writing not knowing there was a similar (but 
misnamed?) page?  [[User:Xtgyal|Nikki]] 04:40, 4 January 2012 (UTC)

== licensing issue, help ==

hi HappyCamper, could you please take a look at the licensing issue at [[User_talk:Egm4313.s12]], and let me know the fact about the dual licensing. below is the template that i have been using for several years:

{| cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background: #f7f8ff; border: 1px solid #88a; padding: 5px; font-size: 80%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 88px; padding-right: 6px;&quot; | [[Image:CC Some Rights Reserved.svg|90px]]
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; |'''Multi-licensed with any Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike License'''
| style=&quot;width: 88px; padding-left: 6px;&quot; | [[Image:CC Some Rights Reserved.svg|90px]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |I agree to multi-license my text and image contributions, unless otherwise stated, under [[W:Copyrights|Wikipedia's copyright terms]] and the [[Creative Commons]] [[W:Creative Commons License|license]] [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Attribution Share-Alike version 3.0] and the Creative Commons license [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike version 3.0]. Please be aware that other contributors might not do the same, so if you want to use my contributions under the Creative Commons terms, please check the [[m:Guide to the CC dual-license|CC dual-license]] and [[Wikipedia:Multi-licensing|Multi-licensing]] guides.
|}

which was based on the template [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:MultiLicenseWithCC-BySA-Any MultiLicenseWithCC-BySA-Any].

then a bot changed my licensing template to the template below:
{{Cc-by-sa-any-3.0}}

when i began to use the bot's template, the licensing issue came up as documented in [[User_talk:Egm4313.s12]].

thanks.  [[User:Egm6322.s12|Egm6322.s12]] 15:58, 13 January 2012 (UTC)

== Hello ==

Hey dude most of the information I put on all those page I made were from what we are learning in school.

Only when I felt lazy I copyed and pasted otherwise I just used what we learned in school. Also what is a Transwiki importers[[User:Algamicagrat|Algamicagrat]] ([[User talk:Algamicagrat#top|talk]]) 15:22, 28 January 2012 (UTC)

== Hi there ==
... and thanks for the welcome. I want to get started by using a subpage to my user page for an e-learning course first: it'll be a way to teach a group of postgraduate researchers the wiki way and who knows, perhaps some of them find their way back here. Cheers from Berlin --[[User:MSB|MSB]] 21:23, 28 January 2012 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==

Hello HappyCamper, I've been a probationary custodian for a while now. Is it necessary or appropriate to request [[WV:CC|full custodianship]]? My mentor, [[User:Draicone|Draicone]], hasn't been active for a couple of months. He told me to consider choosing a new mentor. What would you advise? Kind regards, [[User:Mathonius|Mathonius]] ([[User talk:Mathonius|talk]]) 19:06, 6 April 2012 (UTC)

:I've replied on [[User_talk:Mathonius#Custodianship_2|my talk page]]. Regards, [[User:Mathonius|Mathonius]] ([[User talk:Mathonius|talk]]) 09:10, 13 April 2012 (UTC)

== Hi from Miquaz ==

Hello happy camper!! Thanks for the help!! I like exclamation marks!! Um, can you help me find some computer science courses and some people who are interested in computer science?  I want to know how to discuss computer science with them!  You tell me on my [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Miquaz|  talk page]]. If the link doesn't work just search User: Miquaz.  Thanks!! See you around!!

--[[User:Miquaz|Miquaz]] ([[User talk:Miquaz|talk]]) 13:53, 3 August 2012 (UTC)Miquaz

== Hello ==

My name is Druabb, I need help. I want to be a [[Custodianship|Custodian]] for Wikiversity and I need a mentor. HappyCamper, can you please answer the following questions and record the answers on my page. Example:
1. Go to Wikiversity
Something like that.

Here are my questions:

1. How can I become a custodian

2. Can you mentor me

3. How to successfully became a mentor

== Request permission to create my user page ==

Hi!  My name is Jonathan Holland.  I edit Wikipedia anonymously under a different username, but would like to participate in Wikiversity under the username &quot;Maknongan&quot;.  Somewhat unfortunately, I seem to be unable to create my user page to offer more information about myself.  Is there any possibility that you could help with this?  Thanks, Jonathan Holland aka [[User:Maknongan|Maknongan]] ([[User talk:Maknongan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Maknongan|contribs]]) 13:14, 3 June 2018 (UTC)

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johan_(WMF)/Target_lists/Admins2022(3)&amp;oldid=22532499 --&gt;

== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:54, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>biss0ga7xyvjljzbqshpl1qikz0onig</sha1>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="100369" xml:space="preserve">Talk to me! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 17:47, 10 October 2006 (UTC)

== Welcome ==
Hi Charley! Great to see you've come over to Wikiversity (and have already started contributing). You know, I was just thinking of you today - weird! See you round :-) [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 22:47, 10 October 2006 (UTC)
:Thanks Cormac! I'm glad I finally got around to it. Nice work. Wikiversity is looking good! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 23:10, 10 October 2006 (UTC)
::Cormac, you may have become a victim of the dreaded [http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=417 Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon]!--[[User:Dnjkirk|Dnjkirk]] 16:58, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

== Wikio ==

How do you want to get this started? --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 04:05, 18 October 2006 (UTC)
:I'm thinking something like: [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity and Wikinews services]] at one end and [[Wiki Campus Radio|Wikio]] at the other and [[Topic:Media Project Management]] in the middle. That [[WikipediaWeekly]] project will fit in there somewhere. Do we have a Journalism School? [[User:CQ|CQ]] 04:20, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

&quot;UIUC PHIL 270 discussion....The prospect of a negative news report is a real concern in my mind, and should be dealt with immediately.&quot; &lt;-- I agree that we have to watch for this kind of problem...&quot;watch&quot; meaning there should be a clear Wikiversity policy about cheating. &quot;help with Topic:Internet Audio and Topic:Audio Engineering by posting some ways to get sounds into files&quot; &lt;-- I already have some of this information on a few pages. I'll keep working to add more about audio and link all of the related pages. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 05:16, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

:[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] is da MAN! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 05:25, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

== Multilingual Worksheet ==

I'm responding on the talk page to things I still think are confusing/vague/etc., though the page makes somewhat more sense now.  I'm not a multilingual expert by any stretch of the imagination, though I am bilingual in French, and I've a little knowledge of several languages alongside some Linguistics training.  [[User:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] 06:40, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
 {{font|color=tomato|[[Wikiversity:Practicum|*]] CQ goes back to drawing board [[multilingual worksheet|*]] }}
 :08:57, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

== Practicum and &quot;cheating&quot; ==

Hi Charley - thanks for the input. I really like what you've written at [[Wikiversity:Practicum#Collaborations]] and I see it as a kind of model we should be experimenting with. However, I'm cautious (as always) about creating namespaces - I still wonder if it's too complicated as it is. I think our structuring of resources should make it as easy as possible for people to find them from major organisation pages (eg Portal:Philosophy) - but then having many namespaces with the same name (ie School:Philosophy, Topic:Philosophy, Philosophy, and then Practicum:Philosophy, not to mention the materials themselves!) will just be confusing. I also think we should hesitate to create a namespace for something that is linked to a particular methodology/pedagogy - otherwise it could just get ridiculous. I agree that, fundamentally, we need to be &quot;Learning to learn a wiki way&quot; - and that this would be more and more what we need to orientate our learning projects around - but that creating a subsection of Wikiversity in which we do this would be counterproductive (seeing as we should probably be encouraging this ''throughout'' Wikiversity). Having said that, however, I am still hesitant to prescribe to people how they need to work - this is still something (as you've acknowledged yourself) that we are figuring out as we go along.

On the point of possible cheating etc - I agree that this is something we should continue to discuss - and I will leave substantial comment to the Colloquium. Basically, I agree with your effort in &quot;diplomacy&quot; - I think we could end up being either too heavy-handed on new and potentially valuable contributors, or restrict our activities and scope unnecessarily. I suppose we need to discuss the larger related points of 1) &quot;what are learning materials? (ie do they include cheatsheets?), and 2) &quot;what kind of learning communities will we foster on Wikiversity - will they have their own semi-autonomy?&quot;.

Unrelated, but I see you're interested in [[Topic:Audio Engineering]] - me too! Looking forward to working with you on that.. Cheers Charley :-) [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 08:39, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

:MODEL: Everthing's related in a Wikiverse! (That's me though). 

:OBJECT: The namespaces aren't &quot;real&quot; anyway wiki or woko. They are abstractions that can be built through '''scope:context/focus'''. 

:EARTH: ''This is a world of '''paradigm:meme/token''' and &quot;We (semi-autonoms) don't need no stinking badges! Muah-ha-ha-ha-hah!&quot;''

:POLICY: As for ''innapropriate@blah.xxx'' : cheaters never win, anyhoo. If WV evolves ''anything'' like WP, vigilantes '''will come out of the woodwork''' if/when the need arrises. (The template idea is just another one of my embedded [[m:communitas]] ploys ;)

:OK! Thanks for the speedy feedback, [[User:Cormaggio|Cormac the Great!]], I'm looking forward to [[Topic:Basic Blues &amp; Rock|jamming]] with ya!
 (| ^ |) ''cq looks for headphones'' (| ^ |)
:09:28, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

== Hey! ==

Hey CQ! Don't think we've met before, but thanks for the note! I'm sure diplomacy here is a good thing. Yeah, seems like we have a lot of musical interests in common. See ya around! --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 23:01, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Thanks for the heads up! Let's see if/how the people working on [[UIUC PHIL 270]] reply to your note. I think the page [[Special:Lonelypages]] on WV should be some kind of [[w:purgatory|purgatory]], with a defined &quot;deletion timer&quot; if an article is not removed by linking into a lesson or topic. I plan to look around for the right place to propose this. Cheers! [[User:Awolf002|Awolf002]] 00:42, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

==Hi CQ==
Nice comment at Object Oriented Design although I noticed you blanked it.  I personally am currently learning ArgoUML ... aha, maybe you move the information there inside the main file?  Anyway I agree with you.  I have joined the FreeRails project and am starting to look into writing my own java applet or morely likely downloading GPL'ed applets and tweaking them to meet my purposes.  There is a Intro to Java course starting up at Computer Science if  you are interested, if not, I am sure I will see you around.  I also have some interest in where computer mediated education is going or coming as I think it will drive distributed technologies into the home network.  [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 19:38, 3 November 2006 (UTC)

== Eh? ==

I'm not really sure what to make of [[Home|this]]...--&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Trebuchet MS;&quot;&gt;[[User:Digitalme|&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;digital&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:gray;&quot;&gt;_&lt;/span&gt;[[User_talk:Digitalme|&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;me&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; 04:50, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

== re: Wikiversity Essay Contests ==

Somehow my user page has become listed at [[:Category:Wikiversity_Essay_Contests]]. Would appreciate having that edited out, but don't know how. — [[User:Morley|morley]] 16:37, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

== re: Templates ==

I'm fairly new to Wikiversity and I've been acquainting myself by just wandering. First impression — brilliant, powerful concept. Second impression — cluttered, confusing, poorly articulated. So I jumped in and sought answers to my &quot;new user&quot; questions and edited the [[Wikiversity:Welcome%2C_newcomers|Newcomers]] page. 

Now I'm reading the Colloquium column, from top to bottom, which is where I came across your item on [[Wikiversity:Templates|Templates]]. I'd like to offer to work with you on this page, build it up from a new user's perspective (someone who wants to contribute but isn't yet clear on the landscape). I'm not keen on just barging in. After all I'm fairly new myself. But that's the perspective I bring — knowing which dumb questions need answers.

I've been in dialogue with Corramaggio about finding good courses to feature, as a way of showing would-be contributors the possibilities, give them a framework to build on. I've run into roadblocks (of a sort). In the meantime I've come to think Templates is a parallel project with the same objective.

So, before I cut loose on [[Wikiversity:Templates|Templates]] here are some thoughts. I'm seeking your feedback.

#There are several places within the [[Wikiversity:Welcome%2C_newcomers|Newcomers]] page to direct new contributors on how to get started. I'd like make the [[Wikiversity:Templates|Templates]] page a comprehensive starting off point for page creation. That's what a template is, after all. 
#Start by identifying what a template is within this environment. 
#Proceed to a mini-tutorial in using a sample template to deploy a new page. Include step-by-step very-detailed can't-fail instructions.
#Introduce the [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3APrefixindex&amp;from=&amp;namespace=10 Index of available templates].
#Don't know whether it's possible yet, now show how to switch the new page created above from the sample template to one of the user's choosing. In other words, help the new contributor to be immediately productive.
#Go on to provide links on how to create new pages, edit pages, Wiki, etc. (A thorough list of relevant links).
#Again, don't know whether this is possible, but show how to turn an existing page into a template.
#Other points on perfecting and editing templates.

Let me know what you think.

[[User:Morley|morley]] 18:29, 15 November 2006 (UTC)
:Thanks for your interest, Morley! I think of [[Wikiversity:Templates]] (Template Taskforce) as a continuance of [[Wiki 101]], and part of the [[MediaWiki Project]], so you might want to look at those also. I created a '''[[Wikiversity:Templates#Getting Started|Getting Started]]''' section, but I'm not yet familiar with the Newcomer areas that you've work on. I'll be doing that next. Meet me at [[Wikiversity talk:Templates]]. We'll take it from there. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 19:25, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

::Thanks CQ for the follow up. Thought it only fair to explain my silence over the past 10 days. To be fair, the strategy of building up good materials and guidance for contributors is the right one. But I've become distracted by personal project. I know where this page is and if time permits I may well take this project up again. God knows, it's worthy. We'll see. You can reach me via eMail at &lt;morels@morleychalmers.com&gt;. Cheers. — [[User:Morley|morley]] 19:14, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

== Thank you ==

I do not mind at all that you made that link! In fact, I would have given you a Random Acts of Kindness Barnstar if it existed on Wikiversity. -- [[User:J.Steinbock|J.Steinbock]] 20:55, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

=='' is simply a formula used to describe spherical coordinates''==
Thank you for the message.  But the sentence makes no sense to me.  ---[[User:Hillgentleman|Hillgentleman]]|[[User talk:hillgentleman|User talk]] 01:35, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
:Fine. It's gone, but [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Dysprosia/Archive_%2819%29#phi_vs._varphi this] remains. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 02:38, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

== Thanks! ==

Thanks for the suggestion, I signed up. I'm still working out my bearings here, trying to figure out my way around the site. But I noticed you play guitar. How long have you been playing for? --[[User:Exmachina|Ex Machina]] 21:12, 28 November 2006 (UTC)


==multilanguage collaboration==
Hello my friend, answered you [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#technical_question:_for_discussion_pages:_linking_to_pages_in_other_languages_is_not_possible_.3F|here]]. --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 21:33, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
:Hi CQ, I am almost finished with the main pages of the course, see [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#some_pages_translated|here]]. Perhaps we can somehow continue work with this course and the [[Wikiversity:Interlingual_Beta_Club|Interlingual Beta Club]]? --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 20:44, 1 December 2006 (UTC)
::Have a look [[Wikiversity_talk:Interlingual_Beta_Club#Interlingual_navigation|here]] please. What next? Translating the [[Wikiversity:Interlingual_Beta_Club|project page]] into German? --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 18:35, 2 December 2006 (UTC)
:::Some [[Talk:Orientation|answers]], could you have a look please? Thx. --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 08:26, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

===Culture shock===
Hi CQ, how about changing the name of Interlingual_Beta_Klub in German. [[:de:Benutzer:Exxu|Exxu]] has proposed [[:de:Wikiversity_Diskussion:Interlingual_Beta_Klub#Name:_Interlingual_Beta_Klub|here]]  better names, which could be perhaps:
*&quot;Multilingualer Klub&quot; (preferred by me)
*&quot;Multilingualer Betaklub&quot;
*&quot;Mehrsprachiger Betaklub&quot;

This would implicate then that it would not start with IBx. I hope that is not bad in general? --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 11:51, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
:This is a [[wiki 101|wiki]], not a stone tablet like the original [[w:Rosetta Stone|Rosetta Stone]]. Whatever works. [http://beta.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Translation Translation] is the heart of the system. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 13:10, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
::Thx, let's see with what name we come up with :-) --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 13:15, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

::I think ''inter-'' and ''lingua'' are Latin roots.  Why can't they be used for all European languages?--[[User:Hillgentleman|Hillgentleman]]|[[User talk:hillgentleman|User talk]] 13:26, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
:::Hi, in the German section [[:de:Wikiversity_Diskussion:Interlingual_Beta_Klub#Name:_Interlingual_Beta_Klub|here]] it caused some confusion, so perhaps it can be adapted, because of reasons, that people do not &quot;fear&quot; it? Probably this will be not the only person. --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 13:30, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
::::Hey. I'm here to '''learn'''. [[w:Corpus linguistics|Corpus linguistics]] is interesting. 

::::So, I'm guilty of anglocentricity, I've learned, but shucks! I'm from Kentucky (hillbillies, rednecks, etc.) in the &quot;Heartland&quot;. I'm not nearly as sophisticated as a lot of you folk. I squeaked out of High School and managed to earn a two-year certificate in [[Electronics]]. That's about  it as far as formal education goes. 

::::Here, in the [[USA]], a '''Beta Club''' is for smart people that have earned merit. I've always thought of The Wikiverse (my term for all wiki users of which MediaWiki is a subset) as a [[w:meritocracy|meritocracy]]. Keep in mind that most of what I know about Germans, I learned on [[w:Hogan's Heroes|Hogan's Heroes]].
 
::::Selecting the [[w:meme|meme]], Interligual you-know-what was my quaint [[w:Americana|Americana]] way of establishing some sort of honor society dedicated to a study of multi-cultural [[School:linguistics|linguistics]] and some [[School:Computer Science|Computer Science]] education in '''[[Topic:computational linguistics|computational linguistics]]'''. As you may notice, this is the [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Translation next order of buisiness] I'm tackling with my new friends from south of the border. 

::::Let's quit this foolishness and get on with it, shall we?. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 14:34, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

:::::I am with you: see [[Wikiversity_talk:Interlingual_Beta_Club#German_translation|here]]. BTW: in the virtual world, real world does not count :-) --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 14:56, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
::::::about [[:de:Wikiversity_Diskussion:Interlingual_Beta_Klub#Name:_Interlingual_Beta_Klub|here]]: Hi CQ, no problem. At the moment I only translated. We will try to continue all together. --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 16:51, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

==Beta==
see [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Translation/De here] please. --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 23:32, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Hello my friend, how is it going? Somehow we lost contact. Can you detail me on the status so far? ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Erkan_Yilmaz/Bewertung &lt;small&gt;evaluate me!&lt;/small&gt;], [[User_talk:Erkan_Yilmaz|&lt;small&gt;discussion&lt;/small&gt;]]) 16:57, 24 December 2006 (UTC)
:Oh, hi Erkan. I'm still around but I've been working on other projects. Thanks for translating the pages. I was hoping for a bit more participation from folks at the English Wikiversity. Perhaps the [[Topic:Multilingual Studies]] practicum will pick up later. I've been working on some [[metacommunity]], [[Wikiversity:Assessment]] strategies and the [[Learning to learn a wiki way]] project. I'm still here! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 17:29, 24 December 2006 (UTC)
::Hello CQ, great you are there - btw: happy christmas, if you celebrate it. 
::Well, I will have a look at the links above you just gave. Perhaps I can assist somewhere? Some urgent thing needed? Not that I can promise to finish it fast, but you know perhaps some other people get also motivated because of this work. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Erkan_Yilmaz/Bewertung &lt;small&gt;evaluate me!&lt;/small&gt;], [[User_talk:Erkan_Yilmaz|&lt;small&gt;discussion&lt;/small&gt;]]) 17:43, 24 December 2006 (UTC)

==[[Wikiversity:Assessment]]==
Hi CQ, I have already a question [[Wikiversity_talk:Quality#which_number_is_the_best.3F|here]] about [[Wikiversity:Quality]]. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Erkan_Yilmaz/Bewertung &lt;small&gt;evaluate me!&lt;/small&gt;], [[User_talk:Erkan_Yilmaz|&lt;small&gt;discussion&lt;/small&gt;]]) 17:57, 24 December 2006 (UTC)
:Also, have a look on my comment [[Wikiversity_talk:Assessment#methodology|here]] please. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Erkan_Yilmaz/Bewertung &lt;small&gt;evaluate me!&lt;/small&gt;], [[User_talk:Erkan_Yilmaz|&lt;small&gt;discussion&lt;/small&gt;]]) 19:03, 24 December 2006 (UTC)

== comp lgtcs ==

Hye CQ, thanks for your help on comp. lgtcs. You can see on [[User talk:Javier Carro/My doctorate in applied linguistics]] where the orientation of my studies will be orientated. I hope we can work together in something. --[[User:Javier Carro|Javier Carro]] 20:07, 30 November 2006 (UTC)


== Object Oriented Software Design ==
It looks like a '''Topic:''' page, but with a variety of discussions in its talk page.--[[User:Hillgentleman|Hillgentleman]]|[[User talk:hillgentleman|User talk]] 15:43, 2 December 2006 (UTC)

== Translation ==

Hi, I saw your note on translation and I was wondering... it would be very easy for armchair translators to have a page on which there were documents in X language waiting to be translated to Y language. For instance, if there was a page for &quot;Japanese Documents for Translation&quot; that I could just leisurely saunter over to and work on in an ad-hoc manner. Does something like that exist?--[[User:Dnjkirk|Dnjkirk]] 15:55, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

:'''[[m:Quinobi|Quinobi]] speaks:''' [[Japanese to English]] would be the page, I suppose, but read on...

:[[Wikiversity translations]] is the intended place for links to such, so far. High priority '''translation requests''' should be listed via an '''[[m:interwiki link|interwiki link]] to the original''' and should be mentioned, for example, at [[Topic talk:Japanese]]. Links to lower priority translations can go under '''Challenges''' also on the [[Wikiversity translations]] page. How to determine priority (slang:pecking order) is a bit subjective, so good luck. 

:The [[Wikiversity:Templates]] taskforce is planning a page template for bilingual comparative texts &amp;ndash; example: [[German to English]]. These can be '''queued''' and '''archived''' via these types of pages in the main namespace. A text stays there until it is finished or saved to a subpage. These are first-come/first-serve pages. If you care about a text, make sure you keep an eye on it and replicate it where it fits. Note the term is '''a text''' and NOT '''a page'''. Texts are easier to move than pages are.

:Always the various [[Topic:Languages|language departments]] should be notified. Here at the English version Wikiversity, those are linked as '''Topic:''Some language''''' &amp;ndash; Examples:[[Topic:Chinese]], [[Topic:German]]. These departments use anglified names for native English users. Other areas such as [[zh:中文]]  and [[Topic:Deutsch]] are departments for native or advanced users of those languages. '''Japanese Documents for Translation''' might be a section on [[Topic:Japanese]]. Look and see. [[Japanese to English]] is open per this post.

:Remember, you are reading a user page. None of these suggestions are to be construed or misconstrued as Wikiversity policy without consensus. (in simple English: ''Don't quote me''). Tons of work needs to be done on this [[Topic:Translation|topic]]. Thanks for your interest [[User:Dnjkirk|Dnjkirk]]! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 17:19, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

== School of revelation design ==

Hi, answer done — check out [[User talk:Len Raymond]] and the opening section at [[School:Revelation Design]]. thanks... — [[User:Len Raymond|Len Raymond]] 07:28, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

== [[Topic:MediaWiki/Engine]] ==

Why should [[Topic:MediaWiki/Engine|this page]] be in the topic [[Wikiversity:Namespaces|namespace]]? I think it should be in the main namespace (no prefix). Why not just call the page [[MediaWiki Engine]].--[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 18:28, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

== categories ==

Can you put [[&amp;...]] into a category? I'm not sure what it is. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 23:45, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

== Wikiversity:Quorum ==

I am in the middle of an effort to make sure that all WIkiversity pages are in a category. Is there any chance that you could categorize mysterious pages such as [[Wikiversity:Quorum]]? --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 21:43, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
:Thanks for the reminder. I reckon I'm a bit lax on the categorization effort. I'll try to do better. Any others? ([[Special:Contributions/CQ|/me checks]]) [[User:CQ|CQ]] 23:11, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

== Looking to help ==

I'm looking to contribute to the Computer Science area, but it's a bit difficult to figure out where to start. There seem to be literally dozens of stubs, but not much in the way of organization or courses, and I'm not sure where even to ask about it. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 15:57, 12 January 2007 (UTC)
:Great! I think the [[School:Computer Science]] main page has a pretty full listing of what we have so far, but, like you've noticed, most pages are a bit stubby. What is your area of expertice and interest, Historybuff? [[User:CQ|CQ]] 16:25, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

I've got an interest in just about everything computer wise, lol. I'm a computer professional, and have done C++, Java, Smalltalk, PHP and Perl programming. I've also worked with lots of different Unix systems, Windows and of course Macs. I'm interested in course develpment and teaching.

I see there are lots of topics, but there is mention of &quot;divisions and departments&quot;. In a school, divisions and departments are usually areas of study (like department of Comp Sci), which might be confusing me - I'm not sure if &quot;topics&quot; are meant to evolve into courses, or just general background about a topic, or otherwise.

My main stumbling block right now is knowing where to go for what. (Feels like your first day in a new school, but that is to be expected :)) I did leave a comment on the School:CompSci talk page, but it wasn't obvious that this is where that should take place. Is there a &quot;staff lounge&quot; for editors to scribble down their concerns, and a &quot;student conselor&quot; spot where lost students can get help?
Hopefully after I'm oriented then I can start to add some study material or develop some courses. Thanks. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 16:44, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

Careful CQ, with encouragement like that we might be offering courses soon. :P
Check out [[Portal:Computer_Science]] if you get a chance. I'm still fitzing with it -- I'm hoping to get it to look like [[Portal:Engineering and Technology]] in terms of layout -- with real CS stuff.

:Good work Historybuff! Looks like you're going to fit in well around here. I see you've found the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]. That is the closest thing we have for a &quot;staff lounge&quot; and is our centralized discussion area. As far a finding things, and helping others do so in the future, [[Wikiversity:Browse]] ought to be the hub for getting to Portals and Schools. Most of the navigation is coming along but there are gaps and [[Special:Lonelypages|orphaned pages]].

:As for [[:category:courses|courses]], the '''Topic:''' namespace is for creating &quot;[[Wikiversity:Learning projects|Learning projects]]&quot; that organize articles, lessons, and learning materials. Some discussion is still pending, such as [[Wikiversity:Courses]], [[Wikiversity:Course Titles and Numbers]] and [[Wikiversity course formats]]. 

:BTW, I'm still looking for the [[User:Historybuff]] page. You can make [[Wikiversity:Subpages|Subpages]] like [[User:CQ/Goals]] for whatever you need. --[[User:CQ|CQ]] 20:08, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

Heh, well I wanted to get a bit more experience editing before putting up a User page, but Cormaggio didn't like my redlink so he added a talk page link :P. I've created a [[template:participants]], but I'd like to get some feedback before announcing it to the community. (I'd like to add it to some pages, see how people think about it -- I might try the [[School:Computer Science]] page.)

== Databases ==
Hey, I found your question:

Is there going to be a Topic:PostgreSQL? Is knowlege about PostgreSQL covered somewhere at Wikiversity?

I've added it to the database area. I can't figure out how to edit this text, though. :P How did you insert it? [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 22:41, 14 January 2007 (UTC)
:That text at the top of [[Topic:PostgreSQL]] is done with a [[Wikiversity:Templates|template]]. Once there's content on the page, remove the {{tl|topic}} template tag and it will go away. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 19:43, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

== Thermodynamics ==

Thanks a lot for expanding those Gas Laws. I knew they were important, but couldn't for the life of me find out their 'official' names and statements of the actual principles in any reference books whatsoever. It seems they've been almost entirely superceded by the Ideal Gas Equation, but they're nevertheless important in themselves as they're rather easier to understand than taking the entire relationship in one go. [[User:Sojourner001|Sojourner001]] 14:08, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

==Distributed Supercomputing==

Hi CQ,  I am not familar with or setup for IRC.  If we are going to discuss details with Rayc perhaps we should do so at the wikiversity talk page.   That way details will be accessible to others as they swing by.  I agree with you both the project as proposed is ahead of its time but I am confident more computer savvy people and developers will show soon.   The java area (which I am currently studying off and on) is getting a fair amount of activity.   Java seems to have a lot of builtin capabilities to support various techniques necessary for distributed supercomputer as I understand it but I am far from an expert or even technically savvy in the area.  [[User:Mirwin|Mirwin]] 08:22, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

== SchoolForge ==

'''What happened to [[SchoolForge]]?'''

My theory is that the sudden surge of interest in Wikipedia around 2001-2004, &quot;upstaged&quot; SchoolForge and its member organizations: projects large, medium and small. (Kind of like [[w:Walmart|Walmart]] coming in to a community) 

With something as cool as wikipedia, who needs &quot;dipsh*t little projects&quot; such as OSEF (Open Source Education Foundation) or GLO (Global Learning Outreach)? (Those are/were brilliant projects, btw as were [http://www.schoolforge.net/coalitionmembershistorical all these]). Wikipedia drew so much attention, especially within the open source community, that everything else got put on the back burner. I, personally joined the frey, yielding to the [[w:bandwagon effect|bandwagon effect]]. I think that's where the phrase and attitude &quot;Wikipedia Sucks&quot; came from. (See what's [http://www.schoolforge.net/coalitionmembers left today]).

That is of course a simplistic personal view of what happened and why. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 21:13, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

== Thank you ==
Thank you for updating the computer science news page. Someone had to do it, and it made me laugh. :) --[[User:Remi0o|Remi0o]] 21:06, 3 February 2007 (UTC)

== oggisphere award ==

[[Image:Musicstar3.png|thumb|left|100px|Music barnstar]]Thanks for your contributions to the Wikiversity oggisphere. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 14:41, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

== Ecovillage design ==

I'm interested in designing and building an [[w:Ecovillage|Ecovillage]]. I (we) have a very nice site and everything near [[w:Mount Vernon, Illinois|Texico, IL 62889]]. Please post comments, suggestions and questions below. Thanks. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 18:13, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

:Wow - Charley - great! I'll have to dig through my contacts - was just talking to people I worked with in Mexico who are building an ecovillage of sorts - maybe I should put you in touch.. Meantime, just did some googling - [http://www.arch.umanitoba.ca/vanvliet/sustainable/contents.htm this] seems like a nice, compact site - and are you aware of the [http://sca21.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page sustainability wikia]? More later - bed calls.. :-) [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|beep]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 00:31, 4 March 2007 (UTC)

== Rapid design ==

I saw this on TV and immediately thought of you. :)

I'm not sure it's something you'd be interested in, but it is a neat toy and something that would be very cool to play with.
http://www.fabathome.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page (they are using MW software and all). Let me know what you think. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 06:42, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

:I'm poking again. We have to get the recordings done for the &quot;speakers corner&quot; stuff. I'm just dropping you a note so it doesn't get lost in the ether. Ping me on IRC and we can make a plan to get it done. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 05:40, 16 March 2007 (UTC)

Poke, poke, and more poking. I'm trying to figure out openmoko, and if you have some time we should chat about using that for THD. Also, We need to do another wikio session. I'm sure there is 50 other things, I just can't think of them all in this tiny space. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 06:15, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

== Farming and THD ==

Starting a category for farmers does not seem like a bad idea. I have worked on a couple of farms to varying degrees (I can testify about turkeys); I don't know if I would qualify for the list, however. THD seems like quite an interesting project though. 

What's the weather like out where you are at btw? 

What sort of ideas are you looking for? --[[User:Remi0o|Remi]] 05:36, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

== LOM ==

I post a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:CQ#meta:Image:LOM.PNG message] in your talk page at en.wikipedia (and meta.wikimedia, because I was not sure which of them would you see before). Now I realize you are a frequent contributor of this wiki, and I drop a line here since I think you have not been noticed about them (excuse me for my triple post...). I am also interested on applying LOM in wiki. If you prefer, you may contact me by mail. 

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Rjgodoy en.wikipedia:User:Rjgodoy] 07:48, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

== Transwiki + barnstar ==
Hi CQ, please have a look [[:de:Benutzer_Diskussion:Erkan_Yilmaz#Transwiki|here]]. I can not promise you anything, since I am also busy with other projects. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Erkan_Yilmaz/Bewertung &lt;small&gt;evaluate me!&lt;/small&gt;], [[User_talk:Erkan_Yilmaz|&lt;small&gt;discussion&lt;/small&gt;]]) 21:57, 15 April 2007 (UTC)
:Have just seen the barnstar [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AErkan_Yilmaz&amp;diff=112087&amp;oldid=99869 here]. Actually that is not necessary. But thanks anyway :-) ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Erkan_Yilmaz/Bewertung &lt;small&gt;evaluate me!&lt;/small&gt;], [[User_talk:Erkan_Yilmaz|&lt;small&gt;discussion&lt;/small&gt;]]) 22:00, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

== paid wiki editors ==

Maybe what we need for [[Wikiversity NPC]] is some examples of how paid wiki editors would constructively interact with volunteers. Do you have a particular area of interest that might be possible to develop towards a way of making money $$$? I know nothing about music, but maybe [[Guitar/Lessons]] could be developed both in terms of wiki resources and as a platform for making $$ and as also as an example that could eventually be cited in grant proposals for Wikiversity NPC. I have the idea that wiki-based collaborative learning works best when &quot;experts&quot; collaborate with learners. If there is good feedback between learners and the expert, then the required learning resources will get created. I might be able to work with you to develop resources at Wikiversity for pages such as [[Guitar/Lessons]]. The goal would be t have great &quot;getting started&quot; music lessons for Wikiversity, students could pay you for one-on-one instruction, and this could become an example for future Wikiversity NPC grant proposals, &quot;support wiki editors like CQ and get more great online music learning resources. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 15:26, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

== [[Topic:Learning_Objects#Databases]] ==

What resources are intended for this section? Should them be about databases (general topic) or about &quot;databases for LO/LOM&quot;? &lt;BR&gt; [[:w:User:Rjgodoy|w:Rjgodoy]] 12:29, 18 April 2007 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==

Hey Charley, on [[WV:CC|Custodianship]], if you don't want the &quot;stigma&quot; etc, I'll be happy to do the importing for you. It's your call. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 09:22, 19 April 2007 (UTC)
:You now have probationary custodian status. Please list yourself at [[WV:STAFF]]. Good luck! [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|&lt;sup&gt;?&lt;/sup&gt;]] 14:03, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Thanks for being willing spend some time doing dirty work at Wikiversity! If you notice a vandal trashing a bunch of pages, go ahead and block them. Please make sure you are familiar with the contents of the [[Wikiversity:Probationary custodians#Reading list|reading list]] for new custodians. Let me know if you have any questions about using the custodian's buttons. I suggest blocking your own account just for practice. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 14:52, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

You are now a [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/CQ|full custodian]]. Thanks for serving the Wikiversity community as a custodian. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 15:09, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

== Research on communities... ==

[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070419214355.htm I found an article on research that may be done in Florida.] It may be of interest to you. --[[User:Remi0o|Remi]] 04:47, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

== Wikiversity and Action Research ==

Hey Charley - nice [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Developing_Wikiversity_through_action_research&amp;diff=116631&amp;oldid=116618 work]! I went and changed references to &quot;you&quot; into &quot;we&quot;, as the next diff shows - I think it's important that this is kept as a collective plan. I'm not sure if you were talking to me directly there, or to an ''abstract'' &quot;you&quot; - that, in fact, would be interesting to me to find out! I like your overall interest in collaboration and networking - I think I am drifting in that direction myself anyway, and it seems like a logical direction to take - for me, at least. However, there are other projects in there too - such as making it easier for newcomers (or anyone) to begin participating - and i don't want to abandon those efforts either. I'll have to post to the talk page and contact people who've commented to see what direction this project is bursting to take at this point in time, and what projects we can leave on slow-simmer until slightly later. But thanks! Oh, and by the way, have you looked at [[Wikiversity and Connexions collaboration]] yet? I think it would be very interesting for you, from both a technical and a social angle. I'll go into it in more detail if you like - perhaps via IRC might be easier... [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 16:25, 27 April 2007 (UTC)
:'''Person is person: 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;, 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt;, 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; - Plural or &lt;small&gt;singular&lt;/small&gt;.''' Speaking of IRC, I am at this minute engaged in a conversation with JWS about a redesign of a new [[Main Page]] at [[Main Page/Draft version 0.1]]. Let's head over there. Ya wanna? [[User:CQ|CQ]] 23:47, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

== wikicast discussion ==

&gt;live audience....feedback

I see this as a central problem for online collaboration. The Wikipedia community has spent years developing communities of participants who have common interests and who can produce synergistic effects. My hope has been that Wikiversity can find a few &quot;general community projects&quot; or &quot;pilot projects&quot; that would be of interest to many editors, allowing the formation of our first effective collaborations. It has been surprisingly hard to get this to happen.

&gt;&quot;oh they don't have much content, they are not organised yet, I can find better stuff elsewhere&quot;

Wikipedia has created a disease. The disease is such that people are not interested in creating the conditions that allow new wikis to attract participants. Before you can worry about people judging you by your content, you first have to establish a wiki community that will create the content. Why wait until you have content before you advertise your existence? At first you have to advertise yourself as a place that needs participants. The wiki participants will then create the content.

&gt;build your community... .. By making it something people WANT to be part of

This is fundamental to wiki communities. I'm not sure that very many people have opened their minds to the internet as a global community where you accomplish your personal goals by making use of tools that support online collaboration. Web 2.0 is too new and the old ways of thinking are too strong. We need promotional media that communicate the idea...the possibility of online collaboration....so that more people can catch on to the Web 2.0 idea. We have to make the transition from &quot;web 2.0 for geeks&quot; to &quot;Web 2.0 for everyone&quot;.

&gt;Chicken/Egg problem

This is very real. Wikiversity has the huge advantage that we get a steady stream of people via links to Wikiversity from Wikipedia. I've argued from the very start that we should optimize this source of Wikiversity participants by making Wikiversity relevant to Wikipedia.

&gt;cooperation between projects. &quot;us vs. them&quot;

Are we still getting tied up in knots over the use of different copyleft licenses? People seem to spend more time talking and worrying than actually doing something constructive.&lt;BR&gt;--[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 14:18, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

== Earth Station ==

Hi Charley - just wondering - what are the pages around [[Earth Station]] about? There's a nomination for deletion [[WV:RFD|out there]].. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 20:57, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

== Thanks ==

Hey CQ - guess what? I just got the buttons today! Thanks for your support - I promise to do good with them! :-) --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 02:54, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

== reaching out ==

Hi Charley - I saw you adding yourself (and some good thoughts) to [[Wikiversity and Connexions collaboration]]. Here's another outreach project for you: [[OER Commons]] - I met them at that OER conference I went to and I talked with them by phone again yesterday. Will go over more details in due course, but keep an eye on that page at least... [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 17:41, 2 May 2007 (UTC)
:Good timing Cormac! Notice I just added my [[/THD]] page to [[:Category:Open Education Resources]]. I know it may seem strange to add something in the '''User:''' namespace, but it is a very locale-specific project built from the [[Special:Allusers|personal context]]. The Turkey Herding Deer EcoFarm project has its own &quot;outreach&quot; to a myriad of [[learning project]]s such as [[Topic:Cartography]] and [[Topic:Amateur radio]] as well as the obvious [[School:Agriculture]]. I hope to show that learning is a ''personal'' experience that can be fit into a ''shared'' experience within a [[learning community]]. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 18:17, 2 May 2007 (UTC)
:* Thanks for the suggestion re: audio examples. I am working on it now! --[[User:Kittybriton|Kittybriton]] 12:24, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

== Hi from the french Wv ==

Hi yeoman,&lt;br/&gt;
All the french users agree to tell that the en WV is very very very messy. Coutrymike and i thought about how it could change and i just want you to show you a little difference between our first Main page and our current main page. We just add logos...:&lt;br/&gt;
[[:fr:index.php?title=Accueil/FacultÃ©s&amp;oldid=37961|First main page]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[:fr:index.php?title=Accueil/Facult%C3%A9s&amp;direction=next&amp;oldid=50123|Current main page]]&lt;br/&gt;
Check that and you'll see that even a few change can change the whole thing.&lt;br/&gt;
Take care&lt;br/&gt;
[[User:Wilimut|Wilimut]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Wilimut|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt; 08:47, 26 May 2007 (UTC)&lt;br/&gt;
Ps: Im currently studying for my high school certificate but we're working on the translating project and it going well. I'll contact you when i know more about it

== Categories and such ==

Please be sure to research things before making mass changes, because sometimes 2 similar categories might have good reason to exist. Assuming that the two categories are themselves categorized, you can find out through the edit history who made them, and perhaps ask why. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 13:18, 28 May 2007 (UTC)

== Hmm... ==

I just found out that I missed your confirmation as a full custodian here! I'm really glad you're on Wikiversity...will you be posting more music clips soon? --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 00:52, 31 May 2007 (UTC)
:Soon is such a relative term, but yes... Perhaps even this century if there's intelligent life on this planet after all. -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 02:42, 15 November 2018 (UTC)

== Thanks, CQ! ==

Thanks for editing my code tags on the [[PHP_Dates]] page. As my first original creation in the Wikiversity, I'm still not aware of all the tags that are available, and having the syntax highlighting will be an invaluable resource to readers, I'm sure. Thanks again!
[[User:Ghenson|Ghenson]] 12:58, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

== It all started here ==
http://test.wikipedia.org/wiki/template:chemical_reaction
and then .... then here [[w:zh-yue:Category:維基唔係Turing機]] and then.... here [[meta:template:last edit]]
etc.

Patrick has explained it rather well in [[m:help:recursive conversion of wikitext]].

[[User:Hillgentleman|Hillgentleman]]|[[User talk:hillgentleman|Talk]] 04:50, 11 June 2007 (UTC)

== Guitar ==

Hi CQ - I can't help but give you this link: [http://www.ferryhalim.com/orisinal/g2/walk.htm] - the first thing that I thought of was you! Cheers, --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 22:54, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

== Pronunciation for Transwiki ==

Hi, it was hard to find you Yeo. Anyway, I have realized that we can connect Transwiki with pronounciation. If we once a month upload words to commons. It can help both Wictionary and Wikiversity. The only problem is, that I think - students should do Traswiki. Why me if I already now foreign words? I can do, but for me it doesnt have educative character. So what you think?--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 15:01, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

== Biodiesel ==

Hey CQ. I read an article about [http://www.imerjent.com/ this company], and thought you might be interested in checking them out. One product they manufacture are turnkey biodiesel plants out of old shipping containers. I hope things are going well on your end. : ) --[[User:Remi|Remi]] 20:01, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

== Tuners and openmoko ==

Hey, I've been scarce lately, and so have you. I've finally connected with the Openmoko guys, and that project might have some good legs.
I also found this ... http://wiki.openmoko.org/wiki/Applications (look for Guitar Tuner :D)
Ping me and let me know what's up for you -- hope everything is well. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 17:04, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

== &quot;Wikiversitans&quot;, &quot;Wikiversitarians&quot;, and &quot;Wikiversiters&quot; == 

A look at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Main Page Project|&lt;b&gt;Colloquium Discussion on the Main Page Project&lt;/b&gt;]] discloses that not only are there [[:Category:Wikiversitans|&lt;b&gt;&quot;Wikiversitans&quot;&lt;/b&gt;]]; but now there is at least one (1) '''&quot;Wikiversitarian&quot;'''; and it appears as there may also be '''&quot;Wikiversiters&quot;'''.  

Might these be separate [[Wikiversity:Categories|Categories]] of Participants; or might all [[:Category:Wikiversitans|&lt;b&gt;&quot;Wikiversitans&quot;&lt;/b&gt;]], '''&quot;Wikiversitarians&quot;''', and '''&quot;Wikiversiters&quot;''' be in the same [[Wikiversity:Categories|Category]]? :-)  

(s) [[User:Dionysios|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]] [[User_talk:Dionysios|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #228B22;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]], Date: [[w:2007|2007]]-[[w:July 10|07-10]] ([[w:July 10|July 10]], [[w:2007|2007]]) Time: [[w:1517|1517]] [[w:UTC|UTC]]

And now he learns from the [[Developing Wikiversity through action research/Wikiversity identity|Developing Wikiversity through action research/Wikiversity identity Page]] that there may also be Wikiversians, Wiklars, &amp; Wikiversitians.  Of course, we are all Wikiversity Participants.  What does it all mean?  :-)
(s) [[User:Dionysios|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #191970;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Dionysios&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]] [[User_talk:Dionysios|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #228B22;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]], Date: [[w:2007|2007]]-[[w:July 18|07-18]] ([[w:July 18|July 18]], [[w:2007|2007]]) Time: [[w:1840|1840]] [[w:UTC|UTC]]

== Wiki campus radio ==

What happened to Wiki Campus radio? it seems dormant? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] 21:36, 14 July 2007 (UTC)
:Simply ahead of its time [[User:ShakespeareFan00|Shakesperience]]... -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 02:48, 15 November 2018 (UTC)

== OpenMoko lives ==

Heya stranger,

Got a Neo on the way, and I've been checking out some mapping stuff. Hopefully all is well with you, but let's chat if you are around. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 23:34, 28 July 2007 (UTC)
==Jazz==
Hey
I'm interested in the jazz department, in learning or whatever.
Let me know if you can help me.
Thanks
[[User:Bananagirl|Bananagirl]] 10:38, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

== source lang=&quot;php&quot; ==
Hi CQ. I noticed the use of the above code in an article [[PHP_Dates]]. I then tried to implement the same code in my own personal implementation of Media Wiki but it did not work. I'm assuming that I need to download something or activate something, but have had difficulty tracking it down. Could you help me out or point me in the right direction? [[User:Duckingham|Duckingham]] 19:52, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

== hi cq and thanks ==

been a while... just remembered what was happening here... i am teaching in a music college now, which might be down your street... i posted a question in the mediawiki helpdesk, and i wondered if you were free at all for chat since you seem to be in the know here abouts... hope you are well --[[User:Fidocancan|Fidocancan]] 09:38, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

==German Wikiversity==
Hello CQ, there are messages for you [[:de:Wikiversity:Qualit%C3%A4tssicherung#Transwiki-Seiten|here]] and at [[:de:Benutzer_Diskussion:CQ|your talk page]] on German WV. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([[Wikiversity:Chat|&lt;small&gt;Wikiversity:Chat&lt;/small&gt;]], [[User:Erkan Yilmaz/observations|&lt;small&gt;wiki blog&lt;/small&gt;]]) 11:59, 20 January 2008 (UTC)
:Hi Erkan. Thanks for the heads up. I'm quite offline these days but hope to get back soon. I'll try to catch up then. Later! &amp;bull; [[User:CQ|CQ]] 01:20, 11 February 2008 (UTC)
::Hey - welcome back (kinda), Charley! We've missed you around... :-) [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 15:41, 11 February 2008 (UTC)
::Yes ... #wikiversity-en has not been the same since your disappearance. [[User:Countrymike|Countrymike]] 20:44, 11 February 2008 (UTC)

==Image copyright problems==

{{Mbox|type=content|msg='''Thanks for uploading image(s) to Wikiversity.''' The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about what Wikiversity includes because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a [[foundation:Resolution:Licensing policy|strict copyright policy]]. ''Some or all of your uploaded files may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.'' The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Please take the time to read [[Wikiversity:Copyright]] to learn more about what copyright information is required to satisfy our requirements and remember to include this important information for every file that you upload in the future as well. If you have any questions, feel free to contact this bot's owner, [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|Mike.lifeguard]], or ask another editor at [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]].&lt;br&gt;To find the files in question, use ([http://tools.wikimedia.de/~daniel/WikiSense/MediaSearch.php?wikilang=en&amp;wikifam=.wikiversity.org&amp;category=Images_with_unknown_copyright_status&amp;depth=10&amp;max=100&amp;uploader={{urlencode:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}} unlicensed] &amp; [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~daniel/WikiSense/UntaggedImages.php?wiki=en.wikiversity.org&amp;img_user_text={{urlencode:{{{1|{{PAGENAME}}}}}}} untagged]) Thanks! '''&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Mike's bot account|MBA]]'''&lt;sup&gt;(&amp;nbsp;[[User Talk:Mike's bot account|talk]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;[[Special:Contributions/Mike's bot account|contribs]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;[[Special:blockip/Mike's bot account|block]]&amp;nbsp;)&lt;/sup&gt; 15:10, 12 February 2008 (UTC)
:''This is an automated message. Please ignore it if you've already provided license information for all your uploads.''}}
:Your currently affected images are listed below; please provide a [[Wikiversity:license tags|license template]] and source for each. Thanks. '''&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[b:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@en.wb}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:39, 13 February 2008 (UTC)
* 2006-10-24 06:04, [[User:CQ|CQ]]: [[:Image:33px-Crystal_128_fonts.png|33px-Crystal 128 fonts.png]]: &lt;span class='untagged'&gt;untagged!&lt;/span&gt;; &lt;span style='background: #DDFFDD;'&gt;0 (0)&lt;/span&gt;
* 2006-11-05 17:47, [[User:CQ|CQ]]: [[:Image:Audacity-linux-small.jpg|Audacity-linux-small.jpg]]: &lt;span class='untagged'&gt;untagged!&lt;/span&gt;; &lt;span style='background: #FFDDDD;'&gt;2 (2)&lt;/span&gt;
* 2007-01-02 18:19, [[User:CQ|CQ]]: [[:Image:Urantia_logo.gif|Urantia logo.gif]]: &lt;span class='untagged'&gt;untagged!&lt;/span&gt;; &lt;span style='background: #FFDDDD;'&gt;1 (1)&lt;/span&gt;

== Catching up ==

hey Charlie, do you still visit the irc channel?
Hope we can catch up some time. [[User:Chrismo|Chrismo]] 15:53, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

==Re: [[Wikiversity the Movie]] (15th August 2009)==
Hello, there is a new time frame set for the [[Wikiversity the Movie]]: it is 15th August 2009 - our next [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity Day|Wikiversity Day]]. Are you still interested in helping with the music/soundtrack ? If so, please leave a note at: [[Talk:Wikiversity the Movie/Music]]. See you, ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])&lt;/small&gt; 14:32, 23 August 2008 (UTC)

== French Mentoring ==

Salut, CQ. You are listed at the [[French stream]] as being a beginning student of French who is interested in learning French. The [[French Mentoring]] project has recently been launched, and if you add your name to [[Topic:French/Mentoring/Participants|that list]], I will do my best to put you in contact with an appropriate Mentor who would be glad to help you. [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 09:44, 22 November 2008 (UTC)

== Template:Navbox ==

Good evening,  being the organizing (but not organized) person that I am I thought it would be a good idea to fix the [[Template:Navbox|Navbox]] template.  Currently I have loaded the most recent version of the template from Wikipedia, however there are a couple of other items that need to be ported over and they are in areas of the wiki to which I do not have access.  CSS and JS code necessary are on my [[User:Tigey|User page]], and belong on [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] and [[MediaWiki:Common.js]] respectively.  These two sections of code control the styling of the navboxes, navbars, and whatnot, and the collapsability of the navboxes (via an optional link on the right side of the navbox {see [[w:Template:Navbox with collapsible groups]]}.  Let me know if you have any questions or concerns. [[User:Tigey|Tigey]] 05:26, 5 June 2009 (UTC)

: Please don't do it. The code used by Wikipedia last I checked was unmaintained. Wikiversity uses a modified version that allows more flexibility. --[[User:Darklama|&lt;span style=&quot;background:DarkSlateBlue;color:white;padding:2px;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;dark&lt;/span&gt;]][[User talk:Darklama|&lt;span style=&quot;background:darkslategray;color:white;padding:2px;&quot;&gt;lama&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;]] 11:28, 5 June 2009 (UTC)

::No problem.  Just so long as the Navbar template can call it correctly. [[User:Tigey|Tigey]] 16:43, 5 June 2009 (UTC)

==Image copyright problem with [[:Image:Audacity-linux-small.jpg]]==

{{tl|Image copyright}} [[:Image:Audacity-linux-small.jpg]] &amp;bull; [[User:Crochet.david|Crochet.david]] 10:55, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

==Image copyright problem with [[:Image:Urantia logo.gif]]==

{{tl|Image copyright}} [[:Image:Urantia logo.gif]] &amp;bull; [[User:Crochet.david|Crochet.david]] 11:00, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

== two things ==

I saw your cool article &quot;Keyline design principles&quot;...it took me back to my days in Iowa. 

I noticed that you are using [[:File:Garageband keyboard.png]] on your user page. This is a fairuse image that technically cannot be used outside of the main namespace. The copyright police seem to be on the prowl, so I thought I'd warn you. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 18:01, 10 June 2009 (UTC)
:Like you JWSurf, I'm sometimes [[user:clueless|clueless]]! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 20:27, 8 July 2009 (UTC)

== [[MediaWiki:Sandbox]] ==

Hi. I've temporarily deleted this system message for the moment because it seemed to break the link to the sandbox in the &quot;community&quot; panel. I'm afraid I don't understand what you were trying to do so I'm sorry if I've inadvertently broken something else but I'll leave it for you to restore. Regards. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 10:58, 8 July 2009 (UTC)

:Hey CQ, do know about the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox Server]] project?  We currently have a [[Topic:Sandbox Server 0.5|test server]] up and running which can be used for anything from experimenting with new services to [http://www.sandboxserver.org/wiki/index.php?title=Testing_Mediawiki_extensions testing Mediawiki extensions].  It really hasn't been used much lately, but I'd like to revive interest in it.  --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:21, 8 July 2009 (UTC)

::Oh yeah. So would I. I have an account there as &lt;kbd&gt;[[user:yeoman|yeoman]]&lt;/kbd&gt;. Haven't been there in a while. As a homeless person, I have a hard time with [[w:continuity|continuity]]! [[User:CQ|CQ]] 18:17, 8 July 2009 (UTC)

== Category:Class ==

This is it, boys and girls. We are out of [[time]].

[[User:CQ|CQ]] 04:31, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

== LiquidThreads ==

[http://techblog.wikimedia.org/2009/07/improving-wikimedias-discussion-system/ Improving Wikimedia’s Discussion System]  --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:20, 11 July 2009 (UTC)
:OK thanks. I added a [http://www.sandboxserver.org/wiki/index.php?title=Sandbox:Request_extensions#LiquidThreads request] and I'll add Andrew's discussion to our [[LiquidThreads]] resource.

==Ello==
Thank you for your message. I don't use IRC, i prolly should but don't as yet...but i do use Skype: b9_hummingbird_hovering &amp; B9Joker108@Twitter.&lt;br &gt;
Cheers&lt;br &gt;
[[User:B9 hummingbird hovering|B9 hummingbird hovering]] 15:40, 28 July 2009 (UTC)
:I don't recall mentioning IRC. Could you post a [[link]] to the convo you're refering to? [[User:CQ|CQ]] 18:03, 30 July 2009 (UTC)

==Daughters or sisters?==
I'm not sure about the geneology of WMF projects - is it {{tl|daughters}} or {{tl|sisterprojects}}? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:23, 30 July 2009 (UTC)

:Sisters is correct. (Though wikipedia is of course the grandaddy of all the others). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 13:05, 30 July 2009 (UTC)

::Who's yo daddy? It depends on context, connotation, perspective, ...
::We're out of time for all that. You're both on my [[list]]. [[User:CQ|CQ]] 17:57, 30 July 2009 (UTC)
::: But you can always make more time... nice to see you active here, CQ!  [[User:Sj|Sj]] 08:29, 1 August 2009 (UTC)
:::: And very nice to see '''you''' here, Sj! {{smile}} [[User:CQ|CQ]] 13:01, 1 August 2009 (UTC)

== HHF and merging. ==

OK to know that HHF may reeive a merge tag very soon. But why the need of putting the info on a template? You could have put the info on my talk page, or maybe on the discussion page of the mainpage. Why change the mainpage navigation link to direct me to a page? The link itself says &quot;Recent Discussions on the forum&quot; and links to a talk page.

Isn't this totally uncalled for?

[[User:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|'''Dharav'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:38, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

== Template Talk ==
Please have a look at [[Template_talk:HHF/Category_Listing]]
--[[User:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|'''Dharav'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:54, 22 August 2009 (UTC)

== Gossip :-) ==

Heya CQ. Here's the catch-up off the top of my head:
*As you know, Mirwin died about a year and a half ago. We were notified through the mailing list.
*Guillom and Seb are both still active in Wikimedia, but pretty busy elsewhere. Guillom's a steward now, and I think Seb is mostly active on de.wikipedia. They pop in on #wikiversity-en once in a blue moon.
*Haven't seen RayC in ages... he just sorta disappeared. I've seen Draicone around from time to time.
*Cormac is still around, working on his thesis. He (along with McCormack, Mikeu, and myself) was involved in the first go-round with JWSchmidt, and he's been a bit less active since then.
*McCormack is gone, probably not coming back. He did a lot of the heavy lifting on [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Review of JWSchmidt|this]], and I think he just had had enough after seeing the [[User:JWSchmidt/Review|response]].
*As for me, I was pretty much planning to take a year off, but started getting a bunch of IRC pings... turned out there were only 2 custodians still active as of a month and a half ago, and we started getting hit by the wacko cross-wiki vandals :/. 

So yeah, it's been pretty sad. Hopefully we can at some point get the momentum going again... I think a more concerted effort at outreach to the Wikipedians, and perhaps bits of the &quot;blogosphere&quot; could help a lot, but it's a chicken and egg issue (or maybe hole in the bucket): we need a more welcoming and functional community to attract new people, and we need new people to build up a welcoming and functional community. Hope you're gonna stay around a while... it's great to have you on IRC again to help folks get orientated! --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 09:50, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

== HHF ==

Wow! That's all I can say for your message on my talk page. I know using this system is difficult, that's why I want to create a more user friendly forum, something which acquaints you with the whole process. Ultimately, it's just text input. So, my question is, what step of the process creates the inhibition? If you can tell me that, I'll go ahead.

Personally, I don't believe the templates are complex. They are usable. Are being used. What's the problem? That is indeed a question, not a rhetoric. What's the problem?

Is the forum rocking? No! Why? It's not user friendly! Why is that so? Because the pages are not complete. None of the pages describe to the user the process or make him familiar with the environment. So? So, I need someone's help in completing the whole forum and to make it more user friendly.

Infact, you can be of great value to the forum. What are the problems according with the forum and the templates according to you. Please be specific, saying its too complex or saying its too tedious is just a qualitative decription. If you point out exactly what is wrong, I can modify the forum.

Thanks! And I am hopeful this thing goes somewhere pretty soon. Do reply! --[[User:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|'''Dharav'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:29, 25 August 2009 (UTC)
:I don't understand {{tl|HHF}} (which has not yet been created for some reason) and its subtemplates {{tl|HHF/Category_Listing}} and especially {{tl|HHF/Recent_Discussions}}. I'm still trying to figure them out. I left some comments around and I'm going to try to get some coordination going at [[Portal talk:Secondary Education]] which to me would be the logical place for {{tl|HHF}}, since that's where High School teachers will eventually congregate. Give it some time, [[User:Thewinster|Dharav]]. Let's all work together. {{smile}} &amp;bull; [[User:CQ|CQ]] 22:43, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Category Listing template does what its name suggests : Lists all the categories in which you can ask questions on HHF. Recent Discussions lists all the recent discussions that have hapenned on HHF - which is a forum. So let's suppose it is a forum page from where you visit all the thread.

[[HHF]](and not {{HHF}} ) is the homepage of the forum - which does not GIVE anyone a description that it is a question answer forum.

I hope that'll make everythign clear.

'''About the link redirects''', I guess you still didn't fully understand that HHF is ultimately Highschool Help FORUM, and those Physics, Chemistry and Biology links are links to ask questions in those topics on HHF. They are not INDEPENDENT resources on those four topics. Please, I wouldn't dare to do that in my wildest dreams. PLEASE, undo the redirects.

As for the content creation methods you suggested me - I didn't intend to create any content. All I intend is to answer to people who ask questions on [[HHF]]. Isn't that SIMPLE?

I presume the problem was lack of information about HHF on the [[HHF]] homepage itself and your inability to comprehend the name FORUM. As far as the former problem goes, that's what I'm asking help for, ain't I? I want people to help me out with making the pages more accessible and user friendly and informative. Content in the form of questions will automatically flow!

Thanks and cheers!
--[[User:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|'''Dharav'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:46, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

Thank you for posting some stuff on [[HHF/How_To]]. That'll help! Thanks again. --[[User:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|'''Dharav'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:10, 26 August 2009 (UTC)

== Wikibooks and Wikiversity ==

I usually reply to comments on my talk page on my talk pages, but I hadn't yet added my usual disclaimer on that to the talk page here at Wikiversity, so I'm replying here in response to your comment on my talk page.

Ironically enough, while you (by your own admission) are not that familiar with Wikibooks but are quite familiar with Wikiversity (at least I assume so since you are a custodian), I am not that familiar with Wikiversity but am quite familiar with Wikibooks (to the point where they made me an admin there).  I do know that Wikiversity started out as part of Wikibooks.  However, that was way before my time.  When there was a problem with cross-wiki spam a short while back and I made a comment on it here, SB Johnny made a comment that I should help people get a handle on things here.  I haven't had the time as of yet, but I need to become more familiar with Wikiversity as a community and what its policies are for acceptable content to know best how to foster the relationship between Wikiversity and Wikibooks.  The big difference I see is that Wikibooks is not an acceptable place for original research, while Wikiversity is.  The biggest similarity is that both projects have the goal of teaching, one through textbooks and the other through classes.  Those classes, like traditional classes, may use a textbook as part of study.  Therein lies the connection between the two projects.

Furthermore, there are a whole swath of [[b:Subject:Class projects|class projects]] at Wikibooks created by real-life university classes.  You'll find that the [[b:Subject:Old Dominion University projects|Old Dominion University projects]] are the most complete and active examples (with thousands of pages in the Foundations... books).  The ODU projects heavily blur the line between Wikiversity and Wikibooks as they may even be using Wikibooks in a manner intended more for Wikiversity, in that they create separate editions for each semester of class.  The outstanding [[b:Wikibooks:Votes_for_deletion#Consumer_Behavior_in_Travel_and_Tourism|VfD]] on ''Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism'' that is as yet unresolved shows that some of these books straddle the line so well that even we can't figure out where they fit in best.

[[Wikiversity and Wikibooks services]] has a section on aligning the two projects via categories.  Given that it is dated 2007 and has red links, I know it is certainly out of date and may not have taken off.  Part of my &quot;claim to fame&quot; on Wikibooks was the restructuring and organization of the books, categories, and subjects (see [[b:Using Wikibooks/Subjects, Categories, and Classifications|here for more detail]]) there out of the mess they were in when I first came upon the site.  The changes made without regard to Wikiversity's organization, but given the similarity between the projects, there may be potential for similar categories on each to link to each other as well as subjects on Wikibooks linking to portals/topics on Wikiversity and vice-versa.  I have to gain an understanding of how Wikiversity categories are structured as well and whether they have much relation to how portals and topics are used.  These are my thoughts at this point in time before delving into things further. -- [[User:Adrignola|Adrignola]] 15:45, 27 August 2009 (UTC)

== French ==

I would be happy to mentor you in French.  Let me know how I can be of service.  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:18, 28 August 2009 (UTC)
:Awesome Jade! Did you see my question on [[Wikiversity:Censorship]]?
::I take it you missed my answer on IRC?  I linked the phrase to Wikipedia, so future scholars will be less confused.  Literally, it means something akin to &quot;reason for being&quot;, and this more or less contains the meaning of the phrase.  For more detail, see [[wikt:raison d'être]].  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:09, 30 August 2009 (UTC)
:::Cool! I wish our IRC discussions were logged in some way. The [http://tent.espians.com Espians] have some nifty [[OpenKollab/tent|tools]] for such. --[[User:CQ|CQ]] 19:24, 30 August 2009 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Censorship]] ==

What exactly is the intended purpose of this page? I'm afraid it isn't entirely clear. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 15:24, 28 August 2009 (UTC)
:It has a purpose to do with [[sociology|behavior]]. Please pay [[Wikiversity:Community Review|attention]]. --15:34, 28 August 2009 (UTC)
::It is still not clear what exactly the purpose is. I would appreciate if you could explain. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 15:43, 28 August 2009 (UTC)
:::I would be grateful if you could clarify the purpose. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 20:24, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
::::It's purpose is to present some historical background about [[w:sysop|sysop]]s ([http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AListUsers&amp;username=&amp;group=sysop&amp;creationSort=1&amp;limit=50 sysops]). See ''[[Wikiversity talk:Censorship]]'' --[[User:CQ|CQ]] 13:03, 3 September 2009 (UTC)
:::::I would welcome your input [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Wikiversity:Censorship here]. [[User:Adambro|Adambro]] 13:26, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Catalyst]] ==

Here is where we're going... [[User:CQ|CQ]] 15:35, 28 August 2009 (UTC)

==Dynamic Containment==
Thanks for the comments . I did not know how to reach you or what the right protocol is. ( somebody was kind enough to set me straight on this, still not quite sure whether this is the right procedure.  but here it goes ( copy of what i wrote on Dynamic containment page:
I do not know how to respond to you - I mean not to your questions, but how this will reach you. if it does please enlighten me how it works ( if it is not too much trouble- don't want to be a pain!) Dynamic Containment is mine and all mine Its good technology since it operates exclusively with forces instead of structures. in this case the DC field is generated simply by 2 nozzle sets that's it. In the first picture one nozzle set spits out water the other air both fluids interact in the DC zone where the shear forces are from order to 2 orders of magnitude higher than in the surroundings that's where and why everything happens there. in the flame case 2nd picture the flame or/and fuel never touches the wall ( the reason i stumbled upon this thingy. there are other Dynamic containment processes available and one is in use called Tokamak reactor which uses magnetic fields to contain high/ correction very very high temperature plasmas (gasses). Of course I am planning to include some wright- up on the page. thank you for your interest. If this does not reach you I will try some other way ( not sure yet?)Altera vista 21:24, 27 August 2009 (UTC)

:I read you loud and clear Altera vista! Thanks for the answer. --[[User:CQ|CQ]] 22:10, 30 August 2009 (UTC)

== Media literacy ==

Thanks for the heads up, Charley! That looks fine - what's at [[Media literacy]], developed by Renee Hobbs and students (if memory serves correct), is much better than my [[Media literacy/notes|initial sketch]] - though this could always be resurrected and developed. (Again, on memory, I think this was my first content contribution to Wikiversity, way back in its days on Wikibooks!) [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 07:16, 8 September 2009 (UTC)

== OpenMoko gets a Guitar Tuner! ==

Hey there!

LTNS. I got this on the mailing list the other day, and you immediately popped into my mind:

Here's the working release of guitartune for shr-u.

http://n2.nabble.com/file/n4149047/guitartune_1.0-r0.4_armv4t.ipk
guitartune_1.0-r0.4_armv4t.ipk

 To install use, 'opkg install &lt;path&gt;guitartune_1.0-r0.4_armv4t.ipk
--force-depends' since the ipk otherwise looks for libfftw3-3 &gt;3.2.2 while
the one in the feeds is v3.1.2.

 Any ideas how I can change this? I'm still v new to bb files.

 The interim bb file is here - it needs more work to remove the autotools
files etc - something I need to do for all my projects.

  http://n2.nabble.com/file/n4149047/guitartune.bb guitartune.bb

I'm not sure if you drank the OM koolaid, but someone got inspired to do it. Hope all is well with you! [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 01:15, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

:I just got a new [[guitar]] with a '''built-in''' tuner! ([[w:Film at 11|Film at 11]]) &amp;bull; [[User:CQ|CQ]] 02:53, 29 January 2011 (UTC)

==Appropedia assistance==
Hey CQ,
I was wondering whether you are interested in joining Appropedia; we currently need someone with experience in the wiki-software; see http://www.appropedia.org/User_talk:Chriswaterguy#Members More precisely, we need to add some extensions/semantic updates to automate a few things (ie member listing, ...).
Let me/us know if you're intrested or if you know someone that might be intrested.
[[User:KVDP|KVDP]] 10:46, 13 February 2010 (UTC)
:Sorry for the lag :| How's [http://appropedia.org/User:CQ this]? [[User:CQ|CQ]] 01:39, 29 January 2011 (UTC)

== HHF ==

Hi CQ! I see you have posted a question regarding Highschool Help Forum a few months back.

It's great that my work got noticed.

I have an idea for us to make the highschool help forum more useful and productive. Specifically meant for content generation. I want it to become an exhaustive resource for those who are studying the topic - through an input that is given drop by drop to make up the ocean.

I have had several thoughts as to what makes Wikiversity a little slow - having contributed to wikibooks myself. Please drop me a message as soon as possible!
--[[User:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|'''Dharav'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:Thewinster|{{font|color=red|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:13, 9 December 2010 (UTC)

Hi
I have been leaving posts in Discussion pages on the Biblical Studies page looking for a way to move forward.  Biblical Studies seems to have been active in 2008 and then stalled.  I think that part of that stall is due to the &quot;policy&quot; of having material conform to a &quot;literal normative&quot; outlook which tends to reduce academic inquiry.  I am planning on starting a Department Project on the Synoptic Gospels which will definitely not consider the text of the gospels involved to be &quot;inerrant&quot; but before starting that I am leaving this message on the discussion page of all noted &quot;active participants&quot;.  It could be that I should set up the seminar/discussion somewhere else in Wikiversity and I need some direction.  
--[[User:Billatkinsonbc|Bill A]] 15:08, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

== [[User:Mabuabsdd]] ==

Your block of Mabuabsdd may now be moot, because TCNSV went to meta and filed checkuser, and the CU globally locked the account for &quot;cross-wiki&quot; abuse, which was definitely not happening. These are elementary school kids (one or more) using a school computer, possibly the class computer, so CU would easily show them as single. It's obvious that there were socks, there is no sophisticated evasion, and I'd been working with them to teach them how to avoid problems here. Wikiversity is for education, and education was happening. It takes time with kids, the iron fist doesn't work. The only damage being done to WV was my time, voluntarily given, beyond some easy speedy deletions, which I was handling before I was desysopped.

I had not been ready to ask for custodian help with this, they were responding, albeit sometimes slowly, back and forth. That's what it's like to work with kids.... --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 15:09, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

:Well iDangerMouse sure put me on the spot. As you can see on the custodian list, I have been inactive here at Wikiversity. My attention has been drawn to other projects with different foundations and very different conversational styles. I'm gradually folding back in to Wikiversity but in a more passive role. -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] 23:22, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
::Uh, what did IDangerMouse do? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 23:34, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

----

*Abd, the thing to do in these cases is to ask one of the youngsters to call the teacher over to the computer.  Discuss with the teacher their role in working online with their students to ensure that the students are using online resources in an appropriate and educationally constructive manner.  —[[User:Moulton|Moulton]] 15:54, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

::Moulton, that would have been damaging, in this case and in practically all others. If Mabuabsdd had continued to make work for custodians, I'd have contacted the school, because the blocks needed to stop it could impact school access. Otherwise, this is an independent learning resource for these kids, and I took on the work of managing it, and it looks like I may have gained their understanding and consent for that, but it was still fragile.

::Because Mabuabsdd behavior was improving, though with some fits and starts, I had not come to the point of asking for custodian action, beyond some speedy deletion tags. I've got a kid in the exact age range (7 years old) (and I had six go through this age before that). I know what generally works with smart kids and what won't. If I asked him to call over the teacher, that would have been the end, at this stage, he'd have identified me as opposing him, he simply would have ignored it, I'm sure, or he'd have pretended to be the teacher. Revealing the teacher's name would be a privacy violation! (Identifying the kid as being in that teacher's class.) Aaqib is very bright, that's obvious. I'm not going to stuff him into your quaint ideas of &quot;educationally constructive,&quot; you are really someone to talk about that! He's learning, but the learning has been temporarily interrupted by [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Checkuser#Mabuabsdd.40en.wikiversity TCNSV's filing at meta], which will bear some examination. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 16:10, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
::*Teaching both students and supervising faculty how to be responsible users of online learning resources is not damaging.  It's the essence of responsibility.   On MicroMuse, whenever a new school came online, we discussed with the supervising faculty what our expectations were for their role in working with their students on our system.  —[[User:Moulton|Moulton]] 16:32, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
::::And how is MicroMuse doing? In this case, are the teachers &quot;working with&quot; these students? Do they have time for that? I was being successful, slowly and gradually, at &quot;teaching&quot; the students how to be &quot;responsible users.&quot; What expectations do we have, here, of parents and teachers? Seems to me it's none, other than natural consequences. I'd have involved the school administration if it had become necessary to block the school IP. That had not been necessary. Odd, Moulton, you are very big on experiential learning, you are averse to any kind of supervision of your behavior, but, here, you want to control this situation through an authority figure, the teacher. For us to even contact the school could violate [[Wikiversity:Privacy|Privacy]] policy! I wasn't going to go there unless absolutely necessary to prevent serious damage.

::::Sorry, CQ, but there are some important issues here as to overall Wikiversity policy, especially if we want to start training very young users to cooperate and collaborate here, or at least to learn wiki process without being disruptive. If a school comes to us, perhaps with parental permission -- these users edit from home, sometimes --, and requests cooperation, great! But that has not happened. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 17:56, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

:::::Why bring this up on my user talk page? This is ''way'' out of scope for me at this time. I don't know what to say here. Sorry Moulton, Abd. -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] 23:22, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
::::::CQ, you blocked Mabuabsdd for two hours. Why? The block reason was ''‎(Inappropriate username: suspected sockpuppet)'' What's inappropriate? Yeah, Mabuabsdd has apparent socks, I was talking with him about that, but no harm was being done, it was all so obvious. And harmless. In the end, if the global lock is lifted, I'm pretty sure the accounts will all be sorted. There was a ''small'' amount of inappropriate activity on other wikis, very little, actually. Again, you catch more flies with honey than with vinegar. Our mission is education, and Mabuabsdd is a very bright elementary school kid whom we can train to be a cooperative user, or we can train him to be a block evader, and he'll have plenty of time to get good at either. I get the feeling this kid won't give up easily. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 23:41, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
----
::::*Have you ever heard of [[Talk:Action_research#A_Beginner.27s_Guide_to_Action_Research|Action Research]]?  —[[User:Moulton|Moulton]] 18:01, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

:::::Yes, Moulton. I'm involved in [[activism]] and [[action research]] within many spheres, these days. -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] 23:22, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

:::::*Sorry, I meant that for Abd.  I only came here because this is where the discussion was taking place.  —[[User:Moulton|Moulton]] 23:27, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

== You are invited to register for the Wikiversity Assembly ==
[[File:Democracy.gif|right]]
*The [[Wikiversity:Assembly]] has been established as a technique for developing reports on topics of import for Wikiversity administration. The Assembly is not a decision-making body, per se. Rather, it is designed to create or discover or estimate consensus, through focused, facilitated, thorough deliberation. Assembly reports may be referenced in regular Wikiversity discussions, but will not directly control outcomes. Where full consensus is not found, minority reports may be issued.
*I invite you to register for the [[Wikiversity:Assembly]] by adding your user name to the [[Wikiversity:Delegable proxy/Table]].

*Registering for the Assembly creates no specific obligation, but does consent to direct communication as the Assembly may determine is appropriate. You may opt out of such direct communication by adding &quot;no messages&quot; to the Table when you register, in the user comment field, but it is unlikely that the default (communication allowed) will create burdensome traffic for you.
===You are invited to name a proxy===
*When you register for the Assembly, you may optionally designate a &quot;proxy.&quot;

*I suggest that you nominate, as a proxy, the user whom you most trust to participate positively in a Wikiversity discussion if you are unable to participate yourself. The proxy will not be voting for you in any process. Rather, the proxy will be considered to loosely represent you, as a means of estimating probable large-scale consensus based on small-scale participation, in the event that you do not personally participate.

*If you name a proxy, you will be consenting to direct communication with you by that proxy.  If a named proxy accepts the proxy, you become, as long as you maintain the nomination (you may change it at any time), the &quot;client&quot; of the proxy, and by accepting, a proxy has consented to direct communication from the client.

*See [[Wikiversity:Delegable proxy]] for details.
===Comments===
I'm inviting all relatively inactive custodians to register for the Assembly, and to name a proxy as described. This is because you who have been and remain custodians have yourselves been trusted by the community, and your proxy choice, if you name one, may carry some reasonable weight, due to your experience. You may, of course, participate directly, whether you do or do not name a proxy. Thanks for considering this. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 01:34, 12 September 2011 (UTC)

== [[&amp;...]] ==
I am not putting up a deletion tag - but was is the whole purpose of the creation of [[&amp;...]]. Do not worry, I will settle this nicely with you! See ya, and please answer me on my [[User talk:Draubb|talk page]]! Have a nice day! --[[User:Draubb|Draubb]] ([[User talk:Draubb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Draubb|contribs]]) 20:28, 22 May 2013 (UTC)

== [[:File:Audacity-linux-small.jpg]] ==

With regard to this file on the [[Audacity]] main learning resource page, I could not find this exact screenshot located on http://audacity.sourceforge.net/about/screenshots but maybe I missed it and haven't looked hard enough. Could you please point to the exact webpage where you've found it? Note that images directly on the website provided by audacity.sourceforge.net itself are released under CC-BY 3.0, but user-created screenshots demonstrating personal use of the software could be licensed as GPL. In any case, I've uploaded their version of it at [[:File:Screenshot of Audacity on Linux - Audacity on SourceForge.png]] to Wikimedia Commons in case you wanted to use a larger equivalent. [[User:TeleComNasSprVen|TeleComNasSprVen]] ([[User talk:TeleComNasSprVen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TeleComNasSprVen|contribs]]) 00:07, 23 February 2014 (UTC)

:It is developing that we may be wiser to use local images, or local copies of images, because if we use Commons images, they may disappear if some problem is later discovered or asserted with the license. If we have the image locally, and if a license problem appears, we may be able to assert Fair Use. If the local copy is gone, this can become much more difficult. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 17:28, 23 February 2014 (UTC)

== Global account ==

Hi CQ! As a [[:m:Stewards|Steward]] I'm involved in the upcoming [[:m:Help:Unified login|unification]] of all accounts organized by the Wikimedia Foundation (see [[:m:Single User Login finalisation announcement]]). By looking at [[Special:CentralAuth/CQ|your account]], I realized that you don't have a global account yet. In order to secure your name, I recommend you to create such account on your own by submitting your password on [[Special:MergeAccount]] and unifying your local accounts. If you have any problems with doing that or further questions, please don't hesitate to contact me on my [[User talk:DerHexer|talk page]]. Cheers, [[User:DerHexer|DerHexer]] ([[User talk:DerHexer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DerHexer|contribs]]) 17:31, 12 February 2015 (UTC)
:OK. Thanks. I'm unifying everything I can under my trusty [[User:CQ]] account on all the projects. - [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 13:33, 17 July 2015 (UTC)

== Burl ==

Unfortunately, anonymous isn't interested in creating learning materials on [[Airsickness]].  The posts are continued attempts to vandalize Wikiversity.  I'm deleting the post, but if you find it to be a valuable resource, please restore it and move it under the Airsickness learning project.  Thanks!  -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:21, 25 March 2015 (UTC)

== Welcome back ==

We are just a sleepy college town, not much happening here, except for users quietly and freely learning and educating, and we like it that way. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 01:02, 29 June 2015 (UTC)
:Thanks [[User:abd|abd]]. I'm still a homeless transient with very intermittent Internet access using borrowed computers, but I'm still connected and very interested in [[Wikiversity:Quality]] and I am subscribed to the Wikiversity-I mailing list. If you happen to see something that needs my particular attention, please feel free to email me through the email feature. [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 13:37, 17 July 2015 (UTC)

== Yo, oldtimer! ==

Are you around? I'm looking for a wikicouch (tm) to crash on. :P
Let me know where your rolling stone is right now. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] ([[User talk:Historybuff|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Historybuff|contribs]]) 06:51, 9 December 2015 (UTC)
:Hey, Gerald! Been a long time. I'm in Paducah, Kentucky (See [[Paducah2020]] project). [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 21:59, 9 December 2015 (UTC)
::It certainly has been a long time. Are any of the old gang hanging out on IRC anymore? I have been coming into some free time and been neglecting my non-commercial learning for far too long. Just put my toe back in the water here, trying to get a sense of how things are going. Would be a blast to do some IRC-ing again. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] ([[User talk:Historybuff|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Historybuff|contribs]]) 02:46, 12 December 2015 (UTC)
:::A lot has changed around here. I'm on the INACTIVE list as a [[Wikiversity:Support staff|custodian]]. Cormac has essentially bailed and it looks like JW was virtually blackballed. I'm still lurking in the background as a shadow figure. I still have no resilient Internet access, so there's little I can do here for the time being. Hopefully, I'll get a base of operations up and running in order to resume the [[Wiki Campus Radio|original plan]].
::A lot has changed, that's for sure. Let me know where you are on your journey; it would be nice to get WCR fired back up. Hope you had a happy new year; all the best in this upcoming year! [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] ([[User talk:Historybuff|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Historybuff|contribs]]) 23:32, 5 January 2016 (UTC)
::::Capital! OzoneFarm.org is getting ready for the Total Solar Eclipse near Carbondale, IL on 21 August 2017. [[Wiki Campus Radio]] world premier debut! Be there! [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 02:21, 20 January 2016 (UTC)

== Jazz! ==

Thanks for joining the [[Topic:Jazz|Jazz project]].  I've waited 9 years!  Maybe we'll be '''''[[Jamming Online]]''''' soon! [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 01:13, 4 March 2016 (UTC)
:Yes ! Gladly ! [[User:Thierry613|Thierry613]] ([[User talk:Thierry613|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Thierry613|contribs]]) 13:53, 4 March 2016 (UTC)
:Do you know [http://www.masternewmedia.org/music_collaboration/music_jamming/online_music_collaboration_software_20050715.htm Ninjam] ? I'm just reading this page ; I've never tried that system before. --[[User:Thierry613|Thierry613]] ([[User talk:Thierry613|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Thierry613|contribs]]) 14:05, 4 March 2016 (UTC)

== School o' Music ==

Hey there, stranger,

you're listed as an active participant in the school of music. I'm just checking to see who's involved and how, just to get to know folks. I'm planning on adding a lot of content and I wanted to get some opinions on how to structure it. I'm trying to decide how to layer a complex project into the fabric of wikiversity and I' thought I'd bounce a question off of you. If someone were to try to organize an entire major through wikiversity, where would they put courses, where would they put individual pages for projects, and where would they host the whole major structure?

:Aanswered on [[User talk:Jon michael swift]] 19 April 2016 -- Thanks for participating! [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 21:34, 31 May 2016 (UTC)

== Campus Radio ==

So apparently there is this tool called Wikiradio... [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 00:05, 10 June 2016 (UTC)
:Yes. There's a page at meta &gt;&gt;&gt; [[m:Wikiradio (tool)|Wikiradio]] &amp;bull; [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 19:39, 10 June 2016 (UTC)

:: So any chance of getting Campus Radio running again using it? [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 18:17, 13 June 2016 (UTC)

:::Oh, definitely. The only thing that's prevented it is lack of interest and the fact that I've been off the grid for so long. Sometime this summer, I'm getting my unit online live. I'll have a Linux sound server in a well-equipped studio together soon, if all goes according to plan. I'm hoping other hosts will join the network. See also [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1MVB1RDkeS4Gh0eRtYhYPXFDK8I2ejcRyXi6ujtJPnH4/edit#heading=h.h2k6xzh7xvvt SYZYGY17] and [[SYZYGY17]] for a broader perspective about this ''plan''. Meanwhile, Here's me and my son doing some spontaneous music: https://soundcloud.com/charleyquinton/charley-and-sonmp3 .. [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 18:13, 16 June 2016 (UTC)

:Hey CQ, I saw you poked me a few years back before I fell back off the Wikiverse. I think I'm back for a while, and would be interested in putting together something like Campus Radio. I see they even did a Sandbox Server 2.0. Pretty cool. Hope all is well with you, and hope to see you soon! [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] ([[User talk:Historybuff|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Historybuff|contribs]]) 20:30, 13 October 2018 (UTC)

:: Oh yeah! I'm still on the job and moving through cyberspace like a Ninja (turtle). The quick response team from the future is still waiting patiently for the [[User:Historybuff|HistoryBuffer ]] to clear the [[user:CQ/Wikiverse|landing zone]]. * [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 02:35, 15 November 2018 (UTC)

:Glad to see your still around. We did some pretty cool stuff last time around on shoestring and nonexistent budgets with no funding, so I think it would be something we should look into doing again. I'm a bit at the mercy to the ebbs and flows of the Academic system right now, which means I actually have a bit of time now. My plan is to start small and work my way up. The other thing is I'm more flexible in my thinking now -- where before everything had to be on wiki or WMF palatable, I think we could do some small scale stuff as demos or proof of concept and see if the powers that be think that is worth supporting. I think that getting WCR moving first is the smaller and more achievable step, but I'd still like to see if we could do something with regards to a programming course. (I'm not convinced we NEED a sandbox server like we thought originally; but having a server would make some things easier). Anyways, one day and one step at a time.
:Let's get this party started! [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] ([[User talk:Historybuff|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Historybuff|contribs]]) 05:57, 13 December 2018 (UTC)

== Share your experience and feedback as a Wikimedian in this global survey ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
Hello! The Wikimedia Foundation is asking for your feedback in a survey. We want to know how well we are supporting your work on and off wiki, and how we can change or improve things in the future.&lt;ref&gt;This survey is primarily meant to get feedback on the Wikimedia Foundation's current work, not long-term strategy.&lt;/ref&gt; The opinions you share will directly affect the current and future work of the Wikimedia Foundation. You have been randomly selected to take this survey as we would like to hear from your Wikimedia community. To say thank you for your time, we are giving away 20 Wikimedia T-shirts to randomly selected people who take the survey.&lt;ref&gt;Legal stuff: No purchase necessary.  Must be the age of majority to participate. Sponsored by the Wikimedia Foundation located at 149 New Montgomery, San Francisco, CA, USA, 94105. Ends January 31, 2017. Void where prohibited. [[m:Community Engagement Insights/2016 contest rules|Click here for contest rules]].&lt;/ref&gt; The survey is available in various languages and will take between 20 and 40 minutes.


&lt;big&gt;'''[https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_6mTVlPf6O06r3mt&amp;Aud=AE&amp;Src=19AEOP Take the survey now!]'''&lt;/big&gt;


You can find more information about [[m:Community_Engagement_Insights/About_CE_Insights|this project]]. This survey is hosted by a third-party service and governed by this [[:foundation:Community_Engagement_Insights_2016_Survey_Privacy_Statement|privacy statement]]. Please visit our [[m:Community_Engagement_Insights/Frequently_asked_questions|frequently asked questions page]] to find more information about this survey. If you need additional help, or if you wish to opt-out of future communications about this survey, send an email to surveys@wikimedia.org.

Thank you!
--[[:m:User:EGalvez (WMF)|EGalvez (WMF)]]  ([[:m:User talk:EGalvez (WMF)|talk]]) 21:26, 13 January 2017 (UTC)
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== Hi, what does your MediaWiki bootcamp consist of exactly? ==

Is it related to using, administering, or developing MediaWiki? Thanks, [[User:MW131tester|MW131tester]] ([[User talk:MW131tester|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MW131tester|contribs]]) 14:14, 18 February 2019 (UTC)
: well... #ifexist MediaWiki bootcamp --- Nevermind -- give it another decade. [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]]) 02:11, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
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== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:53, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>bdgwv01k60bv5l6sym6zp7tc5qfy7qn</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Leighblackall</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>8194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409237</id>
      <parentid>2366416</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:54:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Activity Review */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16075" xml:space="preserve">'''Hi there! I look forward to talking with you. Please add new topics at the top of my talk page. I usually respond here rather than across talk pages. Thanks :)'''

==Archive==
2012 was a very quiet year

[[/2011/]]

[[/2010/]]

[[/2009/]]

[[/2008/]]

[[/2007/]]

[[/2006/]]

== 12 March OER conference ==

Hi Leigh. I'm a Wikipedia editor, mostly interested in medical topics. I'm on the board of [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiProject_Med WikiProject Med] and I'm interested in attending the above conference, mainly to listen and learn. I don't have any formal training in education, networking or learning, though, so do you think it would be approptiate for me to attend? --[[User:Anthonyhcole|Anthonyhcole]] ([[User talk:Anthonyhcole|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Anthonyhcole|contribs]]) 18:09, 3 March 2013 (UTC)

:Anthony, it is VERY appropriate. Your experience working with the WMF projects makes you particularly sort after. You'll have good advice on such work, if people (and hopefully they will) recognise just how much these projects offer the open education agendas. I hope you will come, and add your name to the event page. Your topic area of interest, will be even more important because we have a strong contingent from the Faculty of Health Sciences coming. [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 23:55, 3 March 2013 (UTC)

== [[Australian university]] ==
This page [[Australian university]] FYI. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:41, 28 March 2013 (UTC)
:Where will this lead James? [[La Trobe University]] [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 04:52, 28 March 2013 (UTC)
::Thanks for your help with this. Maybe goes nowhere, but at least it gives a quick overview of the activity on en.wv by Australian university. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:24, 15 April 2013 (UTC)
== [[Journalism studies and Wikinews]] ==
Great work - maybe add a summary of this to the [http://outreach.wikimedia.org/wiki/Education_Portal/Newsletter/Newsroom Outreach Wiki Education Newsletter Newsroom] for the May newsletter. I tested the waters in April and got up a brief article about [http://outreach.wikimedia.org/wiki/Education_Portal/Newsletter/April_2013/Survey_research_and_design_in_psychology_-_Example_of_a_Wikiversity_resource Survey research and design in psychology - Example of a Wikiversity resource] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:24, 15 April 2013 (UTC)
:Thanks for the encouragement James, but alas it looks as if the project is on its last legs. A few new reviewers in Wikinews (one with an association to Uni Canberra) have created significant discontent in this year's cohort of journalism students, causing the academic leading the project to pull the plug on engagement with Wikinews. I have looked into it, and while most of the comments from the reviewers were to the letter of Wikinews policy and guidelines, there appeared to be a number of instances of varying standards being applied to different types of news stories. So far this semester, not a single student in the cohort has succeeded in getting a story through. Most of this problem I think relates to the design of Wikinews, where the review process runs the risk of falling into the hands of a small group with limited diversity in perspective or experience - much like when groups get hold of administrator priveleges in any of the wiki projects, and use those to alienate and sideline certain types of contribution. This is both explicit and implicit, so difficult to hold to account. The review process develops a feeling of bad will in its simple implementation (red cross graphics, short sharp messages, guidelines made difficult through hypertext) and the preference of reviewers to not get involved in the development of the news story, which as we know is an effective way to teach people - especially in wikis, choosing to remain a reactive reviewer. So the result may well be that at least in this instance, the UoW project will draw to a close, and the findings of this paper will be updated with the new experiences and outcomes. [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 04:51, 17 April 2013 (UTC)

== Missing License Information ==

Hi!  I'm reviewing files missing license information and came across [[:File:Phe5polPoliticalThought.ogv]].  This is linked to your work on Public Health Policy.  Do you have a recommendation on how to handle this?  Can you get the original publisher to add a license?  -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:51, 2 March 2014 (UTC)

== Licensing policy study committee ==

On [[User_talk:Abd/Licensing_policy]] you requested being updated on the work of this Assembly Committee. The Assembly is a device for creating small-scale discussions, aimed toward creating consensus reports (either by agreement or by inclusion of all divergent points of view), and participation in the Assembly is open to any registered user, subject to Assembly clerking. The goal is to create coherent reports. I was, ah, unable to participate from November 2011 to last year, but it's about time to get this going again.

If you register as an Assembly member at [[Wikiversity:Delegable proxy/Table]], I would then list you as a Committee member, to be notified as seems appropriate. You are free to comment on the attached Talk pages regardless.

There have been interesting discussions lately, and I think it is possible to set up clear and easy-to-follow procedures, to clean up and avoid creating unmanageable messes. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 22:17, 18 March 2014 (UTC)

== Files Missing License Information ==

Thank you for uploading files to Wikiversity. See [[Wikiversity:Media]] for copyright and license requirements for Wikiversity files. All files must have copyright and/or license information added to the file.

Instructions for adding copyright and/or license information are available at [[Wikiversity:License tags]].  Files must be updated within seven days or they may be removed without further notice.  See [[RFD#Category:_Pending_deletions|Requests For Deletion]] for more information.

The following files are missing copyright and/or license information:
* [[:File:Credly - Educational content production and management.png]]

[[User:MaintenanceBot|MaintenanceBot]] ([[User talk:MaintenanceBot|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MaintenanceBot|contribs]]) 01:42, 27 September 2014 (UTC)

== International tourism ==

The resource [[international tourism]] appears to have been abandoned since 31 May 2007. So far it reads like an outline that hasn't been filled in. I can add a {{Tlx|Orphan|date=31 May 2007}} or a {{Tlx|Subpage|[[Tourism]]}} tag to help increase activity or put it up for deletion if you like. What do you think? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 09:50, 18 October 2014 (UTC)
: Hi Marshallsumter, I think the subpage template. At the very least it may offer content scope ideas to someone thinking to develop something. [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 19:57, 18 October 2014 (UTC)


==File Tagging [[:File:Aaaopenconf.png]]==
Thanks for uploading '''[[:File:Aaaopenconf.png]]'''. I notice the image page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the [[commons:Commons:Licensing|copyright]] status is unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the media on Wikiversity (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page. If the content is a [[commons:Commons:Derivative works|derivative]] of a copyrighted work, you need to supply the names and a license of the original authors as well.

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:{{tick}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:10, 19 April 2016 (UTC)

== Files Missing Source Information ==

I've been cleaning up file information. Most of the files you uploaded have source information, but I couldn't find anything for these. Please confirm that you are the creator / license holder of the following files.
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* [[:File:Ben-rattray.jpg]] {{tick}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
* [[:File:Kate-Pumpa.JPG]] {{tick}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
* [[:File:Keane-wheeler2.JPG]] {{tick}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
* [[:File:Keith.jpg]] {{tick}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
* [[:File:Pollogo.gif]] {{cross}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
* [[:File:Robin-mcconnell3.jpg]] {{tick}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
* [[:File:UC-Hothouse.gif]] {{cross}} [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 06:09, 19 April 2016 (UTC)
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[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:14, 14 April 2016 (UTC)
== Files Missing Information ==
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* [[:File:Design in photography Course-overview.jpg]]
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[[User:MaintenanceBot|MaintenanceBot]] ([[User talk:MaintenanceBot|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MaintenanceBot|contribs]]) 00:27, 26 March 2017 (UTC)

== Video journalism ==

Hi Leighblackall!

The resource [[Video journalism]] appears to be ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 22:26, 1 May 2017 (UTC)

:Hello [[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]], yes sure. I've quickly gone through it to fix links and formatting. [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 00:57, 2 May 2017 (UTC)

== I'll be back ==

Hi,

I'll be in Melbourne again in September; details and schedule TBA, but there should be an event on Sat 15th. &lt;span class=&quot;vcard&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;fn&quot;&gt;[[User:Pigsonthewing|Andy Mabbett]]&lt;/span&gt; (&lt;span class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Pigsonthewing&lt;/span&gt;); [[User talk:Pigsonthewing|Talk to Andy]]; [[Special:Contributions/Pigsonthewing|Andy's edits]]&lt;/span&gt; 19:02, 31 July 2018 (UTC)

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johan_(WMF)/Target_lists/Admins2022(3)&amp;oldid=22532499 --&gt;

== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:54, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>1ov2vbeors69wr39q24wd5j3tknyqd9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Juandev</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
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      <id>2409236</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Activity Review */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="66454" xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #084080; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top;color:#000000;font-size: 85%&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#CEF2E0; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; color:#082840; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt; '''Hello Juan! [[Wikiversity:Welcome, newcomers|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity?|Wikiversity]]!''' If you decide that you need help, check out [[Wikiversity:Help desk]], ask the [[Wikiversity:Support staff|support staff]], or ask me on my talk page. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign your name]] on talk pages using four tildes (~&amp;#126;~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. Below are some recommended guidelines to facilitate your involvement. {{{1|}}} Happy Editing! -- [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 17:35, 31 October 2006 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
|}
{| style=&quot;border-spacing:8px;margin:0px -8px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting Started&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Get an Introduction to Wikiversity]]
* [[Wikiversity:Guided tour|Take a guided tour]]
* [[Help:Editing|How to edit a page]]
* [[Wikiversity:Be bold|Be bold in editing]]
* [[Portal:Learning Projects|Learning Projects]]
* [[Wikiversity:What Wikiversity is not|What Wikiversity is not]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting your info out there&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|Cite your sources]]
* [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|Neutral Point of View]]
* [[Wikiversity:Verifiability|Verifiability]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting more Wikiversity rules&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Policies|Policy Library]]
|-
|}
|class=&quot;MainPageBG&quot; style=&quot;width: 55%; border:1px solid #FFFFFF; background-color:#F5FFFA; vertical-align:top&quot;|
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top; background-color:#F5FFFA&quot;
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #CEF2E0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting Help&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Questions|Questions]]
* [[Wikiversity:Research|Research guidelines]]
* [[Wikiversity:Help desk|Help Desk]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting along&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]]
* [[Wikiversity:Signature|Sign your posts]]
* [[Wikiversity:Scholarly ethics|Scholarly ethics]]
|-
! &lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0; background-color:#084080; font-family: sans-serif; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #cef2e0; text-align:left; color:#FFC000; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em;&quot;&gt;Getting technical&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;color:#000&quot;|
* [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]
|-
|}
|}
|}


==[[Test_and_Quiz|Test and Quiz]]==
Hello Juan, I have replied to your question [[Talk:Test_and_Quiz#Real_test|here]]. --[[User:Erkan Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] 18:51, 17 December 2006 (UTC)

== Spanish speakers ==

To find other teachers, please look at the lists [[Spanish/Students|here]] and [[Topic:Foreign_Language_Learning/Participant_Coordination#Spanish_2|here]].  You can also find potential students on both of those pages.  [[User:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] 22:08, 15 March 2007 (UTC)
:Ou, thanks and also for copyediting. I will have a look next week.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 14:36, 16 March 2007 (UTC)
::No problem.  I've hit some of the major things that will cause comprehension problems, but many of them still could use further proofreading.  I highly recommend you check out the [[Topic:English Language|English Language]] Department and the [[Portal:Writing Center|Writing Center]] and check out some of the resources there to brush up on your English.  If you're not sure what a word is in English, [[:wikt:|Wiktionary]] can be helpful, as well as the English Wikipedia (I use this method all the time for French words I don't know).  [[User:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] 10:02, 22 March 2007 (UTC)
:OK, next time Ill try to do better job. I will use Microsoft Word to corect my texts. I promise.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 12:11, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

==ayudar==
Yo puedo ayudar, pero coordínate con Spanish One y poned bien claro lo que se puede hacer, no es nada evidente para los que entramos por aquí
:Es que aquí tenemos dos sistemas diferentes de la enseňaza, pero inmentaré a hacer algo con esto. Quizá la semana que viene.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 18:34, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

:Aunque hace tiempo que no edito en la Wikiversidad, no me he desvinculado. Ahora estoy preparando una encuesta sobre el uso de wikis para aprender vocabulario. Disculpa que no pueda ayudarte en estos momentos. De todas formas estaré pendiente de tus aportaciones. Además, te comento, por si no lo sabías, que acaban de implementar la extensión para hacer pruebas de conocimiento en Wikiversidad. [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Quiz] Espero que la puedas sacar provecho. Un saludo, --[[User:Javier Carro|Javier Carro]] 14:00, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

Muchas gracias por tu respuesta y por el enlace. Aquí an la wikiversidad existen low &quot;scripts&quot; para examinar, pero para mí muy difíciles. Necesito algo más fácil. Espero que ese en mediawiki sería mejor. Si se trata del vocabulario eso es lo que necesitamos para los cursos de las lenguas aquí para los estudiantes - diccionario útil. Es que Wikcionario en inútil usamos los diccionarios externos. Quizá Sendbox server nos dará una platforma nueva. Ahora solomante puedo preparar con otros la databasis de las palabras como ha mostrado en la discusion [[Wikiversity talk:Sandbox Server#Wikitionary and Wikispecies interface|aquí]].--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 14:13, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

== Topic:Spanish ==

Hi Juan - i just saw [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Jorge&amp;diff=105968&amp;oldid=87172 this comment] you made a while back. I'm just interested - what do you mean by &quot;an unfriendly environment&quot; at the old Topic:Spanish page? It'd be good to know how to make things a little friendlier. :-) Salud. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 00:10, 23 April 2007 (UTC)
:Well. &quot;Unfriendly environment&quot; was a html script there. Template, which I uploaded there is friendlier to edits, but of course it will be still... Anyway someone may say that the future appereance was friendlier than this. So it is a question. I had to change its source code, cus I coudlnt support that code by new data (lot of time looking what fits where.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 13:47, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

== fr wikiversity ==

I have just seen your comment and I'm sorry to answer your question so  late, if  you always need a poster contact me on the french wikiversity &lt;br/&gt;[[:fr:Utilisateur:Vivelefrat]]

== spanish course ==

It says to register or sign in. How do I do that. I am very interested in learning Spanish for personel use as well as for work. Please an suggestion as to improve my spanish and to join different classes would be greatly appriciated
:Well, it sais. But I am not actually having a computer at home so, I can support the spanish courses so much as I would like. Anyway, you allready now a little bit of Spanish. I so it woudl be better to meet e.g via skype?--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 11:47, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

== Hola ==

Hi Juan. Your invitation made my day. The previous work on this page was something too cold and naive. It irritated me so I left. I've checked your proposal and is very good. I think it's very important, to make it more faster, to create that IRC channel. I would like to colaborate, as a teacher (I'm native speaker) and with recordings. I'd like to meet you also to coordinate better --[[User:Elnole|Elnole]] 01:01, 26 July 2007 (UTC)

:Nice to here that. I think our students are a little bit pissed off, but they dont understand that it is not a fun, to make a lively course. Anyway, recently a few people started to do lessons - so thats good. I think we need to apply slogan of Wikiversity of &quot;Studying by doing&quot; teachers will just coordinate students and practice with them. Students on other hand will study and slowly, make a teaching content wich will be controlled by us. Anyway, have you seen my concept on [[Spanish: An Introduction]]? There are still some of the technical difficulties, thats why it slowed down its development. I hope people from service and support will help us more in the future, that we can do our work more effective.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 13:09, 26 July 2007 (UTC)

OK. When be back here on wikiversity lets record some words and during that time I might prepare some text. Now I am ready to buy a computer and internet to home, so everything will hopefully go faster.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 10:47, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

== Note ==

I left a reply for you at [[Wikiversity talk:Support staff]]. [[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 12:53, 27 July 2007 (UTC)

== Hola ==

Hello Juan! I'm a university student studying Spanish with the intent of becoming a professor and I'd love to help with the Spanish division project.  Just drop me a line and let me know what I can do to help.

Thanks,
klmv

:Are you able to record pronunciation? If so, could you record orange words from these sites: [[Spanish: An Introduction/Pronunciation#Pronunciation]] and [[Spanish: An Introduction/Pronunciation#Stress]]. If not, there is also a need to build up a second lesson here: [[Spanish: An Introduction/Hola]]. Anyway, we maight have an skype or IRC chat with other people and coordinate our work in here. There is a lot to do. And we have one advantage, that there is a continuous interest for Spanish courses.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 10:44, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

== Regarding private foundation ==

Hi Juan,  I think you are referring to an idea to establish a foundation dedicated to just Wikiversity.  At the time the Wikimedia Foundation had been stalling over whether to authorize Wikiversity on its servers for several years.   The idea generated no interest and a lot of hostility so I have not pursued it.  At this time support from Wikimedia Foundation seems adequate so I see no need for a competing Foundation.   Thanks for the inquiry. [[user:mirwin]]
:Now I see what you ment.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 19:04, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

== [[Bloom Clock]] stuff ==

Hi Juan,

Interesting talking to you on IRC and your talk at the same time :). Here's the scoop:

When there is a log page available, add your signature there, rather than on the text list (otherwise it just has to be moved later). The easiest way is to just hit the little edit link above the recent logs list.

Then add templates to the BCP profile. I only set them up for this account (Juan) so far:
*add {{tl|bcp/prag/10}} to categorize for &quot;blooming in October in Prague&quot;
*if you want to add the status as well, add {{tl|bcp/prag/np}} for native plants, {{tl|bcp/prag/ip}} for invasive plants, and/or {{tl|bcp/prag/gp}} for cultivated plants (plants can of course be both invasive and cultivated, or native and cultivated).

More on the keys later, but the unsorted key for Prague in October is [[Bloom Clock/Keys/Prague/October/All]]. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 13:11, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

== solar system ==

hi, and thanks for your work on the solar system pages.  I noticed that [[Solar System/Earth/Solar System overwiev]] has an incorrect spelling of &quot;overview&quot; in the title.  The pages in [[:Category:Solar System]] should probably be renamed.  Let me know if you need any help with this by leaving a message at my talk page.--[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] 00:23, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

:Thanks Ive correct it.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 11:37, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

== {{tl|Wmdgs-wikipedia-survey2}} ==

Hi Juan. I was looking at this template, and noticed a number of issues with it (sorry) :). First, you're not really using #switch correctly, so the box and category displays won't work... I started a replacement template at {{tl|Wmdgs-wikipedia-survey2a}}, where you should be able to see the switching language used better. {{tl|Wmdgs-makesurveyquestion-2}} can help you design future questions that have 2 possible answer (I'm trying to catch hold of darkcode to create on that allows any number of answers). 

Otherwise, I'm not sure about a few of the actual topics. 
#&quot;IP/registered&quot; and &quot;number of accounts&quot; might be more for a wikimedia survey rather than just wikipedia. Also maybe use a scaled response (always registered, usually registered, sometimes ..., rarely ..., never registered)
#&quot;Home project&quot; is already covered in the general survey
#The group of questions on &quot;Why someone made their first edit&quot; could probably be collapsed into one single question. 
#Language questions should be a different surcey altogether, since this affects how someone approaches all the projects (not just WP). 
#How someone first discovered wikimedia and their first project are probably better in a general survey of all wikimedians (since it can ask instead just &quot;what was your first project?&quot;, &quot;which project did you first edit?&quot;, &quot;which project did you first read?&quot;)

I'm not really sure what you mean by &quot;left to other project&quot;. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 12:42, 13 January 2008 (UTC)

:Well, you are right, that I was not thinking a lot when creating this template. I have just copyed one of yourse and overpasting some data. And now answers to your points:

:1) Well, some users, are editing regullary and they are not register (I know this from cs), so I wanted to ask: Are you registered or not? The second part: &quot;scalede responsee&quot; - I should tell you that I dont know what does it mean e.g. &quot;rarely registere&quot;? On Wikiversity we have more accounts on Wikipedia it is not so much common, so you are right that it would be better to leave this answer for future, I would like to also know, why people on wikipedia has more accounts.
:2) I thout, each survey is unique. Now I see, I was wrong. But, it is possible that users, will not respond all surveys - then well be missing answers. 
:3) well, yes.
:4) here would be the same reply as for no. 2
:5) hmmm.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 20:51, 14 January 2008 (UTC)

::I hope you don't mind, but I copied this to [[Template talk:Wmdgs-wikipedia-survey2]] (I was relinking stuff on the Wikipedia discussion page). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 12:04, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

== [[Wikimedian Demographics]] update ==

Hello Juan. I'm writing because you [[:Category:WMDGS/Remind me please|requested a reminder]] about progress on [[Wikimedian Demographics]]. For the time being these will be about once per month.

Speaking of reminders, it turns out the template question isn't the most efficient way of coming up with a mailing list. If you want to recieve this message on another of your talk pages (or don't want them at all), please edit the list on [[Wikimedian Demographics/Reminders]]. 

To update on progress so far, there have been somewhere around 50 respondents over the past month, with more trickling in slowly but steadily. There are 7 major surveys (or 12, depending on how you count them):
#The basic survey (about your participation in Wikimedia)
#The &quot;geography&quot; surveys (actually 6 of those, for each inhabited continent)
#The Operating System survey (still stubby)
#The Wikipedia survey
#The Commons survey
#The US presidential elections survey
#The sexuality and relationships survey

Only the geography surveys have had any major modifications since being originally posted (more countries were added to those). 

Several new surveys have been discussed at [[Talk:Wikimedian Demographics]], as well as other places within Wikiversity. A few that might be ready sometime in February include:
*A survey about Women in Wikimedia
*A survey about Wikibooks
*A survey about Wikiversity
*A survey about administrative issues (including cross-wiki topics such as CheckUser and &quot;global blocking&quot;)
*A survey about environmental issues
*A survey about religion
*A survey about international trade

If you have ideas for more surveys, please share them on [[Talk:Wikimedian Demographics]]. Thanks for your participation thus far, and we hope to see you soon! --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 11:58, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

:Oh, thanks for this. Right now, I am completly without free time.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 22:47, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

==Czech content==
[[User talk:Tapoo|ping]], ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] [[Wikiversity:Chat|&lt;small&gt;Wikiversity:Chat&lt;/small&gt;]] 21:23, 7 March 2008 (UTC)
:Could you have a look also [[Cizinecka policie v0.2|here]] please. Lately much Czech pages here - is there an invasion :-) ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] [[Wikiversity:Chat|&lt;small&gt;Wikiversity:Chat&lt;/small&gt;]] 18:58, 11 March 2008 (UTC)

== Genus cats ==

Why are you removing them? It helps to have those for navigating sometimes, etc. I'm thinking about adding a field for species as well in the next template version, since I'm doing a bunch of cultivars too, so that will also make it easier to keep track . --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:10, 23 March 2008 (UTC)
:Well I thouth genus profile, doesnt fit to genus cat:(--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 23:14, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

::It's really just to keep things sorted... genera in particular need to have included species linked and tracked to keep data up-to-date. See changes to [[BCP/Salix]] to see what I mean :). 
::BTW, see also [[Talk:Bloom Clock/Global Key]]. I'm switching categories on that after the cue updates, but it looks like it will show you matching up to &quot;Early Spring&quot; for March (it matches &quot;Late Winter&quot; here. More on that later :).

:Well, OK. I can understand that.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 15:29, 31 March 2008 (UTC)

==Featured content==
&quot;On other existing Wikiversities, I havent found something simillar to so called Featured Content.&quot; ([http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:OhanaUnited/Sister_Projects_Interview&amp;curid=54427&amp;diff=237617&amp;oldid=237509])
:on de.WV for example there is [[:de:Wikiversity:Kandidaten für empfehlenswerte Kurse]] (candidates for recommendable courses) - but it is only one yet in. I guess people are not so much interested in it, ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat|Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])&lt;/small&gt; 12:51, 31 March 2008 (UTC)
:Well, lets add in this link there, not here.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 15:30, 31 March 2008 (UTC)

== Spanish lessons ==

Hi, Juan. I read some Spanish lessons and I find them very interesting, like the wikibook. If you need any help I want to help you. Ah, I was near to forgot to say it, I am Spanish. [[User:Akhram|Akhram]] 23:15, 9 April 2008 (UTC).

:Well, recently many people said, its a mess. So I would say that the best way, will be if the people will not write their answers on the appropriate page, but they will do i on theier subuserpage. Something like: User:name/Spanish. There are two of them. Do you have any idea, I mean your own idea how to organise the courses? --[[User:Juan|Juan]] 20:06, 10 April 2008 (UTC)
:That option seems to me very good. We can use a template like &lt;nowiki&gt;{{student|Spanish}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;, or so, which the interested users can put in their user page. With this template, the inclusion of the student in a [[:Category:Spanish Student|category of control]] is automatic, so, their administration will be easier. [[User:Akhram|Akhram]] 00:57, 12 April 2008 (UTC).

On the other hand, I have been looking the Spanish Language Division and it seems too quiet and a little confuse. Do you know how many people are really active (as teachers, as students)? Now, the division has a lot of secondary pages with a long lists of participants which may be outdated. I am not a foreign language teacher, so, I have no idea about the organization of courses and contents... but I can help with:
*Grammar, spelling or exercises correction.
*Resources addition (from Spain, it is very easy to find varied useful material).
*Wiki-encoding support.
*Clerical asistance in general.
[[User:Akhram|Akhram]] 00:57, 12 April 2008 (UTC).

:Well, I would say noone is active. There were some teachers offering help, but nothing was done. Nor on the level of the courses. So its inactive. Aaaa, thank you for your support. The biggest problem I see is that I am just one interested in creating courses, but I dont have enought time to prepare hole course. Its a lot of work. So as I said somewhere, Iam thinking to make hole raw course - I mean just basics for each lesson, and then by some ways students/participants will extend it. Because it is better to have hole corse on 20 %, than have firts to lessons perfect and theny nothing. I think the design could be simmillar to this: [[betawikiversity:Práce na Wikipedii]]. Anyway if you like, come to wikiversity-en channel I am there quite often.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 21:29, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

== Spanish Language Division... again! ==

Hola de nuevo, Juan. Tras pasar unas cuantas horas revisando el material existente, ya empiezo a hacerme una idea general del proyecto y de sus necesidades. En primer lugar, me gustaría revisar la estructura del portal y organizar la estructura del directorio, las categorías y las páginas duplicadas. Por otro lado, estoy comprobando las listas de participantes para verificar quiénes siguen interesados en el proyecto y poder agruparlas todas en una única página para facilitar el trabajo. De modo que, me gustaría quedar contigo, en el Skype o en el IRC para saber qué planes tienes sobre el tema. [[User:Akhram|Akhram]] 03:10, 13 April 2008 (UTC).

== Kostival lékařský ==

Ahoj, šla by založit stránka pro kostival lékařský (Symphytum officinale)? Díky. --[[User:Chemgym|Chemgym]] 14:42, 28 April 2008 (UTC)

== syntax error ==

Should be working now... not sure why it wasn't before (it used the exact same phrase as the New Region 4 field). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 08:40, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

==New Template Version==
You might have noticed that ''new'' profiles created using {{tl|bcp3}} now have a number of changes in the bottom template (changed on Monday, then I haven't had much time since then to get a note out). The main changes involve the fields which previously required the use of additional templates (such as {{tl|bcp/white}} for white flowering plants). These &quot;embedded&quot; templates have caused a great deal of confusion among some of the new contributors.

On the new template, each of the colors has it's own field. To mark a plant as possible blooming in that color, simply put a &quot;y&quot; or &quot;yes&quot; after the equal sign (similarly for marking plants as herbaceous, etc.). Similarly for all the new fields

For the moment, &quot;forb&quot; should be used for any plant that has no woody parts above ground and is not a vine (e.g., [[BCP/Hemerocallis]] has a &quot;y&quot; for both &quot;herbaceous =&quot; and &quot;forb =&quot;, while [[BCP/Ipomoea hederacea]] has a &quot;y&quot; for both &quot;herbaceous = &quot; and &quot;vine = &quot;). Note that annuals, grasses, sedges, etc. should also be classified as forbs or the time being.

Mike's bot will come through and update the older pages hopefully sometime in the next few days. The old fields will still work for now... several categories will allow us to keep track of which profiles use the older versions (I couldn't figure out an easy way to get the bot to redo the data, so we'll have to do that manually). 

Note that the log pages are a bit different now as well, using an (updatable) template instead of text, and using headers differently to allow grouping by year. These can easily be updated by adding &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:bcp3-logs}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; to the top of the page, then deleting the old text and moving the logs.--[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 09:40, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

== Plants in cantral europe ==

Hi Juan, since your regularly request plants from czech republic, i want to invite you to the project &quot;atlas of central european plants&quot; ([[:de:Projekt:Atlas der Blütenpflanzen]]), where finding places of plants shall be collected. it is in german, but i can add an english introduction. and with the scientific names, it is international anyway. would be really great, if you could provide the places, where you took your photos, for this project. regards, -- [[User:Turnvater Jahn|Turnvater Jahn]] 15:04, 20 May 2008 (UTC)
:Sounds good. But my knoweledge of German is zero. So could you place there and introduction, please. Maybe I will study a little bit:-)--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 11:01, 23 May 2008 (UTC)

== msg @ German Wikiversity ==
[[:de:Benutzer Diskussion:Juandev|ping]], ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat|Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])&lt;/small&gt; PS: Tag a learning project with [[:Category:Completed_resources|completion status]] !! 22:49, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

== Juan, did you mean &quot;sending&quot;? ==

&quot;I though I am selling somewhere my opinion.&quot; or &quot;I though I am sending somewhere my opinion.&quot;  [[User:Robert Elliott|Robert Elliott]] 21:20, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

:I dont know what you are talking about. Could you link it?--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 19:28, 8 June 2008 (UTC)

==[[Wikiversity:Nominations for checkuser/Erkan_Yilmaz#Community discussion]]==
Hello Juan, thanks for the feedback. Would you like to go a step further and provide some more info ? ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])&lt;/small&gt; 19:28, 28 June 2008 (UTC)
:No.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 21:12, 28 June 2008 (UTC)

== re:old plants ==

Yeah, I do it all the time (especially in winter when I go through my photos from the past year). Easiest way I've found is to just alter the signature for one of your accounts (using [[Special:Preferences]]), adding both the signature of the appropriate account ''and'' the date you're logging from, make sure raw signatures is selected, and then sign using three tildes rather than four (since the date is already in the signature, and of course is not the current date). Just remember to change it again when you want to log from another account or date, and of course if you're signing on someone's talk page or something :). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:46, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

== Uh oh ==

Hi Juan. You're using an old template version for new page creates (noticed it on [[BCP/Nepeta cataria]]). The new one doesn't include the color, calendar season, type, or pollination prompts (see [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=BCP%2FNepeta_cataria&amp;diff=290761&amp;oldid=289441 diff]). Careful please when altering templates, since the 'bot updates won't work if they're not standard. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]] | &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 08:25, 3 July 2008 (UTC)
:Well, I am using templates of existing othere profiles. I thought, that when you change basic templates its being changed than for other profiles.--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 06:09, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

== answer ==

Hi! This is to answer [[Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Custodianship/Gbaor#Discussion_and_questions|your last question]] I hadn't noticed earlier. I don't think there is a notable difference between WV custodian and WP admin in rights or duties. The difference in naming is (according to me) to emphasize the differences between these projects (openness to original research) --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 10:46, 4 July 2008 (UTC)
:Why you are answering here and not there, where I asked? Anyway, have you got an idea, how custodians can emphasize openness and difference? Can you give a particular example?--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 06:16, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
::Sorry for the late answer (again) :) I answered it here because of the advise of Erkan Yilmaz [[User talk:Gbaor#Custodianship.|here]]. About your next question, what I meant is written also [[w:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2008-05-09/Wikiversity interview#What are some of the tasks done by administrators (custodians)?|here]], probably better. Change in naming of sysops (e.g. ''custodian'' not ''admin'') should also emphasize, that something, may be forbidden in other projects (e.g. original research on WP), but allowed here at WV --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 10:58, 24 July 2008 (UTC)

==Czech Wikiversity==
[[User talk:Doktory|ping]], ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])&lt;/small&gt; 17:16, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

== Wikiversity Day ==

Hi Juan. If you wish to argue about the date of Wikiversity Day, please feel welcome, and please conduct the debate where other Wikiversitarians can join in. I have created a page at [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity Day/controversy]] which summarises your arguments as well as the counter-arguments. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 04:41, 7 August 2008 (UTC)
:You havent understood. I am talking about &quot;global&quot; Wikiversity Day for all Wikiversitians (such as from Spanish Wikiversity).--[[User:Juan|Juan]] 18:29, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

== task list  ==

I've added a couple of items for you to take a look at.  Let me know if you have any questions or need any advice.  --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:11, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

== Custodian task list ==

Place here some tasks for this student:
*[[How to be a Wikimedia sysop]]
*[[:Category:Candidates for speedy deletion]] {{done}}
*[[:Category:Copy to Wikimedia Commons]]

== IP address ==

Juan, please don't indefinitely block ip addresses since one may be shared by many people. [[User:Hillgentleman|Hillgentleman]] | //\\ |[[User talk:hillgentleman|Talk]] 00:10, 9 January 2009 (UTC)
:You mean this: 207.245.247.196? I dont know what is the problem? Maybe the template on its user page that it is a block. If someone would like to use it, he can register (look: &quot;with an expiry time of infinite (anonymous users only, cannot edit own talk page)&quot;. Well, if you browse Google, you can find out there are multiple problems with this IP: [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;fkt=1217&amp;fsdt=3198&amp;q=207.245.247.196+&amp;aq=f&amp;oq=] such as e.g. this: [http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:207.245.247.196] where it is believed it is an open proxy. So how to prevent Wikiversity against such vandalisms?--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 07:34, 9 January 2009 (UTC)
:So finally after some discussion on cs.wp IRC, I have reblock this IP to 3 days.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 08:10, 9 January 2009 (UTC)
::Open proxies are generally blocked 1 year on wm projects. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 13:14, 9 January 2009 (UTC)
:::Didnt know that. On cs we are blocking OP indefinite.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 13:58, 9 January 2009 (UTC)

== AC ==
Hi juan, thanks for cleaning up my work a little, Is there a reason it still isn't showing on the main topic page? It only shows when I am logged in for some reason. [[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 01:10, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
:Now I dont understand you. What is the main topic page? What should be show there?--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 08:35, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
::Errrr, sorry. I thought you are someone different. Let me see what is the problem:-)--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 08:45, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
:Maybe this will help:
:*You have some problems to watch pages you are editing? - lets try this &quot;when you are log in click on&quot; MY PREFERENCES --&gt; WATCHLIST --&gt; than &quot;Add pages I create to my watchlist&quot; and &quot;Add pages I edit to my watchlist&quot; should be ticked.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 09:05, 11 January 2009 (UTC)

Ok, I did that but it still doesn't change the fact that the whole page I have been editing doesn't show on the WikiVersity Artificial Consciousness Topic page. Whenever I jump to that page outside my account the page reverts back to the original page with nothing but the Welcome message. It's probably something I did wrong being a bit naive about Wiki technology, but It's confusing me because I am never sure which version of my main page is being edited. Does this make more sense? {{unsigned| Graeme E. Smith}}

:I am sorry my friend not replying to you. I havent been here for couple of days as I entered a new possition of a scientist in the Agricultural Museum. Let me show you this:
:*[[Topic:Artificial consciousness]]
:*[[Artificial Consciousness]]
:You can see, there are two pages. When there is nothing at the first one, the other one is full of your edits. That is not a problem, here you can see how I repaired that: [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Topic:Artificial_consciousness&amp;diff=405837&amp;oldid=276275]. Does it now make sence to you. There are basicaly two pages. Nothing is automatical in Wikiversity. Hope, that we have removed your problem. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 23:54, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

Oh, Sorry about not signing that message.... I keep forgetting, I seem to have access through the Wikiversity page now to my work, which might mean that it was a problem with my browser. Sorry for the confusion. Uh, I just started experimenting with sub-pages, and I have a problem that I don't know how to get around. When I anchor a subpage, it types the whole page/subpage name in my document. Is there someway to suppress the extra information in order to keep the meaning more clear? --[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 01:32, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

:Well sometimes it helps to cleare your cache. In Internet Explorer pressing CTRL+F5. For other browsers I can look up how to do that if you need. Uf in this case I dont understand you. I dont for example know, what does it mean &quot;to anchor a subpage&quot;. If you are in wiki environment, you can &quot;lets say&quot; anchor the page via to ways:
:*place a link to the page (e.g. &lt;nowiki&gt;[[User talk:Juandev/Not existing page|This page doesnt exist]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, which will give you [[User talk:Juandev/Not existing page|This page doesnt exist]] and after typeing you will get the page which doesnt exist and it is placed at '''User talk:Juandev/Not existing page''')
:*or you can place there a redirect (e.g. &lt;nowiki&gt;#REDIRECT [[User talk:Juandev/Not existing page]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;), but redirect works just when it is placed alone on the page and in fact it is not design to create subpages. 

:So maybe to reply you. If you would like to anchor a subpage to your document without extra information. You will placed there something like &lt;nowiki&gt;[[Artificial Consciousness/Documents|Documents]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; which will result in: [[Artificial Consciousness/Documents|Documents]]. Its like: &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:cs:Pes|pes]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; will result in [[w:cs:Pes|pes]]:-) --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] 23:54, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

:Ok, I have rebuilt my contributions a bit, using that technique and it works great! the problem I have now is that I am trying to figure out how to embed a file from wiki commons the file involved is File:Consciousness phenomenal-functional(en).png I'd like to edit it a bit, and reference it from my file but I haven't figured out how to borrow it to edit it, or how to display it once I have an edited copy.--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 04:38, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Study this: [[w:Wikipedia:Picture tutorial]]. In short. You find a picture on Commons and this &lt;nowiki&gt;[[File:Consciousness phenomenal-functional (en).png|thumb|This is a [[w:Picture|picture]]]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; results in this: [[File:Consciousness phenomenal-functional (en).png|thumb|This is a [[w:Picture|picture]]]]&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt; But there are also other parameters you may use, such as PX, frame, boarder and so on. Have a fun during studying.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 06:21, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

:Sorry to bother you again but I am building a portal at [[Portal: GreySmith Institute]] and I want to implement 4 forums and a repository, I have been informed that I should build the repository under the CC.whatever copyright instead of GFDL. So far looking at the Research Forum and the WikiCollequium I see that they are very similar to normal wiki pages. However I have a question, how do I place the Table of Contents? None of my pages seem to have it visible, yet I haven't designated a NOTOC line except as part of the Portal template. Further, is it possible to designate under what copyright a page should be opened?--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 22:40, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

::No thats fine. Those coments were mine of course. Well, in the case of the licence. If something is placed on the Wikiversity it is GFDL by default, but authors of the edits can give additional licences. And I was recomending the other licence, because I probably misunderstood, what do you want to do. But I think licence is not a problem for this time. Only what I can recomend you is tu dubble licence your contributions. It is usually done via template, like this Dual license: {{template|Dual license: GFDL with CC-BY-SA 3.0 }} (or {{template|self}}) or simple phrase placed on your user page. Any other asociated documents could by just CC. Next time, I can explain you why, but back to your questions. To the question of the forums: yes, forums are normal wiki pages, so nothing special. They can be better (e.g. new namespace ([[cs:Fórum:Španělština|example]]), new extension ([http://juan.tolerance95.cz/index.php/Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:AWCforum example]), but this needs time and people agreement). Table of Contents? Well it only works if there are sections done via &lt;nowiki&gt;= Heading 1 =, == Heading 2 ==, === Heading 3 ===&lt;/nowiki&gt;. So in the case of the portals you are creating it wont work. You should create it manualy probably doing it via a new template. --[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 23:26, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

Ok, I'll hold off on the paper storage location for now, until I understand the license options better, I think I can play with the idea of a forum now, and see where it gets me.--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 00:04, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

:Well, the explanation is easy. Both licenses are free. GFDL license were made deep done in 70s for some Unix documentation and when Wikipedia was launched as the first project of WMF (Wikiversity is the last) all content started to be distributed under GFDL. At that time there were no other free licenses instead of PD. PD seem to be to much open for the funding people and moreover it varies country by country, when GFDL is more uniform. Than few years after CC licences were created and people noticed that Wikimedia content would be better to have under CC licences. Why? GFDL was not design for this kind of information sharing. Major problem is that when you would like to ditribute and/or modify and distribute data formely licensed as GFDL with every copy all about 5 A4 pages should go together and also full history. Thats why we have here this kind of database history and thats why we import from other projects instead of simple copy&amp;paste. But imagine, you are having a picture licensed under GFDL and you would like to distribute it via printed version. It is nearly imposible, because you have to attach full license and its history. Look at this cartoon:
[[File:BD-propagande colour en.jpg|center|800px]]
:But if you use CC license you can ditribute and/or modify and distribute data just with writingh down the major author(s) and linking the sourse and license itself. It doesnt matter if it is on-line or printed version. So majorly right now wikimedians are double licensing their files (which goes to Wikimedia Commons) and their contributions. The official policy of WMF is thatn to migrate from GFDL to CC. My personnal recomendation thatn would be that all separete files you will license just CC-BY-SA 3.0 and all contributions tu the project dubble licensed GFDL (you have to, as it is default license of the project) and CC-BY-SA 3.0. Any q?--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 01:35, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

OK, let me get this straight. As an original content supplier as long as I am creating a project out of thin air, I am OK, the problem with GDFL is that it requires the whole project to be kept together, plus a HIstory, and a referral to license in any copies. CC-etc, gives creative control, which allows others to borrow my work and break it up into useful chunks, and make use of the chunks as long as the file lists the authors of the chunks, and who was first etc. So if I double license, I can expect my picture of Abe Lincoln to show up with a mustache? But at least it will list that I wasn't the person who added the mustache?--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 15:49, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

:Yes those are free/open licenses (GFDL, CC, PD). It doesnt matter which you choose all allow other people to modify your work (so e.g. to add a mustache to your Ave Lincoln picture). Well of course, for they pictures usually say: Abe Lincoln mustage.jpg (Author Pete Grant), compilation from abe lincoln.jpg (original author Graeme E. Smith). Look:
:*[http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ CC] (and some examples: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_mill_Rosenm%C3%BChle_in_Lower_Saxony,_Germany.jpg])
:*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] (examples: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Craticulina_sp.jpg])
:*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain PD] (and some examples: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roosevelt20.jpg], [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dresden_Altmarkt_1900.jpg], [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dagmar_Havlov%C3%A1,_farewell_for_Jan_Kaplick%C3%BD.jpg])

:When you double license, people may choose under which conditions they will use the imagine. Thats why projects in general has one license. When more licenses for the project, this situation make a big chaos. Here is a nice example of the modification: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flower_poster.jpg]. Within the Wikimedia community, you cant be afraid that someone would break the rules. Sometimes also Wikimedians call to other world not to break rules using data from projects.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 19:44, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

Ok, I have some Forums implemented now, Take a look [[Portal: GreySmith Institute|GreySmith Institute]] I decided to implement them under CC-By-SA 3.0 so that they can be used outside the Institute. Essentially by posting on them you agree that the content is licensed under CC rules.
I used the long form for the names, but &quot;Nicknamed&quot; them inside the forum so AC Forum becomes Articial Consciousness Forum etc. (just so it doesn't get mixed up with AC current)--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 21:03, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

:Well, I have just spoke to one license specialist nad he told me, that you can exclude some page from the official license of the project. So your forums now will be doublelicensed. Licenses are not fun. If you will be interested in more details about this, I can arrange a meeting with him on IRC channel.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 22:31, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

Better hold off on that, until I load an IRC client, I haven't installed one since I was forced to upgrade in order to connect to my highspeed-light modem. I'll log off. Load one and get back to you once I know it works.--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 22:42, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

OK, I have an evaluation copy of an IRC client running in the background let me know what channel to join, and who to ask for--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 23:05, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

:OK, we are on freenode.net and you can reach both channels, it means &lt;nowiki&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/nowiki&gt; and &lt;nowiki&gt;#wikiversity-en&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Sorry for delay, I am replying some questions to JWS:-) --[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 23:16, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

My IRC client logged me onto Quake.net and I am not getting a response, I logged on as GreyBeard for this session only.

:Are you skilled in IRC? You should change from quake.net to freenode.net.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 23:54, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

So, as I understand it Moulton, like me, comes from a dynamic connection? I keep getting welcomed when I forget to log on. It's nothing I have any control over its the router at the phone compuany, that resets my IP address constantly, It's supposed to reduce the chance of hacking my account, by constantly changing the ip address around. I don't know how effective it is, but most routers have the capability to reset IP addresses periodically. It's part of DHCP I think.

Did you think I was Moulton for some reason?

Are you sure I am not now, and that is why you don't drop by as often? I've begun to think I have bad breath or something.--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 00:46, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

:Uh, I think this is a time zone issue... I don't think Juan thinks that :-). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:58, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

:Errr, I dont know, why you think so. I dont think you are Moulton. Of course, it happens that people forgot to log in and then they are editing from different IP adresess. Thats not a problem. By the way, I dont understand why SB Johnny is talking about different time zone, but yes. You guys in US could be UTC -5, -6, -7, -8, but I am UTC +1. So this is from 6 up 9 hour difference. It means when theres a night in US I have a day and vice versa.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 09:03, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Ok, Now I have a problem, I just put a short page into the standard namespace describing GreySmith Institute, and someone slapped a category redirect template on it somehow. It claims that Artificial Consciousness is a Computer Science topic, and while some of the pages are listed in the Computing Science category, There are enough pages that fall outside the category for me to be a bit miffed. I think that someone is toying with me. Especially since the redirect template is supposed to be used only in a category directory and GreySmith Institute, as far as I know is not a category yet.--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 03:05, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

:Heh, I dont see nothing like this. Ask in [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], that is the place for questions.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 09:03, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Ok, I think I figured it out, they put the redirect on GreySmith Institute itself and I used the wrong type of link on the page, so it showed on the page, instead of just in the category system. Im getting too used to having to write curly brackets I guess.--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 14:50, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

:Yes. This is a template &lt;nowiki&gt;{{something}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; (template page is in ns Templage: and it can have severla functions).--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 18:54, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Juan, sorry to bother you again, but is there any way to export the TOC to a separate file? or to suppress the text, and just show the TOC until someone selects a link to a specific range? Where would I look to find out?--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 14:45, 25 March 2009 (UTC)

== recommendation for full custodianship ==

I have opened a [[Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Custodianship#Nominations_for_Full_Custodianship|nomination for full custodianship]].  This begins the five day request for the community to comment.  --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 11:43, 2 February 2009 (UTC)
:aaa, thx.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 13:45, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

==Category Question==
I can't find documentation about categories. I tried to add some categories and one I wanted to add was &quot;Ancient Egypt&quot;. The automated message I received suggested looking at (among others) the wikipedia category. Does this mean that we can file wikiversity pages under wikipedia categories? Or does the suggestion mean that a category should be set up along similar lines? Any help/suggestion would be appreciated. I have been working on the [[Ancient Egyptian Monuments Project]] in case you wanted to know in what setting the question came up. [[User:Barta|Barta]] 18:18, 5 February 2009 (UTC)
:Yes, it means, that categories here can have a simmillar system as on Wikipedia.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 18:57, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

==Congratulations!==
Hi Juan, and congratulations about being a full custodian!  I'm very happy for you.  --[[User:AFriedman|AFriedman]] 15:34, 7 February 2009 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Mentors]] ==

Hi Juan,

I think Wikiversity needs much better resources for recognizing and coordinating mentorship, e.g. research and content development mentorship for [[User:Graeme E. Smith]] and course mentorship for [[User:AdaptiveCampus]].  I'm trying to fix that by taking the [[Wikiversity:Mentors]] program to the next level.  Perhaps if good mentorship is recognized, it's more likely to be provided.  I've seen you do some very good mentoring, and would appreciate your feedback on the new version of the program.  --[[User:AFriedman|AFriedman]] 17:53, 6 March 2009 (UTC)
:Course mentorship could be a difficult issue as we are still harvesting the ways how to do it. But let me see.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 00:06, 8 March 2009 (UTC)
Hi Juan, Have you gotten around to looking at the mentorship page yet?  I've also been communicating with [[User:Graeme E. Smith]] about how to provide better automated feedback in courses, and he's been revising the [[Fundamentals of Neuroscience/Electrical Currents]] lesson just to let you know, and in case you want to look at that for ideas.  --[[User:AFriedman|AFriedman]] 00:11, 26 March 2009 (UTC)
:Yes I have seen that page. But this time I dont have so much time free as writing my diploma thesis.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 19:35, 2 April 2009 (UTC)

== Bounce from Wikibooks ==

I tried to start a book on Wikibooks, but as some know, they are prejudiced against original research or anything that smacks of it, so they are banning my book. They suggested transwiki-ing it back here and publishing it from here. Any idea how this works? And can you suggest where to find the documentation on publishing from here?--[[User:Graeme E. Smith|Graeme E. Smith]] 20:56, 22 April 2009 (UTC)
:Well, yeah. Most of the project doesnt allowed original research. Just the Wikiversity do. But it is logic that all books on wikibooks have some ammount of original research. Well, I suggest to write a book in here and then we will see. It can stay here and if someone else need he will call it via v:Book name, when &quot;v&quot; is a Wikiversity prefix how to call pages from Wikiversity. Then when the book will be ready in here, we may transport it to Wikibooks, if they will agree, we can change it to a different format and allow it from Wikimedia Commons or it might stay in here. There is no problem on wv with original research:-)

Nice to hear, that you are still on. I am in preparation for state exams this time, so not having much time to come here.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 01:29, 30 April 2009 (UTC)

== Design/Tigey ==

Good evening!  I thought I would submit my User page design for your consideration.  You can find it at [[User:Juan de Vojníkov/Design Tigey]].  I added a note to the bottom with a link to [[W:User:cacycle/wikEd|wikEd]], an editing tool for Wiki sites that eases viewing the markup.  I removed a couple of subpages that I have on my own page for the design since one I have not yet implemented and the other would require a bit of work to port over (the travel template).  Let me know if you like it. [[User:Tigey|Tigey]] 02:16, 5 June 2009 (UTC)
:Wow nice. What about to change colors?--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 04:45, 10 June 2009 (UTC)

::Changing colors is pretty easy.  If you have wikEd, it highlights colors specifications in the wikitext using the color specified so if you have &lt;nowiki&gt; color=ff0000 &lt;/nowiki&gt; that text would be highlighted red in the edit window.  All of the colors in that design are either named colors (i.e. red) or in RGB format (i.e. ff0000 which equals red).  If you would like I can redo the color scheme to the colors you ask for.  [[User:Tigey|Tigey]] 04:54, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

:Heh, should try than that.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 08:28, 29 March 2010 (UTC)

== sandbox server ==

Since the sandboxserver.org went offline I've been discussing a new server with darkcode and SB_Johnny.  We're probably going to go ahead and create a limited version soon.  BTW, why are you banned from freenode services?  --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:50, 29 December 2009 (UTC)
:Thats a long story.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 19:17, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

== Jimbo's talk page ==

Hi Juan! I have seen your entry on Jimbo's talk page. I know that the situation is not easy for anybody here, but I would like to ask you to cool down. Threats with blocking just don't lead anywhere, and I am pretty sure it would make the whole thing a lot worse. --[[User:Gbaor|Gbaor]] 08:17, 18 March 2010 (UTC)
:That is not a threat. That is my notice, which I normally use, when someone is violating the project.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 21:29, 18 March 2010 (UTC)

Mr Wales isn't someone. I would like to have that you resign your administrative powers until the dispute is solved. --[[User:Histo|Histo]] 22:17, 18 March 2010 (UTC)

:Yes, Mr. Wales is a Wikimedian as us. I can agree with founder flag (as I have seen it for the first time), but I disagree with the way it was used. It is disrupting the community and I was elected to protect it. Mr. Wales and/or WMF could use a better way to inform us, that they disagree with the content and practices hosted on the project.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 22:36, 18 March 2010 (UTC)


== Hello! ==
Hello! '''Juan de Vojinikov''' and welcome to Wikiversity, need help, don`t go to the famous [[Wikiversity:Sandbox]]

==[[User:Geoff Plourde]] probationary custodianship==
Thanks for mentoring - Geoff is now a probationary custodian. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 07:31, 2 August 2010 (UTC)
:OK. Thx!--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 08:45, 2 August 2010 (UTC)
:: Would you please add yourself to [[Wikiversity:List of custodian mentors]]? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:01, 3 August 2010 (UTC)
:Done.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 11:39, 3 August 2010 (UTC)

== Category ==

Hi! Thank you for your message. You can put category. Because ı have much a works today... Thanks... --[[User:Bermanya|Bermanya]] 20:23, 2 August 2010 (UTC)

== New tests ==
[[My]] [[Name]] [[is]] [[Yellow]] and [[Should be]] [[Juan.]]?  What are you testing? &lt;span style=&quot;padding:0 2px 0 2px;background-color:white;color:#bbb;&quot;&gt;&amp;ndash;[[User:Sj|SJ]][[User Talk:Sj|&lt;span style=&quot;color:#f90;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 02:39, 12 August 2010 (UTC)
:Hi, as I commented here: [[User talk:Geoff Plourde/mentoring 2010#NS Special is really special]], I am testing if triple and multiple redirects will be displayed in [[special:DoubleRedirects]] and if well have a tool to find them. The same with cyclic redirects. When the experiment will end, these pages will be deleted.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 04:17, 12 August 2010 (UTC)

== Activity ==

Juan, 

I'm still around. A majority of my time has been consumed by college, so I'm not as active as I was during the summer. 

Geoff

== Are you recommending? ==

Heya Juan,

Noticed [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Custodianship&amp;curid=2038&amp;diff=623982&amp;oldid=600193 this] this morning... are you going to add a recommendation? He's actually a bit overdue(!), but you need to actually make a recommendation (pro or con) to start the discussion period. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:53, 15 October 2010 (UTC)
:Well I dont know. I spoke with him to ask him to find another custodian, but he seems not to have time. And he was not acitive enough I can recomend/not recomend him.--[[User:Juan de Vojníkov|Juan de Vojníkov]] 12:54, 25 October 2010 (UTC)

==Good luck for your presentation==
Hi Juan - I hope your Wikiversity presentation goes really well - and maybe you some new contributors will be inspired! {{smile}}. Maybe it can be recorded? Sincerely, James. 08:36, 6 August 2011 (UTC)

== PLE feedback ==

Hi Juan, since you were involved from begin here in regards to PLE's would you mind [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Personal_learning_environment_.28PLE.29_retry_question_after_4_months|sharing your experiences]]? Thanks, ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] + [[Identi.ca]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:16, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

== Deleted Content - Unable to log in Account ==

Hey
I was writing my wikipistoarticle yesterday and clicked the &quot;Save&quot;Button when something really bad happend. I dont know why but the system showed me an error and logged me out. I tried to log in with password. I failed. I thought that I might have forgotten it and send this &quot;remember&quot; mail. Got it and entered the one from the mail and then was asked to set up a new one. Tried it but it didnt worked at all. Im still unable to log in - no matter how hard i try. My whole writings our wikiversity page seems to been gone which really upsets me. I tried it again today. One time the system told me that I cant get a remembermail because I have not registered with mailadress, the next time it works and I get a mail with a password - but this doesnt work either. What can I do? Im quite desperate because the workload of a month might be gone. Please help me.

My username was &quot;Wintertagtraum&quot; my address is &quot;nora.steinbach@edu.uni-graz.at&quot;

Thank you in advance [[Special:Contributions/130.232.214.10|130.232.214.10]] ([[User talk:130.232.214.10|discuss]]) 07:10, 15 March 2013 (UTC)Wintertagtraum

== Custodian mentoring ==

Hello Juan, can you please mentor me for custodianship. Thank you! --[[User:Draubb|Draubb]] ([[User talk:Draubb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Draubb|contribs]]) 19:30, 29 May 2013 (UTC)

== Account renamed ==

Hi Juandev. In case you missed it, see [//en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Changing_username&amp;diff=1234930&amp;oldid=1234847 here]. [[User:Trijnstel|Trijnstel]] ([[User talk:Trijnstel|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trijnstel|contribs]]) 14:04, 29 September 2014 (UTC)

:Great. That is what I was waiting for.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 03:57, 18 February 2015 (UTC)

== Your account will be renamed ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|the announcement]] for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Juan. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Juan~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest|pick out a different name]].

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours,&lt;br /&gt;[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan Peterzell]]&lt;br /&gt;Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation
&lt;/div&gt; 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)
&lt;!-- SUL finalisation notification --&gt;

== Thank you ==

Thanks for the &quot;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:JWSchmidt&amp;diff=1382592&amp;oldid=1382560 welcome back]&quot; message. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] ([[User talk:JWSchmidt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JWSchmidt|contribs]]) 01:08, 12 May 2015 (UTC)

:Well, I am happy to se you around again.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:01, 27 May 2015 (UTC)

== Draft namespace ==

Hi Juandev!

Welcome back!

If you like, you can record an opinion and vote on the Draft namespace. The discussion is [[Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#Main Page &quot;Lectures&quot;|here]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 19:47, 12 March 2018 (UTC)

:I thought it have ended and well, I am not sure. But, lets write there my opi.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 20:15, 12 March 2018 (UTC)

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johan_(WMF)/Target_lists/Admins2022(3)&amp;oldid=22532499 --&gt;

== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:54, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>qkq1x75qt8poke2l96xti82dlukv8rr</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data Structures and Algorithms/Sorting Data</title>
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      <text bytes="24816" xml:space="preserve">{{:Data Structures and Algorithms/Sidebar}}
The wish for order is pretty old and there are as many reasons as there are things that could be sorted. But the main reason for sorting is the fact that finding can be much faster when one can rely on an order. Sorting is the main condition for effective searching. This is true for stores as well as dictionaries.

In this chapter sorting is restricted to the sorting of data records. Since the times are long gone when tapes were used as data storage, we restrict to the sorting of data where we have random access. It does not matter whether the records are stored in the fast [[w:Random-access memory|RAM]] or on [[w:Hard disk drive|disc]]; the functionality of the algorithms stays the same.

Additionally we require that the [[w:Record (computer science)|data records]] have all the same length and structure and that they are stored as a list; hence this chapter is called „Sorting of Arrays“. The structure of the data records is of no importance for us; we only have a look at the key, which is that part of the data record, by which the records are sorted.

At the times when storage was very expensive, the memory needs of an algorithm were of importance and algorithms that could work [[w:In-place algorithm|&quot;in place&quot;]] were favored (the array with the data was given to the routine doing the sorting and the sorted data was returned in the same array). Nowadays it is much more interesting to have the possibility to select the behavior depending on the wish to later use the data again in their original order.

When checking the usability of an algorithm the following criteria are of importance:
* is the algorithm able to handle the sorting key
* is there sufficient memory available
* is the algorithm faster than alternative ones
* is it possible to implement the algorithm in the wanted programming language

In this chapter we will have a look at some selected sorting algorithms in order to explain the basic strategies; after studying this chapter one should be able to select a suitable algorithm for a given problem and to understand the principles and characteristics of algorithms not explained here.

==Introduction==

Simplified one could say that sorting is based on these elementary operations:
* selecting and inserting
* interchange
* spreading and collecting
* distributing

'''Sorting in applications'''

In the mayority of all applications sorting is an important operation and is responsable for a big amount of processing time when there are more than a few hundred data records. There are estimates that 20% to 30% of the runtime of professional programs is used for sorting. Sorting we find in very different fields.

* words in a dictionary (alphabetical order)
* statement of account (ordered by date)
* student records (name, social security number, subject, ...)
* addresses (zip-code, name of town/city, street, ....)

===Definition of the Problem===

When a child sorts its toys all blue things go into one box, all yellow ones into another and all red ones into a third box and all others into box number four. We see that the criteria for sorting must not be numerical, they must only be distinguishable.

Therefore we have to introduce another restriction: when comparing the elements of a list, it must be possible to tell whether element A is smaller, of same value, or bigger than element B. When sorting colored toys we have to number the colors -making a numbered list- or we could use the wavelength of the colors.

When comparing numerical values, we normally work with build in functions; the compiler will automaticly know how to treat

&lt;pre&gt;if(A &gt; B)&lt;/pre&gt;

depending on the definition of the variables. If somebody writes a program in [[w:Assembly language|assembler]] for an old 8-bit processor, he will have to check the definition of how the bits of a 32-bit [[w:Floating point|float]] have to be interpreted so that a meaningful sorting routine can be programed.

For alphabetical order we need to have a list with two columns. In the first column we have the number of the row and in the other column we have the interpretation. One of the most commonly used list of this type is the [[w:ASCII|ASCII-table]]. What the computer does is not really an alphabetical sort, the sort is by position numbers. 

All the algorithms discussed in this chapter work with numerical representations where a smaller-, bigger-, same-relation is defined.

===Indirect sort===
The time necessary for swapping data records can be reduced drastically when it is possible to maintain a list with references to the records and just to swap these references.

After the sorting the array with the data records is still untouched; but in the array with the references we have the numbers of the data records in such a way that when rearranging the data records following these numbers, the data records will be sorted.
The time necessary for this rearrangement increases in linear fashion &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n)&lt;/math&gt; with the number of data records.

Working with indirect sort is indicated when the costs for swapping are high (the length of the data record is much longer than the 4 bytes for an index) and there is no problem to provide the additional memory (since it is just 4 bytes per record this problem should occur seldom).

=== Stability ===
In applications it happens frequently that data records have to be sorted by more than one criteria. For example we have a list with addresses and we want to sort it by second name and within the second name by first name.

A sorting algorithm is called stable when such a list is sorted first by first name and then by second name, and every block with identical second name is still sorted by first name. A stable sorting algorithm does not destroy the results of previous sorts.

With algorithms that are not stable there is much more effort involved for getting the same result. First the list has to be sorted by second name and then all the blocks with identical second name have to be detected and sorted by first name.

For sorting an address list by zip-code, within zip-code by street name, within street name by second name, within second name by first name, the program code will become a bit complicated when using an unstable algorithm. With a stable algorithm the four sorts are done in reverse order and everything is done.

===Runtime-Analysis===
Sorting algorithms are playing an important role in computer science and during the years a lot of algorithms were developed. A classical way to make up groups of algorithms is to distinguish whether they are comparison-based or not. Since most algorithms of the last type were very limited concerning their use this meant &quot;usable&quot; or &quot;exotic&quot;.

We will show here that it is a much better idea to distinguish dividing and non-dividing algorithms in order to explain the different speeds. With dividing is meant making subgroups from groups. In this chapter we only give a very brief description of the algorithms; a detailed description can be found further down.

First we have a look at an algorithm of the non-dividing type.

====SelectionSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#F9F9F9;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| SelectionSort compares the keys of the data records in order to decide whether they have to be swapped or not. The algorithm starts with the first record and checks all the other records whether their key value is smaller; if so, the records are swapped. If no smaller key can be found, the algorithm continues with the second record, then with the third record and so on. In a rough estimate one can say that every key is compared with all the others. As a result we get a square characteristic. The time for a sort can be estimated by

'''T = B * n&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; '''

where B is a constant reflecting the implementation.
|}

If there are only two data records, the algorithms of this type are reduced to the question whether the two records have to be swapped or not. In this special case these algorithms are faster than all the others.

Now we have a look at some algorithms which follow the motto &quot;divide and conquer&quot;.

====QuickSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#F9F9F9;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;|
The algorithm QuickSort is frequently used. When it starts the totality of the data records is taken as a single domain. For this domain a so called pivot-element is selected in such a way that approximately half of the keys have a smaller value than the pivot. Then the data records  are separated into a lower and a higher sub-domain. The method is then repeated recursively on the sub-domains. Domains with one or no record are defined as sorted. This repeated splitting could be visualized as a binary tree and the number of levels tells how many times the domains could be divided into two sub-domains. Therefor the time needed can be estimated by

'''T = C * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(n)'''

where C is a constant reflecting the implementation.
|}
====BucketSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#F9F9F9;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;|The classic under the sorting algorithms is BucketSort. It works with m buckets and a -however defined- function for evaluation into which bucket a record shall go. If, after sorting all records, we have records with different values in a bucket, then the content of this bucket has to be sorted again internally. This can, of course, be done by BucketSort but with a different function for bucket evaluation (the key values are different!). If these functions are generated automatically and in a way that the distribution into the buckets is even into again m buckets, the time for sorting can be estimated by

'''T = D * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;(N)'''

where D is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is the maximum number of different keys possible.
|}
====RadixSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#F9F9F9;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;|The absolute classic (invented 1887 by [[w:Herman Hollerith|Herman Hollerith]]) is RadixSort, which was used for sorting numbered punched cards. A sorting machine with 10 buckets was adjusted to read the last digit of the numbers. Depending on the value of this digit the cards were distributed to the buckets. Then, starting with bucket number zero, the cards were recollected. Then the machine was adjusted to the second last digit, the cards were distributed and recollected. This was repeated until the stack was sorted by the first digit. The time for sorting can be estimated by

'''T = E * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;(N)'''

where E is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible.

Often the equation

T ≈  n * d

is found where d stays for the number of digits. Since the logarithm tells how many times N can be divided by 10 repeatedly, both equations tell the same, but the first one makes it possible to compare the characteristic with other algorithms.
|}
====ExtraDix====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#F9F9F9;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;|ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort. It simulates sorting machines with 256 buckets. The number 256 is somehow &quot;natural&quot; because one byte is the size of the smallest key in use (8-bit-numbers or characters). The time for sorting can therefor be estimated by

'''T = F * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;256&lt;/sub&gt;(N)'''

where F is a constant reflecting the implementation; N is again the maximum number of different keys possible. The expression lg&lt;sub&gt;256&lt;/sub&gt;(N) gives the number of bytes of the key and for a 32-bit integer this is 4.
|}


====Automatic Division vs Fixed Division====
It is conspicuous that for QuickSort we work with the logarithm of '''n''' and for the other algorithms with '''N'''; we have a closer look at the why.

There is an unlimited number of different real numbers and it is possible to proof that there is even an unlimited number of real numbers in any given interval. QuickSort and algorithms alike work with the assumption, that it is impossible to know beforehand, how many times the domains have to be subdivided. Therefor the number of division levels is evaluated during the sort.

The other algorithms work with the assumption, that on a computer the number of different values is limited and countable. Even when working with floats of double precision the maximum number of different values is known beforehand and this number is  2&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt;. When the dividing factor stays constant -same number of buckets or domains on any level- it is possible to tell the number of division levels that make sense; from there on only records with identical key values will be found in a bucket.

====How to compare algorithms====
If we have 4 data records, QuickSort has finished its job after two recursion levels (on any recursion level all the records have to be handled once). If working with RadixSort and numbers from 00.000 up to 99.999, all the data records have to be handled five times. We have a real advantage for QuickSort. 

This changes instantly when we have to sort 200.000 data records. RadixSort still has to handle all the records only five times but QuickSort now generates 18 recursion levels (2&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; =  262 144) and handles all the records on any level.

When looking for the fastest algorithm for a task we can use the equations in order to estimate the relation between them. If one wants to know from which number of records onwards ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort when sorting 64-bit integers, one gets

{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot;| ||width=&quot;100&quot;| '''F * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;256&lt;/sub&gt;(N)''' ||width=&quot;30&quot;| ''' &lt; ''' ||width=&quot;100&quot;| '''C * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(n)'''
|-
| || '''F * n * 8'''                   || ''' &lt; ''' || '''C * n * lg&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(n)'''
|-
| || '''F * 8'''                       || ''' &lt; ''' || '''C * lg&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(n)'''
|-
| || '''n'''                           || ''' &gt; ''' || ''' 2 &lt;sup&gt;F * 8 / C&lt;/sup&gt;'''
|}
Under the assumption that C and F have the same value, F / C becomes 1 and the result is that for more than 256 data records ExtraDix will be faster than QuickSort.

==non-dividing algorithms==

===BubbleSort===
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| 
The algorithm runs repeatedly through an array comparing element i with element i+1. If these records are not sorted they are swapped. The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated with  &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n^2)&lt;/math&gt;  as well for the '''worst-case''' as for the '''average-case'''

Link to a detailed description of '''[[Bubble sort|BubbleSort]]'''
|}

===SelectionSort===
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| SelectionSort runs in a double loop. The first element is compared with all the other ones. If a smaller one is found, the records are swapped. Then the second element is compared with all the other ones and so on.

The number of comparisons and swaps can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n^2)&lt;/math&gt;

Link to a detailed description of '''[[SelectionSort]]'''

'''Modification tournament pyramid''' save winner (as index) of near pair for next round. Need more memory. Speed of algorithm as quick sort. Stable. '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n*log(n))&lt;/math&gt;

Link to a detailed description of '''[[PyramidSelectionSort]]'''
|}

===InsertionSort===
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| InsertionSort is a &quot;natural&quot; sorting algorithm and it is used to insert a new record into an already sorted list. The first step is to find the position where the new record should be; then the rest of the list is moved one position up and in the last step the record is inserted.

The number of comparisons and record moves can be estimated for the '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n^2)&lt;/math&gt;

Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSort]]''' (insert top)

'''Modification insert to middle''' (too called as binary insert). Insert sort get next number and search put position from top of array. This version get next and search position from 50% of array size (25%, 12.5% ...). The number of comparisons and have '''Worst-Case''' and the '''Average-Case''' with &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n*log(n))&lt;/math&gt;. But, need same time for shift array (when find position, must move down +1 other number from this position) as top-version.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[InsertionSortMiddle]]''' (insert middle)
|}


==dividing algorithms==
The algorithms of this category follow the motto '''[[w:Divide and rule|&quot;divide and conquer&quot;]]'''. 

Why the motto &quot;divide and conquer&quot; brings a benefit when sorting [[/Benefit of D&amp;C/|you can learn here]].

As already shown in the runtime-analysis these algorithms can be subdivided into those which calculate the number of recursion levels dynamically and those which work with a fixed number of repetitions.


===dynamic division===
The algorithms of this type do the division into sub-domains based on the number of data records. Most of these algorithms do not work stable.

====MergeSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| MergeSort is a recursive algorithm which splits an input list into two sublists. When a level is reached where there is only one element in the list, it returns. Since returned sublists are sorted, a single sorted list can be build by merging the two sublists. Starting with the smallest elements of both lists the smaller one is moved to the result and deleted from the sublist. If one of the sublists is empty, the rest of the other sublist is moved to the result without compare operations. The algorithm is stable but not &quot;in place&quot;.

With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_2n)&lt;/math&gt; for average case and worst case sorts. By grouping sorted sequences into sublists (called runs) which are not divided any more, the best case can be &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n)&lt;/math&gt;.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[MergeSort]]'''
|}

====QuickSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| From a domain a so called [[w:Pivot element|pivot-element]] is determined. This pivot divides the domain into two sub-domains; one domain with the keys being smaller or equal to the pivot and the other sub-domain with keys being bigger or equal to the pivot. The sub-domains are processed recursively. Domains with one or zero records are seen as sorted.

With evenly distributed key values the timing follows the function &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_2n)&lt;/math&gt; for best case and average case sorts.

When using the algorithm in its basic form (as pivot-element always the key of the first or last element of the domain is selected) the timing depends strongly on the distribution of the key values. If the key values are already sorted the worst case is characterized by &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n^2)&lt;/math&gt;.

If the pivot element is selected by pure chance it is very improbable to make disadvantageous selections all the time. With some more effort (histograms) an optimal pivot can be selected.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[QuickSort]]'''
|}

====BucketSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| In BucketSort a function valuates the key of a record and gives the number of the bucket into which it has to go. The number of buckets is determined when this function is generated. After a sorting phase it is normal to find records with different key values in the same buckets. Then the content of these buckets have to be sorted internally. This can again be done by help of BucketSort, but the valuating functions have to be adapted to other key values.

If the number m of buckets is identical on any level of recursion, the time necessary for sorting follows the function &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_mn)&lt;/math&gt;.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[BucketSort]]'''
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#F9F9F9;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;|In this implementation BucketSort is recursive and sorts by integer keys. The distribution function is evaluated automatically for any bucket by searching for the smalles and biggest key value and by dividing this range into as many subranges as buckets are requested.The sorting is stable and indirect. The number of buckets to be used on any recursion level is adjusted by a parameter.

If this number is 2, a QuickSort with optimized pivot detection is realized. And here comes a novelty: After finding the smallest and the biggest key value it is checked whether they are identical; if so, all the key values in this bucket are identical as well and there is no need for another recursion level. 

We get the lower border for computing time if all key values are identical; there we get &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n)&lt;/math&gt;. If there are no identical key values at all, we first get &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_mn)&lt;/math&gt;, but then there is a limitation. With the sorting key being a 4 byte integer, there will be in maximum 32 recursion levels, no matter how many data records we got, because on the 32nd level all key values in a bucket have to be identical!

'''The proof that '''&lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_mn)&lt;/math&gt;''' is the lower border for comparison based sorting algorithms is only a faulty thesis!'''

[[BucketsortInC|'''Sample program in C''']]

|}

====SortedListMergingSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| SortedListMergingSort find for sorted lists in array and merge it to one. Repeat until stay one sorted.

Comparation near: &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n*log(n))&lt;/math&gt;. Memory: &lt;math&gt;\mathcal (2..3)*n&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Modification 1 ''' not detect sorted. Set sorted as array size = 1. Then merge two array to one. All 1 and 1 to 2. Then all 2 and 2 to 4 (array size)...

Comparation near: &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n*log(n))&lt;/math&gt;. Memory: &lt;math&gt;\mathcal 2*n&lt;/math&gt;. Easiest algorithm.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[SortedListMergingSort]]'''
|}

===fixed division===
Before starting the sort it is known how many different key values are possible. If sorting by an 4 byte unsigned integer the values can be between 0 and a bit more than 4 billions. When using RadixSort it is clear that the numbers in decimal notation can have up to ten digits so we need ten sorting sequences. When using ExtraDix four are enough.

====RadixSort====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| 
RadixSort is not comparison-based and it is stable. A punched card sorting machine with ten buckets is simulated. First the machine is adjusted to the last digit and the records are distributed depending on the last digit of the key. Then the records are recollected, the machine is adjusted to the second last digit and the records are distributed depending on that digit. This cycle of adjusting, distributing and recollecting is repeated until the records are sorted by the very first digit.

The time necessary for this follows the function &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_{10}N)&lt;/math&gt;. N is the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before they are sorted has no effect whatsoever on the time necessary for a sort.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[RadixSort]]'''
|}

====ExtraDix====
{| class=&quot;wikitable
|-
|width=&quot;20&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#008B45;&quot;| ||style=&quot;background-color:#9AFF9A;&quot;| ExtraDix is an extension of RadixSort, hence the name '''Ext'''ended '''raDix'''. This algorithm simulates punched card sorting machines with 256 buckets. For any of the basic data types a variation is implemented. ExtraDix works stable and indirectly.

The time necessary for a sort follows the function &lt;math&gt;\mathcal O(n\log_{256}N)&lt;/math&gt;. N is again the maximum number of different key values. The order of the records before the sort has no influence whatsoever on the time necessary, therefor there is no best- nor worst-case.

The memory needs are calculated by '''4kByte&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;24&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;n''' which is pretty moderate.

The complete C source code of the algorithm can be downloaded from [http://www.sourceforge.net SourceForge] under the keyword '''ExtraDix'''.

Link to a detailed description of '''[[ExtraDix]]'''

|}


[[Category:Data Structures and Algorithms]]
[[Category:Sorting]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:SB Johnny</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:55:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Activity Review */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="18798" xml:space="preserve">I'm not archiving anymore. It's all there under the &quot;history&quot; tab. Bits will be recycled when I feel like they should be recycled. 

== Custodianship ==

Currently working to get unbanned at en.Wikipedia, if you'd like me to do clear some sysop backlogs here, I'm happy to help - will have the time in a week or two. 

Only asking for the technical tools temporarily - I won't get involved in anything contentious, promise. --[[User:Claritas|Claritas]] ([[User talk:Claritas|talk]]) 15:30, 23 May 2012 (UTC)

:No problem, but could you please update your RfC (=RfA on WP) page, explain it there, and transclude it where it's supposed to be transcluded? It's just a matter of dotting the i's and crossing the t's (bureaucrats are ''supposed'' to be bureaucratic, after all). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:30, 23 May 2012 (UTC)
::K, am very busy at the moment, but I'll file a temporary request soon. Thanks. --[[User:Claritas|Claritas]] ([[User talk:Claritas|talk]]) 21:09, 24 May 2012 (UTC)
:::Have done :) --[[User:Claritas|Claritas]] ([[User talk:Claritas|talk]]) 00:00, 15 June 2012 (UTC)

==Ping/Collingwood==
Thanks, SBJ. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:38, 8 December 2012 (UTC)
:Just checking in to see if you have more to add re: Collingwood's RfB? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:53, 29 January 2013 (UTC)

==RfCs==
Could you check-in with Mathonius and Ruy Pugliesi and nominate for full custodianship (if you appropriate)? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:04, 3 February 2013 (UTC)

==Dave Braunschweig==
If you approve, could you please make Dave Braunschweig a probationary custodian?
[[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Dave Braunschweig]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:46, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

==Sidelight12==
Ditto - [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Sidelight12]] -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:48, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

==To do==
FYI, when you get a chance, the priorities are:
# Sidelight12/Dave Brunschweig (-&gt; + Probationary custodian?)
# Mathonius/Ruy Pugliesi (-&gt; + Nomination for full custodianship?)
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:14, 10 February 2013 (UTC)

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|Forced user renames coming soon for SUL]] ==

&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Hi, sorry for writing in English. I'm writing to ask you, as a bureaucrat of this wiki, to [//meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Single+User+Login+finalisation+announcement%2FPersonal+announcement&amp;filter=&amp;action=page translate and review the notification] that will be sent to all users, also on this wiki, who will be forced to change their user name on May 27 and will probably need your help with renames.
You may also want to help with the pages [[m:Rename practices]] and [[m:Global rename policy]].
Thank you, [[m:User:Nemo_bis|Nemo]] 13:08, 3 May 2013 (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- EdwardsBot 0441 --&gt;

== Custodianship ==

Can you please help me be a custodian ---[[User:Draubb|Dong! by Draubb]]

== Custodianship ==

Hi SB Johnny (I like the username), I want to become a custodian and right now, I am on [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship]] and now, I need many people and users to help me out. You may not know, but there are some harmful and useless pages out there, even some dangerous users. So if you want Wikiversity to be sparkling clean! Please grant me my wish to be custodian. You can reply on [[User talk:Draubb|my discussion page]] or [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Draubb]]! Bye! [[User:Draubb|Draubb]] ([[User talk:Draubb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Draubb|contribs]]) 00:49, 19 May 2013 (UTC)

:Hello SB Johnny |--[[User:Draubb|Draubb]] ([[User talk:Draubb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Draubb|contribs]]) 20:19, 24 May 2013 (UTC)

== An important message about renaming users ==

&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Dear SB Johnny,

I am cross-posting this message to many places to make sure everyone who is a Wikimedia Foundation project bureaucrat receives a copy. If you are a bureaucrat on more than one wiki, you will receive this message on each wiki where you are a bureaucrat.

As you may have seen, work to perform the Wikimedia cluster-wide [[mw:SUL finalisation|single-user login finalisation]] (SUL finalisation) is taking place. This may potentially effect your work as a local bureaucrat, so please read this message carefully.

Why is this happening? As currently stated at [[m:Global rename policy|the global rename policy]], a global account is a name linked to a single user across all Wikimedia wikis, with local accounts unified into a global collection. Previously, the only way to rename a unified user was to individually rename every local account. This was an extremely difficult and time-consuming task, both for stewards and for the users who had to initiate discussions with local bureaucrats (who perform local renames to date) on every wiki with available bureaucrats. The process took a very long time, since it's difficult to coordinate crosswiki renames among the projects and bureaucrats involved in individual projects. 

The SUL finalisation will be taking place in stages, and one of the first stages will be to turn off Special:RenameUser locally. This needs to be done as soon as possible, on advice and input from Stewards and engineers for the project, so that no more accounts that are unified globally are broken by a local rename to usurp the global account name. Once this is done, the process of global name unification can begin. The date that has been chosen to turn off local renaming and shift over to entirely global renaming is 15 September 2014, or three weeks time from now. In place of local renames is a new tool, hosted on Meta, that allows for global renames on all wikis where the name is not registered will be deployed. 

Your help is greatly needed during this process and going forward in the future if, as a bureaucrat, renaming users is something that you do or have an interest in participating in. The Wikimedia Stewards have set up, and are in charge of, a new community usergroup on Meta in order to share knowledge and work together on renaming accounts globally, called [[m:Global renamers|Global renamers]]. Stewards are in the process of creating documentation to help global renamers to get used to and learn more about global accounts and tools and Meta in general as well as the application format. As transparency is a valuable thing in our movement, the Stewards would like to have at least a brief public application period. If you are an experienced renamer as a local bureaucrat, the process of becoming a part of this group could take as little as 24 hours to complete. You, as a bureaucrat, should be able to apply for the global renamer right on Meta by the [[m:SRGP|requests for global permissions]] page on 1 September, a week from now.

In the meantime please update your local page where users request renames to reflect this move to global renaming, and if there is a rename request and the user has edited more than one wiki with the name, please send them to [[:m:SRUC|the request page for a global rename]].

Stewards greatly appreciate the trust local communities have in you and want to make this transition as easy as possible so that the two groups can start working together to ensure everyone has a unique login identity across Wikimedia projects. Completing this project will allow for long-desired universal tools like a global watchlist, global notifications and many, many more features to make work easier.

If you have any questions, comments or concerns about the SUL finalisation, read over the [[m:SUL|Help:Unified login]] page on Meta and leave a note on the talk page there, or on the talk page for [[m:Talk:Global renamers|global renamers]]. You can also contact me on [[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|my talk page on meta]] if you would like. I'm working as a bridge between Wikimedia Foundation Engineering and Product Development, Wikimedia Stewards, and you to assure that SUL finalisation goes as smoothly as possible; this is a community-driven process and I encourage you to work with the Stewards for our communities.

Thank you for your time.
-- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] [[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]] 18:24, 25 August 2014 (UTC)

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== [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Dave Braunschweig#Voting for full custodianship]] ==

As a bureaucrat, please close this discussion. It's been two weeks. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:14, 12 September 2014 (UTC)
:Is this all taken care of now? Sorry for the pause, saw this a while back but forgot all about it. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:21, 25 September 2014 (UTC)
::I closed it 6 days ago, the 19th. Irregular, because I'm involved, and, of course, not a 'crat, but it's holding. If you were to look at the close and confirm it if proper, it might prevent later disruption. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 01:18, 26 September 2014 (UTC)

== Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Marshallsumter ==

Marshallsumter has [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Marshallsumter|indicated]] his interest in becoming a probationary custodian.  I am willing to mentor.  As the community has already had the required five days to question this candidate and no objections were raised, could you please add Custodian [[Special:UserRights|user rights]] to Marshallsumter?  Thanks!  -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:03, 7 October 2014 (UTC)
:FYI, This was done by Jtneill, and Marshall is now permanent. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 18:18, 8 March 2015 (UTC)

== Can you look this over ==

I've posted on RCA, and someone uninvolved needs to look over it. Can you please look over it, then Dave falsely accuses me of harassment, when it's abd who pushes his way around, and Dave enables it. He is involved and closed many things within 3 hours of me posting it. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action&amp;diff=1279119&amp;oldid=1279108] This is the latest one. I am sorry to bother you with this, but this behavior is pathetic. Thank you for your time. - [[User:Sidelight12|Sidelight12]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Sidelight12|Talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 10:18, 7 December 2014 (UTC)
:Hmmm. Looks like there's probably a boatload of background to this that I'm not hip to and presumably would require many hours of non-leisurely reading. I'd rather not go there, sorry. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:02, 7 December 2014 (UTC)

==Your mentorship of Ruy Pugliesi==
[[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Ruy Pugliesi]] is a loose end. I have pinged Ruy and he'd like to continue, see [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ARuy_Pugliesi&amp;diff=1297224&amp;oldid=1297060]. Will you make a recommendation re permanent status per our procedure? If I may be of any assistance, let me know! Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 18:32, 8 March 2015 (UTC)
:Sure, I should have time in the next few days. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:53, 10 March 2015 (UTC)
::Thanks. Just in case, how long should I wait before going ahead? Is a week enough time? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 18:26, 10 March 2015 (UTC)
{{done}} Yesterday. Your review on [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Ruy Pugliesi]] is invited. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 20:15, 22 March 2015 (UTC)

== Bloom Clock ==

Hello SB Johnny,

In 2007 you were one of the initiators of learning project Bloom Clock (https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bloom_Clock). Do you think it is possible to use the wikidata project to organize plants on colour? Could you help me set this up?

Regards,

Tim, [[User:Timboliu|Timboliu]] ([[User talk:Timboliu|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Timboliu|contribs]]) 14:00, 26 July 2015 (UTC)

:I'm afraid I don't know much about wikidata. --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 09:05, 29 July 2015 (UTC)

:Hey, it is not possible, because Wikidata does not have majorly such data. If there is a task force, which would introduce that property on d and than load it, we may talk about using it. Still we know somene skilled in parsing. Basically I was just thinking about the same, but if there is not a group of people interested with some advanced wikiprogramming knoledge it wouldnt work.--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:39, 13 March 2018 (UTC)

== hello! ==

Spotted lanternfly invasion sounds like something they'd watch on Mystery Science Theater ;) 

How are things? It's been a loong while. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:22, 28 January 2018 (UTC)

:Heya Mike! They're actually pretty surreal when they go into Rave mode, kind of pretty but definitely disturbing. Lost your number ages ago when a phone died, sorry about that. Doing well otherwise, took a year off from all things wiki after the election, but want to see what can be done here for SLF and a few other things. Maybe they have a budget for data collection projects now that they aren't using shoestrings? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:15, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
::Yeah, I also lost yours in a phone fiasco. [[Special:EmailUser/Mu301|Ping]] me if you'd like to chat and catch up. The story of astronomer and amateur entomologist [[w:Étienne Léopold Trouvelot|Étienne Léopold Trouvelot]] and his Gypsy Moths is legendary in my neck of the woods. I can remember my father struggling to control the outbreaks here when I was young. Jeesh, that closeup image of one is crazy. It looks like something out of Avatar. Are we sure that they're not extraterrestrial? It's great to see you back on wiki! --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:50, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

== Keys and DPL ==

Hey,

we are just refreshing Czech Bloom Clock and I came to creation of Keys, which is not so easy to understand how it works. What kind of lists do you create and how you make them? DPL script is a bot? Can I access it somewhere, or how does it work?--[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 12:41, 13 March 2018 (UTC)

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
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== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:55, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
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== Reviews for Inactivity ==

Hi everyone,

An option for dealing with inactivity apart from the way your currently doing it is to have a set policy on inactivity. With a local policy sysops can be assessed for inactivity, given an appropriate warning of potential desysop, and then if not responded to you can then go to the stewards for the removal of rights. I developed this policy on Wikispecies [[species:Wikispecies:Administrators/Admin_Review|here]] which permits a simple and easy way to do this. After voting on the one today I thought you may be interested in this option. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 02:19, 22 November 2019 (UTC)

::To see it in action this was my most recent case now archived at [[meta:Steward_requests/Permissions/2019-11#User_Wikiklaas@species|Meta]] it includes all the diffs and links appropriate so you can see all of it from here. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:48, 22 November 2019 (UTC)

Note: the current [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|policy]] states that &quot;The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for holders of advanced administrative rights is two years per the MediaWiki [[:meta:Category:Global policies|Global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]]. After that time a [[meta:Steward|Steward]] will remove the rights.&quot; --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:58, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
=== Survey ===
* {{support}} 5 edits and 5 actions within 12 months makes sense to me. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:23, 22 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{support}} -yes, the above sounds reasonable to me. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:05, 22 November 2019 (UTC)
::I have written up a policy that can do this and put it in draft form [[User:Faendalimas/Wikiversity_Advanced_Rights_Review|here]], please note the bottom part will be a separate template and is de-wikified for draft purposes. Let me know what you think, Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:23, 26 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{support}} 5 edits and 5 actions within 12 months makes also sense to me. I am not a custodian in the german Wikiversity but I contribute to that language due to my work at a german university. Is this decision making about inactive curators performed simultaneously in other languages? Differences in decision making between language could cause problems for multiple languages editing. In my authoring activities I used icons in [[Sustainable Developement Goals]] in the english Wikiversity. In translation efforts into the german language I caused additional Wiki Commons administrator activities due to fact that german administration decisions had different licencing constraints for images. So it was to make icons visible in German wikiversity. Inconsistency in curator decision making, might have an impact on multilanguage authoring. Activities spending efforts in use-cases and applications of Wikiversity learning resources like [[Wiki2Reveal]] might also be regarded as a relevant curator activities for the community even if it is not an measuable as countable administrative action or activity. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 21:19, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
:::I recently in my role at Wikispecies performed our inactivity assessments of admins, one eventually lost his rights over this. However an important point. I felt that our particular local policy on this was too harsh on translation admins. Hence I made a request via RfC to exempt translation admins from normal admin inactivity review. Reasons were several fold but included the reality that many of those translating pages, a valuable service, who have admin privelages for this function are only on any given wiki for short periods of time, then they move on to another wiki. Hence there are often, understandable, reasons for significant periods of apparent inactivity on one wiki. Hence my own view is in the end to deal with our own site based sysops in regards to inactivity and leave the translation admins to a more case by case assessment as needed. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:33, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
::: So let me summarize a few things:
:::* '''(Vulnerability)''' Inactive admin accounts might create a security risk and highjacking those account (as [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] already mentioned) could create a hugh workload on admins to fix that especially when these accounts are used in conjunction with bots. That abuse will increase the workload for the active admins even more. That risk should be mitigated/reduced.
:::* '''(Undesired Side Effects of Counts)''' If we assess the 5 activity policy for admins that want to keep their administration rights, it could lead to  undesired admin activities that are performed just for the sake of getting the 5 admin activities performed. Especially deleting pages, blocking users, ... do require careful and sound handling of cases and should not be driven by admin activity counts - feels a bit strange to argue against &quot;counts&quot; as a mathematician and computer scientist ;-) . 
:::* '''(Admin Activity Counts)''' We all might appreciate the value of Wikiversity admins that support the community in educational settings at university and schools and use their admin rights with care and responsibility even if they do not reach the 5 admin action threshold. I think these counts are helpful to identify cause of inactivity and it might be the case that they were not needed anymore as Mikael mentioned for WikiJournal. I think we all would grant [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] again the rights if constraints come up that he requires those rights for maintaining WikiJournal pages.
:::* '''(Rights and Responsibility)''' Nevertheless this discussion here triggered awareness about the fact, that '''additional rights''' are provided with a '''responsibility''' to support the Wikiversity community with those access to the additional adminitrative tools.
:::* '''(Inactive and no Response)''' As you see below there are some Curators and Custodians that responded to the inactive account discussion some did not. For those who did not respond to this or did not take part in a discussion they might be no longer interested in the admin rights. Of course it is better to state that additional rights are no longer required. Anyway this discussion created awareness of the fact that priviliges should be granted if needed and disabled if possible. That should not have an impact on the possibility to join the team of curator and custodians later on the we should be open them. If curators want to disable their additional rights, then I guess we all would appreciate their security and vulnerability awareness. 
:::* '''(IT perspective)''' From an IT perspective I would suggest to allow people to disable some or all their own rights as curators/custodians for a period of time for private reasons and during that defined time span they cannot enable the custodian/curator rights anymore themselves. If the need to they must contact the admins again and ask for it. This approach has many advantages. Admins that are aware of the security risks and they know that they will not require the custodian rights for specific time (e.g. for 9 month due to a medical treatment) they can disable that for that time span and they will not be able to restore the admin rights before the end of the time span.  This decreases the vulnerability for those accounts and does not force the admin to publicly discuss e.g. the medical treatment in a discussion about inactivity. Furthermore other admins can see that this curator/custodian is currently not available for admin activities and is aware about the vulnerability of admin accounts. By this mean we all can distinguish ''&quot;lost interest&quot;'' from ''&quot;other reasons of inactivity&quot;'' of security aware admins and custodians. This suggestion is not applicable to Wikiversity admins only. If we all think that makes sense then it could be shared to the admins of other Wikis (Wikipedia, Wikispecies, WikiBooks, ...) as well.
::: '''Personal Conclusion:''' This discussion here was valuable for community health and community vulnerability. I personally would like to keep my additional rights, if possible. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 08:31, 2 December 2019 (UTC)

* {{support}} 5 edits and 5 actions within 12 months but equally I would support a higher requirement of 10 edits and 10 actions over 12 months. Re-applying for lost permissions should not be an onerous task. --[[User:Green Giant|Green Giant]] ([[User talk:Green Giant|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Green Giant|contribs]]) 01:39, 29 December 2019 (UTC)

* {{support}} 5 &amp; 5 actions over 12m is a reasonable low bar. We have a pretty reasonable process for re-applying for admin rights if someone returns after a period of lower activity. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:31, 29 November 2021 (UTC)

=== Inactive Administrators ===
Making note of curators and custodians who have fewer than five edits and/or fewer than five administrative actions in the last 12 months, giving them an opportunity to comment.
* {{Curator|Bert Niehaus}} I personally came into the curator role due to access to import features that are not publicly available for all Wikiversity authors. This step to see the administrative perspective allowed me insights in custodian actions. For me personally it was very helpful. Created test cases for import mechanism like [https://niebert.github.io/Wikipedia2Wikiversity/ from Wikipedia to Wikiversity (see Wikipedia2Wikiversity)] to convert wikipedia article into learning resources or to convert wikiversity articles into slides for lecture to allow individual annotation to Wikiversity contents on slides e.g. in lectures without modification of the sources in Wikiversity (see [[Wiki2Reveal]]. In general the workflow from testing use cases, analysis of custodian actions, inter wiki operation, vulnerability assessment of custodian and curator features and its requirements and constraints cannot be performed with a quick shot, because tools must have a good usablility and must be of benefit for authors in wikiversity and on the other hand it is relevant that these tools do not create a vulnerability of the core principles of openess, higher maintenance efforts for custodians and administrators or other technically facilitated options that could violate the neutral point of view of a huge amount of articles and learning resources in Wikiversity and could endanger a community driven, participatory approaches of development of learning resources and have them available as a common good. Furthermore I try to derive mechanisms at the interface to international agencies that have on the one hand a respect for regulations and the mandate of these organisation and on the other hand allow also to have participatory elements of capacity building and user-driven innovation outside the organisations that require the openness and NPOV in the Wiki to evolve in a community based way. As an example I worked on [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and on Capacity Building within Wikiversity. I understand that inactivity of Curators and Custodians require a kind of measurement to trigger actions so I supported the approach above. The consideration from a different angle might also lead to the conclusion, that custodian actions and activities do not lead to a measurable digital footprint of these activity. Anyway if we decide to remove my curator status due to the missing activity, then it is ok for me. You can be sure that I support the way forward independent of my curator status. To create a test environment like [https://niebert.github.io/Wikipedia2Wikiversity/ Wikipedia2Wikiversity] create measurable import actions for me as a curator does not make sense to me. I appreciate the decision making process you all perform here and the option to explain activities. Thank you all for supporting the Wikiversity concept as [[Open Educational Resources]]. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 09:04, 28 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|CQ}}
:: Hi folks. UPDATE 02:04, 26 February 2020 (UTC) - I'm still alive and breathing in the human sense, but I'm very precariously perched on a tiny twig in Internet terms. I enthusiastically support the Wikiverse and grass-roots digital democracy but realize that our ideals and values matter less each passing year. Love is still the answer, though. Feel free to edit, delete, revert any of my stuff. I'll be watching from afar and may emerge again when conditions favor my online presence. [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]])
* {{Custodian|HappyCamper}} Hi, I am checking in to say hello. This risk of inactive custodians suddenly being hacked and doing damage to Wikiversity is not zero unfortunately, but it is minimal. --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] ([[User talk:HappyCamper|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HappyCamper|contribs]]) 11:11, 21 March 2020 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|Juandev}} Hey, I think I left Wikiversity after conflicts on its contents (cs.wv) in around 2013. Then from 2017, I have started to organize off-wiki content creation events. As I came back into the research in my real life, I visit Czech Wikiversity more often and use it in my studies. I may also work on the research of Wikiversity itself, which may bring me also to English Wikiversity. But I am not sure if I can help here in the future. There are quite a lot of non-paied activities around me and I have to choose those which fit to my needs. Using rights on en.wv seems to be complicated if you don't follow its development don't read discussions, etc. I can delete obvious vandalism, but as I am not tracking the recent changes I would rarely do it. So I leave the decision on the newly adopted policy. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:42, 2 August 2021 (UTC) 
* {{Curator|Lbeaumont}} [[Thinking Tools/Phoenix Checklist|What problem]] is being solved here? I continue to do my best to make constructive contributions to Wikiversity, including creating [[Wisdom/Curriculum|these learning resources]]. Cardiac surgery slowed me down earlier this year, yet I persist! I appreciate having curator privileges and they can be useful. What would be gained by taking action to remove privileges that I have never abused? 
**the major issue in regards to inactivity is a safety issue. The tools are capable of doing things that would be undesirable in hacked account, and inactive accounts are an easier target for this. Hence determining if accounts are at risk of this is important. Also Global Sysops have rules/ policies on their interventions and the number of local sysops available is a part of this. It is therefore important to know how many sysops are actually active. It is a part of receiving these rights that they will be monitored. I am just responding to your what is being solved here question. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:18, 28 November 2019 (UTC)
*** If the goal is to identify inactive accounts then the suggested filter has poor [[w:Sensitivity_and_specificity|specificity]], as evidenced by the number of [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contributions]] I have made over the past weeks, months, and years. If the goal is account security, then I suggest adopting security procedures, such as [[w:Multi-factor_authentication|multi-factor authentication]]. 
****Just answering your questions here, I am not making a call on this, part of it is admin actions, ie does a user need the tools. This is determined by the logs of admin actions, such as blocks, merges, deletions, patrolling etc. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:53, 1 December 2019 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|Leighblackall}} - I'm still here, about to work more in submitting articles in WikiJournalHumanities, as well as in Wikidata. I mainly ever used the Move feature anyway, or deleting pages of my own once moved. I would appreciate retaining the privileges also. [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 00:58, 3 December 2019 (UTC)
* {{Curator|Mikael Häggström}} - Although I occasionally use the move or delete page feature for maintenance of [[WikiJournal]], the structure of its pages are now relatively established, so I don't think curatorship is essential for me, since I think I will only use those features perhaps 2 to 5 times per year. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:17, 28 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|SB Johnny}} - Hi All. I've mostly been spending my online time involved in US politics the last couple years. Hoping to play around a bit with the bloom clock this year and it's nice to be able to see deleted pages (someone nuked a bunch of the worksheet type pages a while back). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 10:36, 4 March 2020 (UTC)
[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:22, 27 November 2019 (UTC)

=== Result ===
This thread has been sitting here unclosed for a while. While there wasn't much participation, there also wasn't any clear opposition to the proposal of requiring 5 edits and 5 actions within the last 12 months. I suggest it be closed with that result, and the policy updated accordingly (c.f. [[User:Faendalimas/Wikiversity Advanced Rights Review]]). --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 23:43, 25 February 2021 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>6xd4hlkypkz6uiobqx6ncn4x3t46tob</sha1>
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      <text bytes="20435" xml:space="preserve">{{/Header}}[[cs:Wikiverzita:Nástěnka správců]][[fr:Wikiversité:Requêtes aux bibliothécaires]][[pt:Wikiversidade:Pedidos a administradores]]

== Reviews for Inactivity ==

Hi everyone,

An option for dealing with inactivity apart from the way your currently doing it is to have a set policy on inactivity. With a local policy sysops can be assessed for inactivity, given an appropriate warning of potential desysop, and then if not responded to you can then go to the stewards for the removal of rights. I developed this policy on Wikispecies [[species:Wikispecies:Administrators/Admin_Review|here]] which permits a simple and easy way to do this. After voting on the one today I thought you may be interested in this option. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 02:19, 22 November 2019 (UTC)

::To see it in action this was my most recent case now archived at [[meta:Steward_requests/Permissions/2019-11#User_Wikiklaas@species|Meta]] it includes all the diffs and links appropriate so you can see all of it from here. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 16:48, 22 November 2019 (UTC)

Note: the current [[Wikiversity:Custodianship#Notes|policy]] states that &quot;The maximum time period of inactivity &lt;u&gt;without community review&lt;/u&gt; for holders of advanced administrative rights is two years per the MediaWiki [[:meta:Category:Global policies|Global policy]] described at [[meta:Admin activity review|Admin activity review]]. After that time a [[meta:Steward|Steward]] will remove the rights.&quot; --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:58, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
=== Survey ===
* {{support}} 5 edits and 5 actions within 12 months makes sense to me. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:23, 22 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{support}} -yes, the above sounds reasonable to me. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:05, 22 November 2019 (UTC)
::I have written up a policy that can do this and put it in draft form [[User:Faendalimas/Wikiversity_Advanced_Rights_Review|here]], please note the bottom part will be a separate template and is de-wikified for draft purposes. Let me know what you think, Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:23, 26 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{support}} 5 edits and 5 actions within 12 months makes also sense to me. I am not a custodian in the german Wikiversity but I contribute to that language due to my work at a german university. Is this decision making about inactive curators performed simultaneously in other languages? Differences in decision making between language could cause problems for multiple languages editing. In my authoring activities I used icons in [[Sustainable Developement Goals]] in the english Wikiversity. In translation efforts into the german language I caused additional Wiki Commons administrator activities due to fact that german administration decisions had different licencing constraints for images. So it was to make icons visible in German wikiversity. Inconsistency in curator decision making, might have an impact on multilanguage authoring. Activities spending efforts in use-cases and applications of Wikiversity learning resources like [[Wiki2Reveal]] might also be regarded as a relevant curator activities for the community even if it is not an measuable as countable administrative action or activity. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 21:19, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
:::I recently in my role at Wikispecies performed our inactivity assessments of admins, one eventually lost his rights over this. However an important point. I felt that our particular local policy on this was too harsh on translation admins. Hence I made a request via RfC to exempt translation admins from normal admin inactivity review. Reasons were several fold but included the reality that many of those translating pages, a valuable service, who have admin privelages for this function are only on any given wiki for short periods of time, then they move on to another wiki. Hence there are often, understandable, reasons for significant periods of apparent inactivity on one wiki. Hence my own view is in the end to deal with our own site based sysops in regards to inactivity and leave the translation admins to a more case by case assessment as needed. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:33, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
::: So let me summarize a few things:
:::* '''(Vulnerability)''' Inactive admin accounts might create a security risk and highjacking those account (as [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] already mentioned) could create a hugh workload on admins to fix that especially when these accounts are used in conjunction with bots. That abuse will increase the workload for the active admins even more. That risk should be mitigated/reduced.
:::* '''(Undesired Side Effects of Counts)''' If we assess the 5 activity policy for admins that want to keep their administration rights, it could lead to  undesired admin activities that are performed just for the sake of getting the 5 admin activities performed. Especially deleting pages, blocking users, ... do require careful and sound handling of cases and should not be driven by admin activity counts - feels a bit strange to argue against &quot;counts&quot; as a mathematician and computer scientist ;-) . 
:::* '''(Admin Activity Counts)''' We all might appreciate the value of Wikiversity admins that support the community in educational settings at university and schools and use their admin rights with care and responsibility even if they do not reach the 5 admin action threshold. I think these counts are helpful to identify cause of inactivity and it might be the case that they were not needed anymore as Mikael mentioned for WikiJournal. I think we all would grant [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] again the rights if constraints come up that he requires those rights for maintaining WikiJournal pages.
:::* '''(Rights and Responsibility)''' Nevertheless this discussion here triggered awareness about the fact, that '''additional rights''' are provided with a '''responsibility''' to support the Wikiversity community with those access to the additional adminitrative tools.
:::* '''(Inactive and no Response)''' As you see below there are some Curators and Custodians that responded to the inactive account discussion some did not. For those who did not respond to this or did not take part in a discussion they might be no longer interested in the admin rights. Of course it is better to state that additional rights are no longer required. Anyway this discussion created awareness of the fact that priviliges should be granted if needed and disabled if possible. That should not have an impact on the possibility to join the team of curator and custodians later on the we should be open them. If curators want to disable their additional rights, then I guess we all would appreciate their security and vulnerability awareness. 
:::* '''(IT perspective)''' From an IT perspective I would suggest to allow people to disable some or all their own rights as curators/custodians for a period of time for private reasons and during that defined time span they cannot enable the custodian/curator rights anymore themselves. If the need to they must contact the admins again and ask for it. This approach has many advantages. Admins that are aware of the security risks and they know that they will not require the custodian rights for specific time (e.g. for 9 month due to a medical treatment) they can disable that for that time span and they will not be able to restore the admin rights before the end of the time span.  This decreases the vulnerability for those accounts and does not force the admin to publicly discuss e.g. the medical treatment in a discussion about inactivity. Furthermore other admins can see that this curator/custodian is currently not available for admin activities and is aware about the vulnerability of admin accounts. By this mean we all can distinguish ''&quot;lost interest&quot;'' from ''&quot;other reasons of inactivity&quot;'' of security aware admins and custodians. This suggestion is not applicable to Wikiversity admins only. If we all think that makes sense then it could be shared to the admins of other Wikis (Wikipedia, Wikispecies, WikiBooks, ...) as well.
::: '''Personal Conclusion:''' This discussion here was valuable for community health and community vulnerability. I personally would like to keep my additional rights, if possible. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 08:31, 2 December 2019 (UTC)

* {{support}} 5 edits and 5 actions within 12 months but equally I would support a higher requirement of 10 edits and 10 actions over 12 months. Re-applying for lost permissions should not be an onerous task. --[[User:Green Giant|Green Giant]] ([[User talk:Green Giant|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Green Giant|contribs]]) 01:39, 29 December 2019 (UTC)

* {{support}} 5 &amp; 5 actions over 12m is a reasonable low bar. We have a pretty reasonable process for re-applying for admin rights if someone returns after a period of lower activity. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:31, 29 November 2021 (UTC)

=== Inactive Administrators ===
Making note of curators and custodians who have fewer than five edits and/or fewer than five administrative actions in the last 12 months, giving them an opportunity to comment.
* {{Curator|Bert Niehaus}} I personally came into the curator role due to access to import features that are not publicly available for all Wikiversity authors. This step to see the administrative perspective allowed me insights in custodian actions. For me personally it was very helpful. Created test cases for import mechanism like [https://niebert.github.io/Wikipedia2Wikiversity/ from Wikipedia to Wikiversity (see Wikipedia2Wikiversity)] to convert wikipedia article into learning resources or to convert wikiversity articles into slides for lecture to allow individual annotation to Wikiversity contents on slides e.g. in lectures without modification of the sources in Wikiversity (see [[Wiki2Reveal]]. In general the workflow from testing use cases, analysis of custodian actions, inter wiki operation, vulnerability assessment of custodian and curator features and its requirements and constraints cannot be performed with a quick shot, because tools must have a good usablility and must be of benefit for authors in wikiversity and on the other hand it is relevant that these tools do not create a vulnerability of the core principles of openess, higher maintenance efforts for custodians and administrators or other technically facilitated options that could violate the neutral point of view of a huge amount of articles and learning resources in Wikiversity and could endanger a community driven, participatory approaches of development of learning resources and have them available as a common good. Furthermore I try to derive mechanisms at the interface to international agencies that have on the one hand a respect for regulations and the mandate of these organisation and on the other hand allow also to have participatory elements of capacity building and user-driven innovation outside the organisations that require the openness and NPOV in the Wiki to evolve in a community based way. As an example I worked on [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and on Capacity Building within Wikiversity. I understand that inactivity of Curators and Custodians require a kind of measurement to trigger actions so I supported the approach above. The consideration from a different angle might also lead to the conclusion, that custodian actions and activities do not lead to a measurable digital footprint of these activity. Anyway if we decide to remove my curator status due to the missing activity, then it is ok for me. You can be sure that I support the way forward independent of my curator status. To create a test environment like [https://niebert.github.io/Wikipedia2Wikiversity/ Wikipedia2Wikiversity] create measurable import actions for me as a curator does not make sense to me. I appreciate the decision making process you all perform here and the option to explain activities. Thank you all for supporting the Wikiversity concept as [[Open Educational Resources]]. --[[User:Bert Niehaus|Bert Niehaus]] ([[User talk:Bert Niehaus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bert Niehaus|contribs]]) 09:04, 28 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|CQ}}
:: Hi folks. UPDATE 02:04, 26 February 2020 (UTC) - I'm still alive and breathing in the human sense, but I'm very precariously perched on a tiny twig in Internet terms. I enthusiastically support the Wikiverse and grass-roots digital democracy but realize that our ideals and values matter less each passing year. Love is still the answer, though. Feel free to edit, delete, revert any of my stuff. I'll be watching from afar and may emerge again when conditions favor my online presence. [[User:CQ|CQ]] ([[User talk:CQ|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CQ|contribs]])
* {{Custodian|HappyCamper}} Hi, I am checking in to say hello. This risk of inactive custodians suddenly being hacked and doing damage to Wikiversity is not zero unfortunately, but it is minimal. --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] ([[User talk:HappyCamper|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/HappyCamper|contribs]]) 11:11, 21 March 2020 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|Juandev}} Hey, I think I left Wikiversity after conflicts on its contents (cs.wv) in around 2013. Then from 2017, I have started to organize off-wiki content creation events. As I came back into the research in my real life, I visit Czech Wikiversity more often and use it in my studies. I may also work on the research of Wikiversity itself, which may bring me also to English Wikiversity. But I am not sure if I can help here in the future. There are quite a lot of non-paied activities around me and I have to choose those which fit to my needs. Using rights on en.wv seems to be complicated if you don't follow its development don't read discussions, etc. I can delete obvious vandalism, but as I am not tracking the recent changes I would rarely do it. So I leave the decision on the newly adopted policy. --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:42, 2 August 2021 (UTC) 
* {{Curator|Lbeaumont}} [[Thinking Tools/Phoenix Checklist|What problem]] is being solved here? I continue to do my best to make constructive contributions to Wikiversity, including creating [[Wisdom/Curriculum|these learning resources]]. Cardiac surgery slowed me down earlier this year, yet I persist! I appreciate having curator privileges and they can be useful. What would be gained by taking action to remove privileges that I have never abused? 
**the major issue in regards to inactivity is a safety issue. The tools are capable of doing things that would be undesirable in hacked account, and inactive accounts are an easier target for this. Hence determining if accounts are at risk of this is important. Also Global Sysops have rules/ policies on their interventions and the number of local sysops available is a part of this. It is therefore important to know how many sysops are actually active. It is a part of receiving these rights that they will be monitored. I am just responding to your what is being solved here question. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:18, 28 November 2019 (UTC)
*** If the goal is to identify inactive accounts then the suggested filter has poor [[w:Sensitivity_and_specificity|specificity]], as evidenced by the number of [[Special:Contributions/Lbeaumont|contributions]] I have made over the past weeks, months, and years. If the goal is account security, then I suggest adopting security procedures, such as [[w:Multi-factor_authentication|multi-factor authentication]]. 
****Just answering your questions here, I am not making a call on this, part of it is admin actions, ie does a user need the tools. This is determined by the logs of admin actions, such as blocks, merges, deletions, patrolling etc. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:53, 1 December 2019 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|Leighblackall}} - I'm still here, about to work more in submitting articles in WikiJournalHumanities, as well as in Wikidata. I mainly ever used the Move feature anyway, or deleting pages of my own once moved. I would appreciate retaining the privileges also. [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]] ([[User talk:Leighblackall|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leighblackall|contribs]]) 00:58, 3 December 2019 (UTC)
* {{Curator|Mikael Häggström}} - Although I occasionally use the move or delete page feature for maintenance of [[WikiJournal]], the structure of its pages are now relatively established, so I don't think curatorship is essential for me, since I think I will only use those features perhaps 2 to 5 times per year. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 19:17, 28 November 2019 (UTC)
* {{Custodian|SB Johnny}} - Hi All. I've mostly been spending my online time involved in US politics the last couple years. Hoping to play around a bit with the bloom clock this year and it's nice to be able to see deleted pages (someone nuked a bunch of the worksheet type pages a while back). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 10:36, 4 March 2020 (UTC)
[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:22, 27 November 2019 (UTC)

=== Result ===
This thread has been sitting here unclosed for a while. While there wasn't much participation, there also wasn't any clear opposition to the proposal of requiring 5 edits and 5 actions within the last 12 months. I suggest it be closed with that result, and the policy updated accordingly (c.f. [[User:Faendalimas/Wikiversity Advanced Rights Review]]). --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 23:43, 25 February 2021 (UTC)

=== Follow Up ===
The recent addition of Eyoungstrom to the [[Wikiversity:Support staff]] page encouraged me to revisit the decision above. I have updated the support staff page, removing inactive members. The following did not have five edits and five actions within the last 12 months:
* [[User:CQ|CQ]]
* [[User:Faendalimas|Faendalimas]]
* [[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]]
* [[User:Juandev|Juandev]]
* [[User:Leighblackall|Leighblackall]]
* [[User:RadiX|RadiX]]
* [[User:SB Johnny|SB Johnny]]

I will leave a notice on their talk pages, encouraging them to participate. However, recognizing that most of them have moved on to other interests, I will request that stewards remove their administrative rights if these users are still inactive 30 days from now.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:36, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Comparative law and justice/Armenia</title>
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      <comment>/* See Also */ linkedin.com/pulse/final-justice-soghomon-tehlirian-assassination-talaat-chris-wilkinson Soghomon Tehlirian, Armenian Avenger &amp; Hero</comment>
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      <text bytes="34031" xml:space="preserve">Part of the [[Comparative law and justice]] Wikiversity Project
{{Comparative law and justice project|region=Europe}}
[[User:Mpotter14|Mpotter14]] 22:19, 1 November 2010 (UTC)
[[Image:Nuvola_Armenian_flag.svg‎|thumb|200px|left|Armenian flag.]]


Armenia is a civil law country with a population of 2,967,004.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Armenia is a small country in the southeastern edge of Europe and the very western tip of Asia, slightly smaller than the state of Maryland, US, totaling 29,743 spuare km. Located in the South Caucasus, Armenia is a landlocked country just east of turkey. The climate is considered higland continental--hot summers and cold winters.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; The country is covered with mountains, leaving very little forest land. The lowest point of elevation is at the Debed River, 400m. The highest point of elevation is at its highest mountain Arragats Lerrnagagat, 4,090m.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


[[Image:Am-map1.png|thumb|400px|center|Map of Armenia.]]

{{center top}}'''Geographic Coordinates:'''
:40 00N, 45 00E&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;{{center bottom}}


The people of Armenia are made up of 97.9% Armenians, 1.3% Yezidi (Kurd), .5% Russian, and .3% of others. Also, the relgious groupd which make up the country are 94.7% Armenian Apostolic, 4% of other varieties of Christianity, and 1.3% Yezidi--Yezidi religion is a monotheist religion with elements of nature worshipping. The languages spoken within the country are 97.7% Armenian--the official language, 1% Yezidi, 0.9% Russian, and 0.4% of others.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Age Structure:'''
:-0-14 years: 18.2% (male 289,119/female 252,150)
:-15-64 years: 71.1% (male 986,764/female 1,123,708)
:-65 years and over: 10/6% (male 122,996/female 192,267)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Brief History==
Armenia was the first country to adopt the religion of Christianity early in the 4th century. It has been under the countrol of several different empires including the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. The eastern area of the country declared its independence from Russia in 1918 however, it was conquered once more by the Soviet Union in 1920. Armenia has been involved in an extended conflict with Azerbaijan over the region of Nagorno-Karabakh (a primarily Armenian populated region). Nagorno-Karabakh was given to Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920's by Moscow. The two countries began fighting over this region in 1988--the conflict worsened with the attainment of independence in both countries from the Soviet Union in 1991. As a result of the two countries not being able to establish a peaceful resolution Armenia's economy has been severely hurt. Consequently, Turkey closed its common border with Armenia in 1994 which added to the Armenia's economic struggle. However, in 2009 Armenian leaders decided to pursue rapprochment with Turkey which may lead the re-opening of the common border.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Economic Development, Health, and Education==

===Economic Development===

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''GDP(official exchange rate)'''
| $8.714 Billion
|-
| '''GDP per capita'''
| $5,500
|-
| '''Labor Force'''
| 1.481 million (2007)
|}&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


'''Industries:'''
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| diamond processing
| metal cutting machine tools
| forging-pressing machines
| electric motors
|-
| tires
| knitting wear
| hosiery
| shoes
|-
| silk fabric
| chemicals
| trucks
| instruments
|-
| microelectronics
| jewlery manufacturing
| software development
| food processing
|}&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


Armenia's exports contribute 714 million dollars (U.S. dollars). The countries main exporting commodities are ''pig iron'', ''unwrought copper'', ''nonferrous metals'', ''diamonds'', ''mineral products'', ''foodstuffs, and energy''. It's trade partners of exports consist of--in order of highest percentage of trade--Germany, Russia, the U.S., Bulgaria, Georgia, Netherlands, Belgium, and Canada. Armenia's imports total 2.72 billion dollars; its main importing commodities are ''natural gas'', ''petroleum'', ''tobacco products'', ''foodstuffs'', ''and diamonds''. The countries main partners for imports consist of--also highest percent to lowest--Russia, China, Ukraine, Turkey, Germany, and Iran.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Health===

'''Infant Mortality Rate:'''

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''Total'''
| 20.21 deaths/1,000 live births
|-
| '''Male'''
| 24.97 deaths/1,000 live births
|-
| '''Female'''
| 14.77 deaths/1,000 live births
|}&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


'''Life Expectancy at Birth:'''
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''Total population'''
| 72.68 yrs
|-
| '''Male'''
| 69.06 yrs
|-
| '''Female'''
| 76.81 yrs
|}&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Education===

In Armenia children are expected to attend school, the expectancy life for school is 11 years for the males and 12 years for the females. The literacy rate within the country is 99.7% for males and 99.2% for females.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA - The World Factbook.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Web. 08 Sept. 2010. &lt;https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


==Governance==
Armenia is a democratic country, who's state power is administered by their [http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng Constitution] and laws based on the principle of seperation of its three powers of government. The government of Armenia consists of a president as well as three powers of government; ''executive'', ''legislative'', and ''judicial''. In addition, the country is seperated into eleven different sections/regions calleds marzes, including their capital '''Yerevan''' which is considered its own marz. Each marz has its own govenor--who are appointed and dismissed by government decrees, such governement decrees can be ratified by the President. Each govenor implements regional policy in the following areas--''finance'', ''urban development'', ''housing and utilities'', ''transport and road construction'', ''agriculture and land use'', ''education'', ''health care'', ''social security'', ''culture and sports'', ''nature and environmental protection'', ''commerce'', ''public catering'', ''and services''. The marz's govenor coordinates with the executive authorities in the areas of--''international affairs and national security'', ''defense'', ''communication'', ''energy'', ''taxes'', ''emergency situations'', ''civil defense'', and others.&lt;ref&gt;The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.gov.am/en/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Armenia's state government is seperated into three powers with a president not considered part of either. '''The President''' is the head of state, responsible for ensuring ''adherense to the constitution, and guarunteeing soverignity'', and ''territiorial integration and security''. The President is elected by the citizens of Armenia for a five year term.&lt;ref&gt;The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.gov.am/en/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; '''The Executive Power''' consists of a '''Prime Minister''' who is nominated by parlimentary majority and appointed by the president; as well as ministries of-- Territorial Administration (also the '''Vice Prime Minister'''), culture, the Diaspora, education and science, energy and natural resources, foriegn affairs, justice, nature protection, transport and communication, agriculture, defense, economy, emergency situations, finance, healthcare, labor and social affairs, sport and youth affairs, and urban development. The President appoints and discharges members of the ministries on the Prime Minister's proposal.&lt;ref&gt;The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.gov.am/en/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; '''The Legislative Power''' is made up of a single chambered '''National Assembly''', which is made up of one hundred thirty one ''deputies''; seventy five of these deputies are represented proportionally, fifty six are represented in majority. Citizens elect the deputies from their region for five year terms.&lt;ref&gt;The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.gov.am/en/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; '''The Judicial Power''', is made up of the '''first instance court''' of general jurisdiction, '''coutrs of appeal''', '''the court of Cassation''', which ensures uniformity in the implementation of the law, as well '''the Constitutional court''' which administers constitutional justice. The Constitution and the law define the procedure for the formation and the activites of the judicial power.&lt;ref&gt;The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.gov.am/en/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Office Holding Qualifications===
'''Presidential Qualifications:''' atleast thirty five years old, a citizen preceding ten years, a permenant resident preceding ten years, and the person running must still have their right to vote, if their right to vote has been revoked they are not eligable to hold office&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''National Assembly Qualifications:''' atleast twenty five years in age, residency preceding five years, must also have their right to vote&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Law Making Process===
The law making process in Armenia is explained in their constitution, articles 111 and 112-


====Article 111====

*The Constitution shall be adopted or amended by referendum, which may be initiated by the President of the Republic or the National Assembly.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

*The President of the Republic shall call a referendum upon the request or agreement of the National Assembly. For such a decision of the National Assembly is required the majority votes of the total number of the Deputies.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

*The President of the Republic may remand the Draft Constitution or the draft of constitutional amendments, within twenty one days following their submission back to the National Assembly, with his or her objections and suggestions, requesting a reexamination.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; 

*The President of the Republic will submit to a referendum within the period prescribed by the National Assembly a draft Constitution or draft constitutional amendments, when they are reintroduced by at least two thirds of the total number of Deputies of the National Assembly.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

*If the initiative belongs to the President of the Republic, the National Assembly shall within a three-month period following the receipt of the draft of the Constitution or amendments thereof put the motion on holding a referendum on the draft to the vote. If the majority of the total number of the deputies of the National Assembly vote for the draft, the latter shall be deemed adopted and the President of the Republic shall submit the draft to a referendum on the date set up by himself/herself.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


====Article 112====

*Laws may be submitted to a referendum upon the request of the National Assembly or the Government in accordance with Article 111 of the Constitution.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

*Laws passed by referendum may only be amended by referendum.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Elections===
Elections in Armenia are conducted as a '''Secret Ballot''' system where privacy in voting is both a right and responsibility of the voter, voting by proxy is prohibited. Voting in Armenia is only permitted in it's territory.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Electoral Code of the Republic of Armenia.&quot; Asoghik, 2008. Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.elections.am/images/docs/elcode.pdf&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; To be eligible to vote, one must be an eighteen year old citizen, voting is not required, it is voluntary.&lt;ref&gt;National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | Parliament.am. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&amp;lang=eng#8&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Judicial Review===
Judicial Review is the job of Armenia's Constitutional Court, which plays a role like the United States' Surpeme Court; they are responsible for administering constitutional justice.&lt;ref&gt;The Government of the Republic of Armenia. Web. 15 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.gov.am/en/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


==Courts and Criminal Law==
'''First Instance Courts of General Jurisdiction'''- Jurisdiction over civil, criminal, military, and administrative cases, detentions, search warrants, and privacy of communication &lt;ref&gt;Das, Dilip K., and Michael Palmiotto, eds. &quot;Armenia.&quot; World Police Encyclopedia: A-K, Index. Illustrated ed. Vol. 1. Taylor &amp; Francis, 2006. 37-39. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Courts of Appeal (two seperate)'''- first: Court of civil appeals, second: Court of criminal and military appeals&lt;ref&gt;Das, Dilip K., and Michael Palmiotto, eds. &quot;Armenia.&quot; World Police Encyclopedia: A-K, Index. Illustrated ed. Vol. 1. Taylor &amp; Francis, 2006. 37-39. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Court of Cassation'''- highest judicial instance in RA (besides the Council of Justice), provides the universal application of law and correct interpretations of law&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Home - The Judicial System of Armenia.&quot; Home - Հայաստանի դատական համակարգ. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.court.am/?l=en&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''The Council of Justice'''- an independent body made up of nine judges, elected by the General Assembly of judges for a term of five years. The Council of Justice has several jobs including, forming and submitting a list of candidates for new judges and lists of promotions for judges, proposes candidates for chairmen and judges for the Court of Cassation, Courts of Appeal, Fisrt Intance, and other specialized coutrs (ex. economic court), by request from the president the Council of Justice expresses opinions on the issue of pardon, and it imposes disiplinary liability on judges.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Home - The Judicial System of Armenia.&quot; Home - Հայաստանի դատական համակարգ. Web. 10 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.court.am/?l=en&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Punishment===

In Armenia, corporal punishment is unlawful as a sentence for crime&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Global Progress.&quot; End All Corporal Punishment of Children. Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/armenia.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; According the armenian criminal code, &quot;The persons who committed a crime are equal before the law and are subject to criminal liability regardless of sex, race, color, language, religion, political or other beliefs, national or social origin, ethnic minority identity, birth, property, or other statuses.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Republic of Armenia Criminal Code.&quot; Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1655/file/bb9bb21f5c6170dadc5efd70578c.htm/preview&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; In addition the countries criminal code also states that they do not descriminate against criminals based on sex, race, color, language, religion, political or other beliefs, national or social origin, ethinic minority identity, birth, property, or any other status. Punishments within the country are sentence with consideration of the accused as well as the accused crime, &quot;the punishment and other legal and penal measures applied to the person who committed an offence must be fair, appropriate to the gravity of the crime, to the circumstances in which it was committed, to the personality of the criminal; they must be necessary and sufficient to correct the criminal and to prevent new offences.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Republic of Armenia Criminal Code.&quot; Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1655/file/bb9bb21f5c6170dadc5efd70578c.htm/preview&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 19 in the countries criminal code explains the different types of crimes as well as how they are punishable. The article states that the degree of crimes are categorized as ''not very grave'', ''medium gravity'', ''grave'', and ''particularly grave''. '''Not very grave crimes''' are considered those which require a maximum of 2 years of prison, or for a crime in which the punishment doesn't require imprisonment, or lastly a crime &quot;committed through negligence,&quot; in which the punishment would not be more than 3 years of imprisonment. '''Medium gravity crimes''' are classified as crimes which don't consist of a punishment more than 5 years of imprisonment, and crimes committed through neglagence with a punishment no more than 10 years of imprisonment. '''Grave crimes''' are crimes in which the punishment does not exceed more than 10 years of imprisonment. Lastly '''particularly grave crimes''' are those in which the punishment is more than 10 years or life of imprisonment.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Republic of Armenia Criminal Code.&quot; Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1655/file/bb9bb21f5c6170dadc5efd70578c.htm/preview&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 49 in Armenia's criminal code states the types of punishment which they practice, including ''fines, public worsk, deprivation of special titles such as military ranks, confiscation of property, correctional labor, arrest, service in a disciplinary battalion,'' and ''imprisonment.'' Article 86 explains the type of punishments for '''minors''' including, ''fines, public work, arrest,'' and ''imprisonment.''&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Republic of Armenia Criminal Code.&quot; Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1655/file/bb9bb21f5c6170dadc5efd70578c.htm/preview&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

According to article 104 of the countries criminal code, &quot;'''murder''' is illegal willful deprivation of one’s life punished with imprisonment for 6 to 12 years.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Republic of Armenia Criminal Code.&quot; Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1655/file/bb9bb21f5c6170dadc5efd70578c.htm/preview&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; According to article 138, &quot;Rape, sexual intercourse of a man with a woman against her will, using violence against the latter or some other person, with threat thereof, or taking advantage of the woman’s helpless situation, is punished with imprisonment for the term of 3 to 6 years.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Republic of Armenia Criminal Code.&quot; Web. 18 Oct. 2010. &lt;http://www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/1655/file/bb9bb21f5c6170dadc5efd70578c.htm/preview&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Law Enforcement===


'''Republic of Armenia Police (RA Police)'''

According to the types of police structures from Reichel's ''Comparative Criminal Justice Systems'' on page 194, the Armenian police structure would be considered single centralized, they have one national police force which is responsible for enforcing one set of laws throughout the country &lt;ref&gt;Reichel, Philip L. Comparative Criminal Justice Systems: a Topical Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. 195. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;. The RA Police are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior, meaning their law enforcement and military powers are linked. The commander of the Interior troops is also named the ex-officio deputy chief of police.&lt;ref&gt;Das, Dilip K., and Michael Palmiotto, eds. &quot;Armenia.&quot; World Police Encyclopedia: A-K, Index. Illustrated ed. Vol. 1. Taylor &amp; Francis, 2006. 37-39. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;. The RA Police is made up of a central headquarters with one Chief of Police, one first deputy, and several deputies; all of which are appointed by the President. There are eleven Police Departments throughout the country, one for each of its marzes as well as one in its capital Yerevan, along with fifty two precincs, and several specialized diectories. The rankings of police officers in Armenia begins at the lowest rank with soldiers, followed by police soldiers, junior officer personnel, police middle/secondary officer personnel, senior officer personnel, and finally supreme officer personnel. The qualifications for RA Police is to graduate from a five year training program at The Police Academy &lt;ref&gt;Das, Dilip K., and Michael Palmiotto, eds. &quot;Armenia.&quot; World Police Encyclopedia: A-K, Index. Illustrated ed. Vol. 1. Taylor &amp; Francis, 2006. 37-39. Print.&lt;/ref&gt;.


==Corruption==

There is very little information for Armenia and their level of corruption, however in 1999 the Transparency International Corruption Perception Index ranked Armenia at a 2.1 on a 10 point scale (0=very corrupted, 10=no corruption) also ranking the country 76th out of 99, inferring that there is a high level of corruption in the country.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;NIS Reports by Country/nis/policy_research.&quot; Transparency International. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/nis/nis_reports_by_country&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Public Opinion--'''

&quot;Most Armenians are still sceptical about the government's commitment to fight corruption. Only 22% of respondents of the phone survey conducted by CRD/TI Armenia in February 2004 believed that the adoption of a government anti-corruption strategy demonstrated political will to combat corruption.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;2004-10-29 Nis Armenia/2004/press_releases/latest News/news Room.&quot; Transparency International. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://tistats.transparency.org/index.php/news_room/latest_news/press_releases/2004/2004_10_29_nis_armenia&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Crime Rates and Public Opinion===
It must be noted, that the crime rates in foreign countries are difficult to track for many reasons. Culturally, values on violence and crime range from culture to culture as well as throughout religions. There are also economic difficulties to take into consideration when trying to track crime; economic inequality, labor market conditions, and education levels can have a large impact on crime rates. In addition to culturally and economically, a cultures structural factors must also be considered when tracking crime. A countries laws on violence and punishment, along with government corruption will definitely have an effect on its crime rates. These along with measurement errors such as a societies ability to organize data, or even a societies definition of crime, must be considered when tracking and comparing a countries crime rates.&lt;ref&gt;Mikaila Mariel Lemonik Arthur, Comparative Law and Justice, RIC, Class Discussion 9/27/2010&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the OSAC 2010 Armenia Crime and Safety Report, crime in Armenia is pretty much average compared to the amount of crime that one wold find in a large American city. However, in 2009 there was a recorded 71.3% increase in crime in Armenia, which may be the result of an increase in reporting of crime. The most common crimes reported to the American Embassy in 2009 were relatively minor, including pick-pocketing, vehicle break-ins, purse snatchings, and cell phone theft.&lt;ref&gt;OSAC | United States Department of State | Bureau of Diplomatic Security. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;https://www.osac.gov/&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; In 1994, the homicide rate was 5.4 per 100,000, compared to 2.8 for assaults, 0.6 for rapes, and 2.9 for robberies. The rate of theft was 47.9 per 100,000. Drug trafficking is increasing significantly in Armenia. Armenia is an illicit cultivator of marijuana, mostly for domestic consumption however, it is increasingly used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs, more specifically opium and hashish; to Western Europe and the US via Iran, Central Asia, and Russia.&lt;ref&gt;Dr. Winlsow, Robert. &quot;Crime: Armenia.&quot; Crime and Society: a Comparative Criminology Tour of the World. San Diego State University. Web. 30 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/asia_pacific/armenia.html&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2008 the homicide rate in Armenia was only 2.5 which is significantly better than it was in 1994. The source of this data is the Armenian Police, and the United Nations Survey of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (UN-CTS).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;UNdata | Record View | Intentional Homicide, Rate per 100,000 Population.&quot; UNdata. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=UNODC&amp;f=tableCode:1&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Rights==

===Family Law===

====Marriage/Divorce====

Armenian women have a fairly high degree of equality within the family. Family law states that the for marriage for women is seventeen while for men it is 18. However, in select cases the marriage age can be lowered to sixteen for both men and women.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Gender Equality in Armenia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI).&quot; Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) | OECD Development Centre. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://genderindex.org/country/armenia&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) conducted in 2005 showed that 17 per cent of women aged 18 were married, divorced or widowed. In a 2004 United Nations report, this figure was reported to be 9 per cent for girls between 15 and 19 years of age.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Gender Equality in Armenia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI).&quot; Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) | OECD Development Centre. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://genderindex.org/country/armenia&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Marriage must be consented by both parties, and recorded with a registration. &quot;Registration is automatic in the case of civil weddings, but many couples marry in the church without registering.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Gender Equality in Armenia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI).&quot; Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) | OECD Development Centre. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://genderindex.org/country/armenia&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


The marriage law states equality between both spouses in all areas of family, which includes parental authority. The law states two different procedures for parental authority in divorce. If tehre are any children and they are of the age of majority and there is no dispute over property, couples can divorce by ''mutual consent''. If this is not the case, the case is brought before the court. The court awards custody acorrding to the child's best interest. According to cultural traditions, the courts often apply a period of reconciliation. &quot;The Family Code states that assets belonging to the divorcing parties should be divided equally. In many cases, the regulation is not applied, either because the marriage was not recorded by a registrar or because the woman signed a prenuptial agreement forfeiting her right to the application of the law. It should be noted that Armenian tradition is generally hostile to divorce. As a result, many women remain married even though they may be subjected to conflict or domestic violence.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Gender Equality in Armenia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI).&quot; Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) | OECD Development Centre. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://genderindex.org/country/armenia&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


====Inheritance====

Women also have equal inheritance rights as men however, it is much more difficult for them to record property titles for their inherited land.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Gender Equality in Armenia | Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI).&quot; Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) | OECD Development Centre. Web. 10 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://genderindex.org/country/armenia&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;


===Human Rights===

The constitution of the Republic of Armenia's articles 40-47 express the fundamental civil and human rights that are protected in the country. Article 40 state that every citizen in the country has the right to freedom of literacy, aesthetic, science and technology creation, use scientific advancement, and participate in society. Article 41 states that every citizen &quot;shall have the right to preserve his or her national and ethnic identity,&quot; minorites have the right to &quot;preservation and development of their traditions, religion, language and culture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fundamental Human and Civil Rights.&quot; The Official Site of the President of the Republic of Armenia. Administration of the President of the Republis of Armenia. Web. 30 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://www.president.am/library/constitution/eng/?chapter=2&amp;pn=5&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 42 articulates that the rights and freedoms expressed in the constitution will not exclude rights and freedoms prescribed by law. Also, &quot;everyone shall have the right to act in a way not prohibited by the law and not violating others’ rights and freedoms. No one shall bear obligations not stipulated by the law... The laws and other legal acts exacerbating the legal status of an individual shall not be retroactive.
The legal acts improving the legal status of an individual, eliminating or mitigating his/her liability shall be retroactive if prescribed by the acts in question.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fundamental Human and Civil Rights.&quot; The Official Site of the President of the Republic of Armenia. Administration of the President of the Republis of Armenia. Web. 30 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://www.president.am/library/constitution/eng/?chapter=2&amp;pn=5&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Article 42.1 says, &quot;the fundamental human and civil rights and freedoms shall apply to legal persons to the extent these fundamental rights and freedoms are applicable to them.&quot; Article 43 states, &quot;the fundamental human and civil rights and freedoms set forth in Articles 23-25, 27, 28-30, 30.1, Part 3 of Article 32 may be temporarily restricted only by the law if it is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public order, crime prevention, protection of public health and morality, constitutional rights and freedoms, as well as honor and reputation of others...Limitations on fundamental human and civil rights and freedoms may not exceed the scope defined by the international commitments assumed by the Republic of Armenia. Article 44, &quot;special categories of fundamental human and civil rights, except for those stipulated in Articles 15, 17-22 and 42 of the Constitution may be temporarily restricted as prescribed by the law in case of martial law or state of emergency within the scope of the assumed international commitments on deviating from commitments in cases of emergency.&quot; Article 45, &quot;everyone shall be obliged to pay taxes, duties and other compulsory fees in conformity with the procedure prescribed by the law.&quot; Article 46, &quot;every citizen shall be obliged to take part in the defense of the Republic of Armenia in conformity with the procedure prescribed by the law.&quot; Article 47, &quot;Everyone shall be obliged to honor the Constitutions and laws, to respect the rights, freedoms and dignity of others...The exercise of the rights and freedoms with the purpose of overthrow of the constitutional order, incitement to national, racial and religious hatred, propaganda of violence or warfare shall be prohibited.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fundamental Human and Civil Rights.&quot; The Official Site of the President of the Republic of Armenia. Administration of the President of the Republis of Armenia. Web. 30 Nov. 2010. &lt;http://www.president.am/library/constitution/eng/?chapter=2&amp;pn=5&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

==See Also==
* [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/final-justice-soghomon-tehlirian-assassination-talaat-chris-wilkinson Soghomon Tehlirian, Armenian Avenger &amp; Hero]
* [[Wikipedia: Assassination of Talaat Pasha]]

===Works Cited===
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== Motivation and Emotion (Gambling) Book ==

Hi Ruy,

I'm Alex MC (the author of the chapter on gambling). I was actually working on the page rather than experimenting:) As this is all new to me (well, to most of us in the class actually) I don't doubt I was making some errors. The reason I was still messing with it when your message appeared was because I was trying to get my  edits recognised as contributions - it had been working OK but for some reason the IP address started to appear rather than Alex MC (even though I was using the four tildes).  Got me confused, but I guess it's all just part of the challenge, huh.

Alex

:I've offered this user some explanation on [[User talk:AlexMC]]. Alex, you had logged out, apparently. This edit was ''also'' logged out, you can look at the history tab and see. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 20:35, 16 October 2011 (UTC)
::Thanks, Abd! [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 11:52, 17 October 2011 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==

Hi RP,

Thanks for your message on my talk page. I'm familiar with your work and I think you could make a strong contribution to the administrative side of Wikiversity. I'm planning to take something of a wikibreak shortly, so I'm not in the best position to mentor you, but as you are already a meta sysop and a global rollbacker I'd be comfortable mentoring you jointly with any other active custodian, and nominating you when you're ready after I return. Alternatively, you're more than welcome to select an alternative mentor, and you can always ask me for feedback on a more specific basis. Please let me know your thoughts and don't hesitate to ask around and discuss with the other custodians.

[[User:Draicone|&lt;b&gt;Draicone&lt;/b&gt;]] [[User_talk:Draicone|&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #FF9933;&quot;&gt;(talk)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]] 08:10, 20 October 2011 (UTC)

: Apologies for delay, but welcome aboard - you are now an en.wv probationary custodian. Please let me know if I can do anything to help out. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:58, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

Hi Ruy. It's been a week or so... any questions? Your logs look fine to me, so no issues there.

BTW, if you haven't done so yet, please make sure [[WV:RCA]] is on your watchlist. There's currently a discussion going on there about how a particular decision on meta should relate to WV, so your input would certainly be helpful there (since you presumably have a better feel for meta than any of the local 'crats, myself included). --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:22, 6 November 2011 (UTC)
:I've closed that discussion, but it was an involved close. If you feel, Ruy, that more discussion should take place in that location, you could re-open it, but consensus seemed to be that what was needed was either a community discussion on the Colloquium, or a Community Review. This wasn't an ordinary Request for custodian action, based on Wikiversity disruption, the only disruption visible was being created by that RCA discussion! SBJ's suggestion that you watch RCA, if you aren't already, is quite sound. Thanks for your work. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 19:29, 6 November 2011 (UTC)
*Sorry, guys! :( I was a little busy IRL these days. I'm totally agreed with that. What do you think about starting a RfC regarding such proposal? :) [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:22, 10 November 2011 (UTC)
:There are a number of processes here. We have [[WV:Community Review]], which is pretty much the equivalent of RfC elsehwere. My position here is that our consensus is already clear, and it's stated in [[WV:Blocking policy]]. While that's titled as a proposed policy, it's been that way for donkey's ages, lots of our operating policies are like that. Doesn't mean that it's not policy, the principles have been tested again and again, and the critical text has been standing for years. I'm chary of starting a Community Review myself on a matter which I consider settled. Instead, what I see is a custodial action which is contrary to standing policy, and the issue of &quot;global bans&quot; has been addressed before, so I've started by asking the custodian to reverse his action, and the next step is [[WV:Custodian feedback]], if I or someone else is not satisfied. Community review for actions and users is down the line, only if necessary. On the other hand, anyone is free to start up discussion of changing our policy, which should start on [[Wikiversity talk:Blocking policy]], and if there is dispute that cannot be resolved there, then there would be the possibility of a CR on our policy. We should have a passed blocking policy, to avoid confusion and for the guidance of custodians. The discussion would go in the site notice.
:There is also a long term process that I've created to support finding deep consensus. It's slow, it's not intended, at least not at this point, for rapid decision-making, it's intended for producing coherent reports on topics, for use by the community as it sees fit. That's the [[Wikiversity:Assembly]]. Any user may join the Assembly, instructions are on the page. As a deliberative process, it needs defined membership, which makes it different from the usual wiki usual. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 01:53, 10 November 2011 (UTC)

Hi again. I'll be recommending you for full custodian in a few days... ready? --[[User:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|'''SB_Johnny'''}}]]  &lt;sup&gt;[[User_talk:SB_Johnny|{{font|color=green|talk}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:08, 24 November 2011 (UTC)
:Hey, SB Johny. Sorry for not responding yesterday, I was a kinda busy IRL. Oh, yes, if you trust me, I have no reason to refuse ;) Thank you. [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:30, 27 November 2011 (UTC)
:: Hi Ruy Pugliesi - I think you may now the record now for the longest probationary custodianship. Are you still willing and are you ready to be nominated for full custodianship? Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:19, 20 September 2013 (UTC)
:::Ruy, congratulations on your election as a steward! You are still a probationary custodian here, for far longer than policy contemplates; your mentor dropped the ball over three years ago, and you must have missed Jtneill's question. Do you wish to continue? If so, we can get the permanent discussion going. Otherwise, you are a steward and nobody will complain if you remove the tools directly. In any case, thanks for your service to Wikiversity. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 19:21, 7 March 2015 (UTC)
::::Dear [[User:Abd|Abd]],
::::Thank you!
::::I've really missed Jtneill's comment. Sorry for that.
::::I'd rather keep helping Wikiversity as a administrator. There is always something I could do that is not solely within the scope of stewards duties, which is mostly intended for assisting with emergency actions. However, if you think I am not suitable for full custodianship, please, tell me. :)
::::Best regards, [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:47, 8 March 2015 (UTC)
:::::That, for me, is not the issue. [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Ruy Pugliesi]] is still open. This should be completed. There are some practical consequences. For example, as a permanent custodian, you may mentor probationary custodians. Probationary custodianship was conceived of as a one-month process. That is possibly short, there is no harm in extensions, as such. However, I will treat the above as indicating your interest in continuing as a custodian, and I will facilitate, then, the PC discussion, allowing the request to be closed. SB_Johnny should have the opportunity to make a recommendation, so first thing I'll do is to ask him. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 18:12, 8 March 2015 (UTC)

FYI, [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Ruy Pugliesi|your nomination]] for full custodian has been closed as successful. Congratulations. Thanks for your work in helping out the community. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:03, 1 April 2015 (UTC)
*Yes, congratulations. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:47, 1 April 2015 (UTC)
:{{ping|Abd|Jtneill}} Thank you! [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:35, 2 April 2015 (UTC)

==[[How to be a Wikimedia sysop]]==
You may be interested in participating in and/or contributing to this [[learning project]], and see also: [[How to be a Wikimedia sysop/Wikiversity]]. Sincerely, James. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:03, 30 October 2011 (UTC)
:I'll read them carefully. Thanks, :) [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 02:05, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

== Welcome ==

Have fun. :) [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]])  03:45, 30 October 2011 (UTC)
:Thank you! [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:45, 30 October 2011 (UTC)

== Mail ==

- [[User:Ottava Rima|Ottava Rima]] ([[User talk:Ottava Rima|talk]])  18:11, 7 November 2011 (UTC)

== Your block of [[Special:Contributions/150.176.249.100|150.176.249.100]] ==

Thanks! I've extended the block to two weeks, standard escalation for persistent vandalism from an apparently stable IP, with no positive contributions ever, as far as I could see. I opened up the talk page just in case some legit user gets caught in this.

I've developed a low tolerance for accounts and IPs with nothing but vandalism in their record. If a user wants to contribute usefully, they would never want that as the first edits recorded in their account, so I save them and us the trouble and indef registered users, and use escalating blocks for IP. Just my thinking.... --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 23:29, 14 November 2011 (UTC)

== Test template ==

I have not made much use of the test template myself because it doesn't seem to have much of an effect. Wondering whether you have ever received feedback from IPs which make test edits? --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 07:56, 19 January 2012 (UTC)

== Nice to see you come back ==

Welcome back :-) --{{font|face=Utah MT-SJ-NI|[[User:Goldenburg111|{{font|color=red|Golden}}]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:Goldenburg111|{{font|color=orange|burg}}]][[Special:Contributions/Goldenburg111|111]]&lt;/sub&gt;}} 00:44, 29 January 2015 (UTC)
:Thanks, [[User:Goldenburg111|Goldenburg111]]. I returned in November. I will be around. :) [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:55, 29 January 2015 (UTC)
::Why did you leave anyways? You got bored? That's why I'm a bit inactive as of now, I used to be such a Wikipedia Addict but now I just lost that jig. --{{font|face=Utah MT-SJ-NI|[[User:Goldenburg111|{{font|color=red|Golden}}]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:Goldenburg111|{{font|color=orange|burg}}]][[Special:Contributions/Goldenburg111|111]]&lt;/sub&gt;}} 00:59, 29 January 2015 (UTC)
:::I was a bit busy IRL due to academic reasons from February to mid-October, [[User:Goldenburg111|Goldenburg111]]. I also had some heatlh issues :/ But now everything is okay. Why are you bored with Wikipedia? [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:17, 29 January 2015 (UTC)
::::Sorry to hear that with the health issues Ruy. Nice to hear it's taken care of :). Anyways, with the bored with Wikipedia thing. An 11 year old having interest in editing Wikipedia is abnormal, for my age (don't worry a lot of people know I'm 11). So yeah you expect 11 year old's to be playing games. But the reason why i was not interested in Wikipedia as much is because it tends to get boring, I can't really describe it well. But I know I'll get back on my feet again, and that'll be in a few days (hopefully). And yeah, school brings you down far well. --{{font|face=Utah MT-SJ-NI|[[User:Goldenburg111|{{font|color=red|Golden}}]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:Goldenburg111|{{font|color=orange|burg}}]][[Special:Contributions/Goldenburg111|111]]&lt;/sub&gt;}} 14:28, 29 January 2015 (UTC)

== Please reconsider deletion ==

You deleted [[DCG/Community_Lab]] as an ''(Abandoned resource).'' This was under discussion at [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Dave_Braunschweig#An_.22obvious.22_delete.3F], please see that. There, I suggested a move to the user space of the creator. It was part of a larger resource that had been so moved. I don't know why this piece was isolated; as I recall, the user had moved this one page back to mainspace, perhaps planning to do something with it that never happened.

Guy is new as a probationary custodian and was (very properly) asking. Dave suggested using proposed deletion, which is also done for pages like this.

Generally, we do not delete things like this, move to user space is a very normal response, unless the page is totally and completely obvious as being of no use. The benefit is that this practice does no harm, it causes no controversy or hurt feelings, ever. I had thought of just leaving this alone, since the value of that page is marginal, but today decided to request you undelete and move it. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 14:36, 20 March 2015 (UTC)
:{{Done}}. Regards, [[User:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Ruy Pugliesi&quot;&gt;{{font|face=Arial Rounded MT Bold|Ruy Pugliesi}}&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Ruy Pugliesi|&lt;span title=&quot;Talk&quot;&gt;&amp;#9701;&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:26, 21 March 2015 (UTC)
::Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 23:24, 21 March 2015 (UTC)

== Staff Listing ==

Welcome back! Should we change the listing on the [[Wikiversity:STAFF]] page to RadiX? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:56, 19 February 2016 (UTC)
:{{Ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Hello! Thank you. And thanks for showing me this page. I am going to update de list to match my current username. :) &lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Arial; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;[[User:RadiX|&lt;span style=&quot;color:black;&quot;&gt;R&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; font-variant:small-caps; text-decoration:overline;&quot;&gt;adi&lt;/span&gt;X&lt;/span&gt;]][[User talk:RadiX|&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey;&quot;&gt;∞&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 01:31, 19 February 2016 (UTC)

== Invariant energy - why is deleted? ==

The page Invariant energy was deleted without any explanation. What is the problem with the page or may be it was a mistake?
[[User:Fedosin|Fedosin]] ([[User talk:Fedosin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fedosin|contribs]])
:{{ping|Fedosin}} Sorry, I deleted the page by accident. It had been blanked by I vandal so that I didn't noticed that. Restored :) &lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Arial; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;[[User:RadiX|&lt;span style=&quot;color:black;&quot;&gt;R&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:0.8em; font-variant:small-caps; text-decoration:overline;&quot;&gt;adi&lt;/span&gt;X&lt;/span&gt;]][[User talk:RadiX|&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey;&quot;&gt;∞&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/span&gt; 14:05, 3 October 2019 (UTC)
Now it is OK, thank you.[[User:Fedosin|Fedosin]] ([[User talk:Fedosin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fedosin|contribs]])

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johan_(WMF)/Target_lists/Admins2022(3)&amp;oldid=22532499 --&gt;

== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:55, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>4uyazlwweu5bnwx32u8q8li9tq4sq67</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>139384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409227</id>
      <parentid>2408883</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:31:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2883" xml:space="preserve">{{nocat}}
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:adder.20131113.pdf  |pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20211108.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|| [[Media:adder.rca.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf |pdf]] 
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20211106.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|| [[Media:adder.cla.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20211111.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf  |pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf |pdf]],  [[Media:adder.cca.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf |pdf]] 
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| [[Media:adder.ksa.20140409.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9. Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA.20220725.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf |pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:bshift.20131105.pdf  |bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf  |bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf  |pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf  |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf  |pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf  |pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf  |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf  |Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf |H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf  |pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Computer architecture]]</text>
      <sha1>5rky8rofe1v6xnixgcd72x74389eyrh</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:WikiJournal User Group</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>159077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409341</id>
      <parentid>2408497</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T00:44:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reference deposits */ done!</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9447" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:WikiJournal]]
{{WikiJournal_discussions}}

{{Archive box|
[[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2017|2017]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2018|2018]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2019|2019]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2020|2020]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2021|2021]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2022|2022]]

Discussions may also take place at the
&lt;br&gt;'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join])
}}

{{TOClimit|limit=3}}

== Banner links must be accessible on smartphones ==

On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC)

== Reference deposits ==

Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?).

What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's &quot;What Cites This&quot; page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself.

This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article &quot;[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]&quot;; its first reference is the 1907 article &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;. If you visit the Taylor &amp; Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;], however, you can see in the righthand &quot;Related research&quot; module in the &quot;Cited by&quot; tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link &quot;Beak and feather disease virus&quot; and &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot; page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs.

One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles.

If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; &quot;[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]&quot; has a unified reference list, but other articles like &quot;[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]&quot; have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated &quot;[Author], [date], p. XX&quot; footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials.

I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, &quot;Beak and feather disease virus&quot; is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC)
: Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC)
::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC)
:::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:::::''WJM'' is not complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>i69fm2lrrnzibjx6ks8oibbjs8tw98c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409342</id>
      <parentid>2409341</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T00:44:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Reference deposits */ important typo</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9447" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:WikiJournal]]
{{WikiJournal_discussions}}

{{Archive box|
[[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2017|2017]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2018|2018]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2019|2019]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2020|2020]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2021|2021]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2022|2022]]

Discussions may also take place at the
&lt;br&gt;'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join])
}}

{{TOClimit|limit=3}}

== Banner links must be accessible on smartphones ==

On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC)

== Reference deposits ==

Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?).

What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's &quot;What Cites This&quot; page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself.

This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article &quot;[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]&quot;; its first reference is the 1907 article &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;. If you visit the Taylor &amp; Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;], however, you can see in the righthand &quot;Related research&quot; module in the &quot;Cited by&quot; tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link &quot;Beak and feather disease virus&quot; and &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot; page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs.

One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles.

If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; &quot;[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]&quot; has a unified reference list, but other articles like &quot;[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]&quot; have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated &quot;[Author], [date], p. XX&quot; footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials.

I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, &quot;Beak and feather disease virus&quot; is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC)
: Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC)
::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC)
:::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>8e52awcnapbkpot95til4folm4hpph1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409348</id>
      <parentid>2409342</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T01:44:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reference deposits */ re</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9912" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:WikiJournal]]
{{WikiJournal_discussions}}

{{Archive box|
[[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2017|2017]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2018|2018]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2019|2019]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2020|2020]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2021|2021]]
&lt;br&gt;[[/Archive 2022|2022]]

Discussions may also take place at the
&lt;br&gt;'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join])
}}

{{TOClimit|limit=3}}

== Banner links must be accessible on smartphones ==

On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC)

== Reference deposits ==

Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?).

What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's &quot;What Cites This&quot; page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself.

This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article &quot;[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]&quot;; its first reference is the 1907 article &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;. If you visit the Taylor &amp; Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;], however, you can see in the righthand &quot;Related research&quot; module in the &quot;Cited by&quot; tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link &quot;Beak and feather disease virus&quot; and &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot;; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the &quot;Parrakeets Moulting&quot; page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs.

One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles.

If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; &quot;[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]&quot; has a unified reference list, but other articles like &quot;[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]&quot; have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated &quot;[Author], [date], p. XX&quot; footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials.

I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, &quot;Beak and feather disease virus&quot; is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC)
: Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC)
::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC)
:::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC)
:::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC)
::::::Oh neat, I see references have already been deposited for &quot;[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.003 Parenting stress]&quot; and it's already showing up in the cited articles' Cited By lists (e.g., [https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 here]). Thanks for doing this! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>qcpeba4poyb57x7ojmcljrsa9eq497i</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Newsletters/Tech News</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>162205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409289</id>
      <parentid>2407951</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:27:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MediaWiki message delivery</username>
        <id>983498</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Tech News: 2022-30 */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="91295" xml:space="preserve">{{Archive box|[[/2014/]] · [[/2015/]] · [[/2016/]] · [[/2017/]] · [[/2018/]] · [[/2019/]] · [[/2020/]] · [[/2021/]]}}
__TOC__
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Tech News: 2022-02]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W02&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] A &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;oauth_consumer&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; variable has been added to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] to enable identifying changes made by specific tools. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298281]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ResourceLoader/Migration_guide_(users)#Package_Gadgets|now able to directly include JSON pages]]. This means some gadgets can now be configured by administrators without needing the interface administrator permission, such as with the Geonotice gadget. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T198758]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets [[mw:Extension:Gadgets#Options|can now specify page actions]] on which they are available. For example, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;|actions=edit,history&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will load a gadget only while editing and on history pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T63007]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets can now be loaded on demand with the &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;withgadget&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; URL parameter. This can be used to replace [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Snippets/Load JS and CSS by URL|an earlier snippet]] that typically looks like &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;withJS&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; or &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;withCSS&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29766]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] At wikis where [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How to configure the mentors' list|the Mentorship system is configured]], you can now use the Action API to get a list of a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor_dashboard|mentor's]] mentees. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291966]
* The heading on the main page can now be configured using &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]]&lt;/span&gt; for logged-in users and &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]]&lt;/span&gt; for logged-out users. Any CSS that was previously used to hide the heading should be removed. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Small_wiki_toolkits/Starter_kit/Main_page_customization#hide-heading] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298715]
* Four special pages (and their API counterparts) now have a maximum database query execution time of 30 seconds. These special pages are: RecentChanges, Watchlist, Contributions, and Log. This change will help with site performance and stability. You can read [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IPJNO75HYAQWIGTHI5LJHTDVLVOC4LJP/ more details about this change] including some possible solutions if this affects your workflows. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T297708]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Sticky Header|sticky header]] has been deployed for 50% of logged-in users on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Frequently asked questions#pilot-wikis|more than 10 wikis]]. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Participate|how to take part in the project]]. 

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Events'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]] begins. All contributors to the Wikimedia projects can propose for tools and platform improvements. The proposal phase takes place from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-10|en}} 18:00 UTC to {{#time:j xg|2022-01-23|en}} 18:00 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/FAQ|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W02&quot;/&gt;

01:23, 11 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Tech News: 2022-03]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W03&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* When using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:WikiEditor|WikiEditor]] (also known as the 2010 wikitext editor), people will now see a warning if they link to disambiguation pages.  If you click &quot;{{int:Disambiguator-review-link}}&quot; in the warning, it will ask you to correct the link to a more specific term. You can [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Warn when linking to disambiguation pages#Jan 12, 2021: Turning on the changes for all Wikis|read more information]] about this completed 2021 Community Wishlist item.
* You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#subscribe|automatically subscribe to all of the talk page discussions]] that you start or comment in using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary|DiscussionTools]].  You will receive [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Notifications|notifications]] when another editor replies.  This is available at most wikis.  Go to your [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]] and turn on &quot;{{int:discussiontools-preference-autotopicsub}}&quot;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263819]
* When asked to create a new page or talk page section, input fields can be [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Creating_pages_with_preloaded_text|&quot;preloaded&quot; with some text]]. This feature is now limited to wikitext pages. This is so users can't be tricked into making malicious edits. There is a discussion about [[phab:T297725|if this feature should be re-enabled]] for some content types.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Events'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]] continues. All contributors to the Wikimedia projects can propose for tools and platform improvements. The proposal phase takes place from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-10|en}} 18:00 UTC to {{#time:j xg|2022-01-23|en}} 18:00 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/FAQ|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W03&quot;/&gt;

19:55, 17 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Tech News: 2022-04]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W04&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* The following languages can now be used with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlighting]]: BDD, Elpi, LilyPond, Maxima, Rita, Savi, Sed, Sophia, Spice, .SRCINFO.
* You can now access your watchlist from outside of the user menu in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|new Vector skin]]. The watchlist link appears next to the notification icons if you are at the top of the page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289619]

'''Events'''
* You can see the results of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award|Coolest Tool Award 2021]] and learn more about 14 tools which were selected this year.
* You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/Help_us|translate, promote]], or comment on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Proposals|the proposals]] in the Community Wishlist Survey. Voting will begin on {{#time:j xg|2022-01-28|en}}.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W04&quot;/&gt;

21:38, 24 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Tech News: 2022-05]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W05&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] If a gadget should support the new &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;?withgadget&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; URL parameter that was [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|announced]] 3 weeks ago, then it must now also specify &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;supportsUrlLoad&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; in the gadget definition ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#supportsUrlLoad|documentation]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29766]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* A change that was [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|announced]] last year was delayed. It is now ready to move ahead:
** The user group &lt;code&gt;oversight&lt;/code&gt; will be renamed &lt;code&gt;suppress&lt;/code&gt;. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. This is the technical name. It doesn't affect what you call the editors with this user right on your wiki. This is planned to happen in three weeks. You can comment [[phab:T112147|in Phabricator]] if you have objections. As usual, these labels can be translated on translatewiki ([[phab:T112147|direct links are available]]) or by administrators on your wiki.

'''Events'''
* You can vote on proposals in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey]] between 28 January and 11 February. The survey decides what the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Tech|Community Tech team]] will work on.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W05&quot;/&gt;

17:42, 31 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Tech News: 2022-06]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W06&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* English Wikipedia recently set up a gadget for dark mode. You can enable it there, or request help from an [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Interface administrators|interface administrator]] to set it up on your wiki ([[w:en:Wikipedia:Dark mode (gadget)|instructions and screenshot]]).
* Category counts are sometimes wrong. They will now be completely recounted at the beginning of every month. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T299823]

'''Problems'''
* A code-change last week to fix a bug with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Live preview|Live Preview]] may have caused problems with some local gadgets and user-scripts. Any code with skin-specific behaviour for &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;vector&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; should be updated to also check for &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;vector-2022&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [[phab:T300987|A code-snippet, global search, and example are available]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W06&quot;/&gt;

21:15, 7 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Tech News: 2022-07]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W07&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Purge|Purging]] a category page with fewer than 5,000 members will now recount it completely. This will allow editors to fix incorrect counts when it is wrong. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T85696]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] extension, the &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;rmspecials()&lt;/code&gt; function has been updated so that it does not remove the &quot;space&quot; character. Wikis are advised to wrap all the uses of &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;rmspecials()&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;rmwhitespace()&lt;/code&gt; wherever necessary to keep filters' behavior unchanged. You can use the search function on [[Special:AbuseFilter]] to locate its usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263024]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W07&quot;/&gt;

19:18, 14 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Tech News: 2022-08]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W08&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[Special:Nuke|Special:Nuke]] will now provide the standard deletion reasons (editable at &lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[MediaWiki:Deletereason-dropdown]]&lt;/bdi&gt;) to use when mass-deleting pages. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Admins and patrollers/Mass-delete to offer drop-down of standard reasons, or templated reasons.|a request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T25020]
* At Wikipedias, all new accounts now get the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] by default when creating an account. Communities are encouraged to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Account_creation|update their help resources]]. Previously, only 80% of new accounts would get the Growth features. A few Wikipedias remain unaffected by this change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301820]
* You can now prevent specific images that are used in a page from appearing in other locations, such as within PagePreviews or Search results. This is done with the markup &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;class=notpageimage&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. For example, &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[File:Example.png|class=notpageimage]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301588]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] There has been a change to the HTML of Special:Contributions, Special:MergeHistory, and History pages, to support the grouping of changes by date in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Minerva_Neue|the mobile skin]]. While unlikely, this may affect gadgets and user scripts. A [[phab:T298638|list of all the HTML changes]] is on Phabricator.

'''Events'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Results|Community Wishlist Survey results]] have been published. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Updates/2022 results#leaderboard|ranking of prioritized proposals]] is also available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-22|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-23|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-24|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The software to play videos and audio files on pages will change soon on all wikis. The old player will be removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Toolforge's underlying operating system is being updated. If you maintain any tools there, there are two options for migrating your tools into the new system.  There are [[wikitech:News/Toolforge Stretch deprecation|details, deadlines, and instructions]] on Wikitech. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/cloud-announce@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EPJFISC52T7OOEFH5YYMZNL57O4VGSPR/]
* Administrators will soon have [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/(Un)delete associated talk page|the option to delete/undelete]] the associated &quot;talk&quot; page when they are deleting a given page. An API endpoint with this option will also be available. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Admins and patrollers/(Un)delete associated talk page|a request from the 2021 Wishlist Survey]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W08&quot;/&gt;

19:12, 21 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Tech News: 2022-09]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W09&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* When searching for edits by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tags|change tags]], e.g. in page history or user contributions, there is now a dropdown list of possible tags. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Miscellaneous/Improve plain-text change tag selector|a request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T27909]
* Mentors using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor_dashboard|Growth Mentor dashboard]] will now see newcomers assigned to them who have made at least one edit, up to 200 edits. Previously, all newcomers assigned to the mentor were visible on the dashboard, even ones without any edit or ones who made hundred of edits. Mentors can still change these values using the filters on their dashboard. Also, the last choice of filters will now be saved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301268][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T294460]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The user group &lt;code&gt;oversight&lt;/code&gt; was renamed &lt;code&gt;suppress&lt;/code&gt;. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. You may need to update any local references to the old name, e.g. gadgets, links to Special:Listusers, or uses of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic_words|NUMBERINGROUP]].

'''Problems'''
* The recent change to the HTML of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tracking changes|tracking changes]] pages caused some problems for screenreaders. This is being fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298638]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.24|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* Working with templates will become easier. [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Templates|Several improvements]] are planned for March 9 on most wikis and on March 16 on English Wikipedia. The improvements include: Bracket matching, syntax highlighting colors, finding and inserting templates, and related visual editor features.
* If you are a template developer or an interface administrator, and you are intentionally overriding or using the default CSS styles of user feedback boxes (the classes: &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;successbox, messagebox, errorbox, warningbox&lt;/code&gt;), please note that these classes and associated CSS will soon be removed from MediaWiki core. This is to prevent problems when the same class-names are also used on a wiki. Please let us know by commenting at [[phab:T300314]] if you think you might be affected.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W09&quot;/&gt;

22:59, 28 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Tech News: 2022-10]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W10&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem with some interface labels last week. It will be fixed this week. This change was part of ongoing work to simplify the support for skins which do not have active maintainers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301203]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W10&quot;/&gt;

21:16, 7 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Tech News: 2022-11]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W11&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* In the Wikipedia Android app [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/Android/Communication#Updates|it is now possible]] to change the toolbar at the bottom so the tools you use more often are easier to click on. The app now also has a focused reading mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T296753][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T254771]

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem with the collection of some page-view data from June 2021 to January 2022 on all wikis. This means the statistics are incomplete. To help calculate which projects and regions were most affected, relevant datasets are being retained for 30 extra days. You can [[m:Talk:Data_retention_guidelines#Added_exception_for_page_views_investigation|read more on Meta-wiki]].
* There was a problem with the databases on March 10. All wikis were unreachable for logged-in users for 12 minutes. Logged-out users could read pages but could not edit or access uncached content then. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2022-03-10_MediaWiki_availability]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* When [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:System_message#Finding_messages_and_documentation|using &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;uselang=qqx&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; to find localisation messages]], it will now show all possible message keys for navigation tabs such as &quot;{{int:vector-view-history}}&quot;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300069]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Access to [[{{#special:RevisionDelete}}]] has been expanded to include users who have &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;deletelogentry&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;deletedhistory&lt;/code&gt; rights through their group memberships. Before, only those with the &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;deleterevision&lt;/code&gt; right could access this special page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301928]
* On the [[{{#special:Undelete}}]] pages for diffs and revisions, there will be a link back to the main Undelete page with the list of revisions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284114]

'''Future changes'''
*  The Wikimedia Foundation has announced the IP Masking implementation strategy and next steps. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#feb25|announcement can be read here]].
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Android FAQ|Wikipedia Android app]] developers are working on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|new functions]] for user talk pages and article talk pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T297617]

'''Events'''
* The [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon 2022|Wikimedia Hackathon 2022]] will take place as a hybrid event on 20-22 May 2022. The Hackathon will be held online and there are grants available to support local in-person meetups around the world. Grants can be requested until 20 March.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W11&quot;/&gt;

22:07, 14 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Tech News: 2022-12]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W12&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Translations]] are available.

'''New code release schedule for this week'''
* There will be four MediaWiki releases this week, instead of just one. This is an experiment which should lead to fewer problems and to faster feature updates. The releases will be on all wikis, at different times, on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Release Engineering Team/Trainsperiment week|read more about this project]].

'''Recent changes'''
* You can now set how many search results to show by default in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-searchoptions|your Preferences]]. This was the 12th most popular wish in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Results|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T215716]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Jupyter notebooks tool [[wikitech:PAWS|PAWS]] has been updated to a new interface. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T295043]

'''Future changes'''
* Interactive maps via [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] will soon work on wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevisions]] extension. [https://wikimedia.sslsurvey.de/Kartographer-Workflows-EN/ Please tell us] which improvements you want to see in Kartographer. You can take this survey in simple English. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W12&quot;/&gt;

16:01, 21 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Tech News: 2022-13]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W13&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a simple new Wikimedia Commons upload tool available for macOS users, [[c:Commons:Sunflower|Sunflower]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-31|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of regular database maintenance. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-03-29|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-03-31|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301850][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303798]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W13&quot;/&gt;

19:54, 28 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Tech News: 2022-14]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W14&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* For a few days last week, edits that were suggested to newcomers were not tagged in the [[{{#special:recentchanges}}]] feed. This bug has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304747]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-07|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]).

'''Future changes'''
* Starting next week, Tech News' title will be translatable. When the newsletter is distributed, its title may not be &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;Tech News: 2022-14&lt;/code&gt; anymore. It may affect some filters that have been set up by some communities. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T302920]
* Over the next few months, the &quot;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]&quot; Growth feature [[phab:T304110|will become available to more Wikipedias]]. Each week, a few wikis will get the feature. You can test this tool at [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth#deploymentstable|a few wikis where &quot;Link recommendation&quot; is already available]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W14&quot;/&gt;

21:01, 4 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-15 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W15&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/15|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a new public status page at &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wikimediastatus.net/ www.wikimediastatus.net]&lt;/span&gt;. This site shows five automated high-level metrics where you can see the overall health and performance of our wikis' technical environment. It also contains manually-written updates for widespread incidents, which are written as quickly as the engineers are able to do so while also fixing the actual problem. The site is separated from our production infrastructure and hosted by an external service, so that it can be accessed even if the wikis are briefly unavailable. You can [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2022/03/31/announcing-www-wikimediastatus-net/ read more about this project].
* On Wiktionary wikis, the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/15|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W15&quot;/&gt;

19:44, 11 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-16 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W16&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/16|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.8|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-19|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-21|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s8.dblist targeted wikis]).
* Administrators will now have [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/(Un)delete associated talk page|the option to delete/undelete the associated &quot;Talk&quot; page]] when they are deleting a given page. An API endpoint with this option is also available. This concludes the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Admins and patrollers/(Un)delete associated talk page|11th wish of the 2021 Community Wishlist Survey]].
* On [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements#test-wikis|selected wikis]], 50% of logged-in users will see the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Table of contents|table of contents]]. When scrolling up and down the page, the table of contents will stay in the same place on the screen. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]] project. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304169]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Message boxes produced by MediaWiki code will no longer have these CSS classes: &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;successbox&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;errorbox&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;warningbox&lt;/code&gt;. The styles for those classes and &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;messagebox&lt;/code&gt; will be removed from MediaWiki core. This only affects wikis that use these classes in wikitext, or change their appearance within site-wide CSS. Please review any local usage and definitions for these classes you may have. This was previously announced in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|28 February issue of Tech News]].

'''Future changes'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] will become compatible with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevisions page stabilization]]. Kartographer maps will also work on pages with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Project_descriptions] The Kartographer documentation has been thoroughly updated. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer/Getting_started] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/Maps] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/16|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W16&quot;/&gt;

23:11, 18 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-17 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W17&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/17|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
*  On [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/dblists/group1.dblist many wikis] (group 1), the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-26|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s2.dblist targeted wikis]).
* Some very old browsers and operating systems are no longer supported. Some things on the wikis might look weird or not work in very old browsers like Internet Explorer 9 or 10, Android 4, or Firefox 38 or older. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306486]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/17|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W17&quot;/&gt;

22:56, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-18 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W18&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/18|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* On [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/dblists/group2.dblist all remaining wikis] (group 2), the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-03|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-04|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-05|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The developers are working on talk pages in the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS|Wikipedia app for iOS]]. You can [https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_9GBcHczQGLbQWTY give feedback]. You can take the survey in English, German, Hebrew or Chinese.
* [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/VisualEditor_template_dialog_improvements#Status_and_next_steps|Most wikis]] will receive an [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/VisualEditor_template_dialog_improvements|improved template dialog]] in VisualEditor and New Wikitext mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T296759] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306967]
* If you use syntax highlighting while editing wikitext, you can soon activate a [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Improved_Color_Scheme_of_Syntax_Highlighting#Color-blind_mode|colorblind-friendly color scheme]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306867]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Several CSS IDs related to MediaWiki interface messages will be removed. Technical editors should please [[phab:T304363|review the list of IDs and links to their existing uses]]. These include &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;#mw-anon-edit-warning&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;#mw-undelete-revision&lt;/code&gt; and 3 others.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/18|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W18&quot;/&gt;

19:33, 2 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-19 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W19&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/19|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* You can now see categories in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia app for Android]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T73966]

'''Problems'''
* Last week, there was a problem with Wikidata's search autocomplete. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307586]
* Last week, all wikis had slow access or no access for 20 minutes, for logged-in users and non-cached pages. This was caused by a problem with a database change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307647]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T305217#7894966]
*  [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Geoinformation#Current issues|Incompatibility issues]] with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] and the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] will be fixed: Deployment is planned for May 10 on all wikis. Kartographer will then be enabled on the [[phab:T307348|five wikis which have not yet enabled the extension]] on May 24.
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector (2022)]] skin will be set as the default on several more wikis, including Arabic and Catalan Wikipedias. Logged-in users will be able to switch back to the old Vector (2010). See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2022-04 for the largest wikis|latest update]] about Vector (2022).

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place on 17 May. The following meetings are currently planned for: 7 June, 21 June, 5 July, 19 July.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/19|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W19&quot;/&gt;

15:22, 9 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-20 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W20&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/20|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* Some wikis can soon use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|add a link]] feature. This will start on Wednesday. The wikis are {{int:project-localized-name-cawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ptwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-simplewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-svwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ukwiki/en}}. This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304542]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2022|Wikimedia Hackathon 2022]] will take place online on May 20–22. It will be in English. There are also local [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2022/Meetups|hackathon meetups]] in Germany, Ghana, Greece, India, Nigeria and the United States. Technically interested Wikimedians can work on software projects and learn new skills. You can also host a session or post a project you want to work on.
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* You can soon edit translatable pages in the visual editor. Translatable pages exist on for examples Meta and Commons. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2022/05/12/mediawiki-1-38-brings-support-for-editing-translatable-pages-with-the-visual-editor/]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/20|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W20&quot;/&gt;

18:58, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-21 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W21&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/21|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Administrators using the mobile web interface can now access Special:Block directly from user pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307341]
* The &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wiktionary.org/ www.wiktionary.org]&lt;/span&gt; portal page now uses an automated update system. Other [[m:Project_portals|project portals]] will be updated over the next few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304629]

'''Problems'''
* The Growth team maintains a mentorship program for newcomers. Previously, newcomers weren't able to opt out from the program. Starting May 19, 2022, newcomers are able to fully opt out from Growth mentorship, in case they do not wish to have any mentor at all. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287915]
* Some editors cannot access the content translation tool if they load it by clicking from the contributions menu. This problem is being worked on. It should still work properly if accessed directly via Special:ContentTranslation. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308802]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadget and user scripts developers are invited to give feedback on a [[mw:User:Jdlrobson/Extension:Gadget/Policy|proposed technical policy]] aiming to improve support from MediaWiki developers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308686]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/21|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W21&quot;/&gt;

00:21, 24 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-22 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W22&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/22|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]]  In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] extension, an &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;ip_in_ranges()&lt;/code&gt; function has been introduced to check if an IP is in any of the ranges. Wikis are advised to combine multiple &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;ip_in_range()&lt;/code&gt; expressions joined by &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; into a single expression for better performance. You can use the search function on [[Special:AbuseFilter|Special:AbuseFilter]] to locate its usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T305017]
* The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature|IP Info feature]] which helps abuse fighters access information about IPs, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#May 24, 2022|has been deployed]] to all wikis as a beta feature. This comes after weeks of beta testing on test.wikipedia.org.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-05-31|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]).
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#New topic tool|New Topic Tool]] will be deployed for all editors at most wikis soon. You will be able to opt out from within the tool and in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287804]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]]  The [[:mw:Special:ApiHelp/query+usercontribs|list=usercontribs API]] will support fetching contributions from an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Range blocks#Non-technical explanation|IP range]] soon. API users can set the &lt;code&gt;uciprange&lt;/code&gt; parameter to get contributions from any IP range within [[:mw:Manual:$wgRangeContributionsCIDRLimit|the limit]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T177150]
* A new parser function will be introduced: &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{=}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. It will replace existing templates named &quot;=&quot;. It will insert an [[w:en:Equals sign|equal sign]]. This can be used to escape the equal sign in the parameter values of templates. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T91154]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/22|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W22&quot;/&gt;

20:28, 30 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-23 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W23&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/23|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;str_replace_regexp()&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; function can be used in [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to replace parts of text using a [[w:en:Regular expression|regular expression]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285468]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/23|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W23&quot;/&gt;

02:46, 7 June 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=23366979 --&gt;

== Tech News: 2022-24 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W24&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/24|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* All wikis can now use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps. Kartographer maps now also work on pages with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Project_descriptions][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307348]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-14|en}} at 06:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300471]
* Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get &quot;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]&quot; ({{int:project-localized-name-abwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-acewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-adywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-afwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-akwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-alswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-amwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-anwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-angwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-arcwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-arzwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-astwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-atjwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-avwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-aywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-azwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-azbwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304548]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#New topic tool|New Topic Tool]] will be deployed for all editors at Commons, Wikidata, and some other wikis soon. You will be able to opt out from within the tool and in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287804]

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place today (13 June). The following meetings will take place on: 28 June, 12 July, 26 July.

'''Future changes'''
* By the end of July, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022]] skin should be ready to become the default across all wikis. Discussions on how to adjust it to the communities' needs will begin in the next weeks. It will always be possible to revert to the previous version on an individual basis. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2022-04 for the largest wikis|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/24|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W24&quot;/&gt;

16:58, 13 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-25 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W25&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/25|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia App for Android]] now has an option for editing the whole page at once, located in the overflow menu (three-dots menu [[File:Ic more vert 36px.svg|15px|link=|alt=]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T103622]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Some recent database changes may affect queries using the [[m:Research:Quarry|Quarry tool]]. Queries for &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;site_stats&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; at English Wikipedia, Commons, and Wikidata will need to be updated. [[phab:T306589|Read more]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;user_global_editcount&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; variable can be used in [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to avoid affecting globally active users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T130439]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Users of non-responsive skins (e.g. MonoBook or Vector) on mobile devices may notice a slight change in the default zoom level. This is intended to optimize zooming and ensure all interface elements are present on the page (for example the table of contents on Vector 2022). In the unlikely event this causes any problems with how you use the site, we'd love to understand better, please ping &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[m:User:Jon (WMF)|Jon (WMF)]]&lt;/span&gt; to any on-wiki conversations. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306910]

'''Future changes'''
* The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July.  Discussions will look different.  You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Parsoid's HTML output will soon stop annotating file links with different &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;typeof&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; attribute values, and instead use &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:File&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; for all types. Tool authors should adjust any code that expects: &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:Image&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:Audio&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, or &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:Video&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273505]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/25|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W25&quot;/&gt;

20:18, 20 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-26 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W26&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/26|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] API service now has self-service accounts with free on-demand requests and monthly snapshots ([https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/docs/ API documentation]). Community access [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise/FAQ#community-access|via database dumps &amp; Wikimedia Cloud Services]] continues.
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Wiktionary#lua|All Wikimedia wikis can now use Wikidata Lexemes in Lua]] after creating local modules and templates. Discussions are welcome [[d:Wikidata_talk:Lexicographical_data#You_can_now_reuse_Wikidata_Lexemes_on_all_wikis|on the project talk page]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-28|en}} at 06:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T311033]
*  Some global and cross-wiki services will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-30|en}} at 06:00 UTC. This will impact ContentTranslation, Echo, StructuredDiscussions, Growth experiments and a few more services. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300472]
* Users will be able to sort columns within sortable tables in the mobile skin. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T233340]

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place tomorrow (28 June). The following meetings will take place on 12 July and 26 July.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/26|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W26&quot;/&gt;

20:02, 27 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-27 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W27&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/27|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-05|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-07|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]).
* The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July.  Discussions will look different.  You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=| Advanced item]] This change only affects pages in the main namespace in Wikisource. The Javascript config variable &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;proofreadpage_source_href&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will be removed from &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Interface/JavaScript#mw.config|mw.config]]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; and be replaced with the variable &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;prpSourceIndexPage&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;.  [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T309490]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/27|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W27&quot;/&gt;

19:32, 4 July 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-28 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W28&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/28|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022 skin]], the page title is now displayed above the tabs such as Discussion, Read, Edit, View history, or More. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates#Page title/tabs switch|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303549]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] It is now possible to easily view most of the configuration settings that apply to just one wiki, and to compare settings between two wikis if those settings are different. For example: [https://noc.wikimedia.org/wiki.php?wiki=jawiktionary Japanese Wiktionary settings], or [https://noc.wikimedia.org/wiki.php?wiki=eswiki&amp;compare=eowiki settings that are different between the Spanish and Esperanto Wikipedias]. Local communities may want to [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting_wiki_configuration_changes|discuss and propose changes]] to their local settings. Details about each of the named settings can be found by [[mw:Special:Search|searching MediaWiki.org]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308932]
*The Anti-Harassment Tools team [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#May|recently deployed]] the IP Info Feature as a [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature at all wikis]]. This feature allows abuse fighters to access information about IP addresses. Please check our update on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#April|how to find and use the tool]]. Please share your feedback using a link you will be given within the tool itself.

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-12|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]).

'''Future changes'''
* The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July.  Discussions will look different.  You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]].

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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W28&quot;/&gt;

19:24, 11 July 2022 (UTC)
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&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W29&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/29|Translations]] are available.

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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W29&quot;/&gt;

22:59, 18 July 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-30 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W30&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/30|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wikibooks.org/ www.wikibooks.org]&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wikiquote.org/ www.wikiquote.org]&lt;/span&gt; portal pages now use an automated update system. Other [[m:Project_portals|project portals]] will be updated over the next few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273179]

'''Problems'''
*  Last week, some wikis were in read-only mode for a few minutes because of an emergency switch of their main database ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T313383]

'''Changes later this week'''
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&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W30&quot;/&gt;

19:27, 25 July 2022 (UTC)
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      <sha1>tevvg4y7o1m3ivls18o9xmfqgs8ri1w</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex Analysis in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409219</id>
      <parentid>2408868</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:26:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5113" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.6.Application.6A.20220725.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Random Processes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409310</id>
      <parentid>2408900</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:25:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5805" xml:space="preserve">==''' Random Variables '''==

=== Single Random Variables ===
* Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVariable.1.A.20200427.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Distribution Function ([[Media:RV1.Distribution.2.A.201200428.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Density Function ([[Media:RV1.Density.3.A.20200429.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Functions of Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVFunction.4.A.20220317.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.4.Gaussian.20200430.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV1.4B.Gaussian.20180314.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Other Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.5.Other.20200501.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Conditional Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.6.Conditional.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== The Characteristics of a Single Random Variable ===
* Expected Value ([[Media:RV2.Expectation.1.A.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Moments ([[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20200507.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20180320.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Moment Generating Functions ([[Media:RV2.MFunctions.3.A.20200508.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Transformations of Random Variables ([[Media:RV2.Transform.4.A.20200514.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Multiple Random Variables ===
* Vector Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.1A.VectorRV.20200515.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Distribution ([[Media:3MRV.2A.JointDist.20200518.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Density ([[Media:3MRV.3A.JointDensity.20200521.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Conditional Joint Distribution and Density ([[Media:3MRV.4A.CondDistrib.20200527.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Statistical Independence ([[Media:3MRV.5A.StatIndep.20200423.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Sums of Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.6A.RVSum.20200528.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Central Limit Theorem ([[Media:3MRV.7A.CLimit.20200612.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== The Characteristics of Multiple Random Variables ===
* Expected Values ([[Media:4MRV.1A.Expect.20200617.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Characteristic Functions ([[Media:4MRV.2A.JChar.20200618.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Jointly Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.3A.JGauss.20200619.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Transformations of Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.4A.Transform.20200620.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Linear Transformation of Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.5A.LinearTrans.20200623.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Simulating Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.6A.Simulation.20200624.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Sampling and Some Limit Theorem ([[Media:4MRV.7A.LimitTheorem.20200625.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Complex Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.8A.ComplexRV.20200626.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Random Processes '''==

=== The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes ===
* Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.1A.RandomProcess.20210216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Joint Distribution, Independence, Processes ([[Media:5MRV.2A.JointDistribution.20210220.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Stationary Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.3A.Stationary.20220402.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.3B.Stationary.20220725.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Covariance &amp; Correlation of Random Variables ([[Media:5MRV.4A.CovCorrRV.20210910.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Covariance &amp; Correlation of Random Processses ([[Media:5MRV.5A.CovCorrRP.20210911.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Example Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.4A.Example.20210227.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Ergodic Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.5A.Ergodicity.20211022.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.7B.Ergodicity.20211215.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Measurement of Correlation Functions ([[Media:5MRV.6A.Measure.20201013.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Complex Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.7A.Complex.20201022.pdf |A.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== The Spectral Characteristics of Random Processes ===
* Power Density Spectrum - Continuous Time ([[Media:6MRV.1A.PSpecCT.20210204.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Auto Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.2A.AutoCor.20201218.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Power Density Spectrum - Discrete Time ([[Media:6MRV.3A.PSpecDT.20201203.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Cross Power Density Spectrum ([[Media:6MRV.4A.CPSpec.20191108.pdf |A.pdf]])  
* Cross Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.5A.CCorrel.20191114.pdf |A.pdf]])  
* Noise Definitions ([[Media:6MRV.6A.Noise.20191121.pdf |A.pdf]]) 
* Power Spectrum of Complex Random Processes ([[Media:6MRV.7A.ComplexProc.20191125.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear System with Random Inputs ===
* Continuous Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.1A.CTime.20191203.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Discrete Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.2A.DTime.20191211.pdf |A.pdf]])
* System Response ([[Media:7LTI.3A.Response.20191224.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Spectral Characteristics ([[Media:7LTI.4A.Spectral.20200104.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Noise Modeling ([[Media:7LTI.5A.Noise.20200122.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;

=== Optimum Linear System ===
* Maximum SNR ([[Media:8OPT.1A.MaxSNR.20200128.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Minimum Squared Error ([[Media:8OPT.2A.MinSE.20200207.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;

=== Noise in Some Application Systems ===
* AM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.1A.AM.20200212.pdf |A.pdf]])
* FM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.2A.FM.20200221.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Control Systems ([[Media:9APP.3A.Control.20200225.pdf |A.pdf]])
* PLL Systems ([[Media:9APP.4A.PLL.20200305.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Random Waveforms ([[Media:9APP.5A.RandWave.20200311.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Radar Systems ([[Media:9APP.6A.Radar.20200313.pdf |A.pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;

==''' Correlation and Power Spectra '''==

# Correlation Functions of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.1.A.Correlation.20121106.pdf |pdf]])
# Spectra of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.2.A.Spectra.20121108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt; 

==''' Ergodicity, Statistics, Estimation '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Random Processes and Linear Systems '''==
&lt;/br&gt;


# Time Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals ([[Media:RAND.3.A.Time.20130205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Dirichlet.pdf |B.pdf]])
# Frequency Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals
# Correlation v.s. Convolution for Noisy Signals
&lt;/br&gt;


# System Identification ([[Media:RP.SysId.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) 
# Matched Filter &lt;ref&gt;[[Understanding Digital Communications]], See Baseband Mod/Demod Section&lt;/ref&gt;
 
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>God (programmer)</title>
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      <id>2409279</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-25T17:01:34Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Platos Cave (physics)</username>
        <id>2562653</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="50064" xml:space="preserve">'''Is God a Programmer; a deep-universe simulation hypothesis at the Planck scale'''

The [[w:simulation hypothesis |simulation hypothesis]] or simulation theory is the proposal that all of reality, including the Earth and the rest of the universe, could in fact be an artificial simulation, such as a computer simulation. [[w:Neil_deGrasse_Tyson |Neil deGrasse Tyson]] put the odds at 50-50 that our entire existence is a program on someone else’s hard drive &lt;ref&gt;Are We Living in a Computer Simulation? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/&lt;/ref&gt;. [[w:David_Chalmers |David Chalmers]] noted “We in this universe can create simulated worlds and there’s nothing remotely spooky about that. Our creator isn’t especially spooky, it’s just some teenage hacker in the next universe up. Turn the tables, and we are essentially gods over our own computer creations &lt;ref&gt;https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yqbS5qJU8PA, David Chalmers, Serious Science&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;The Matrix as Metaphysics, David Chalmers http://consc.net/papers/matrix.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Are We Living in a Computer Simulation?https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/&lt;/ref&gt;.

The commonly postulated [[w:Ancestor_simulation |ancestor simulation]] approach, which [[w:Nick Bostrom |Nick Bostrom]] called &quot;the simulation argument&quot;, argues for &quot;high-fidelity&quot; simulations of ancestral life that would be indistinguishable from reality to the simulated ancestor. However this simulation variant can be traced back to an 'organic base reality' (the original programmer ancestors and their physical planet). The [[v:God_(programmer) |Programmer God]] hypothesis&lt;ref&gt;[https://theprogrammergod.com/ The Programmer God, Are We in a Computer Simulation (Malcolm Macleod, 2003-2022)]&lt;/ref&gt; conversely states that the simulation began with the big bang (the deep universe simulation) and was programmed by an external intelligence (external to the physical universe), the Programmer by definition a God in the creator of the universe context. Our universe in its entirety, down to the smallest detail, is within the simulation &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |title=A Planck scale (Programmer God) Simulation Hypothesis via a mathematical electron (overview) |journal=SSRN |date=Feb 2011 | doi=doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2531429}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


== Philosophy ==

=== Discussion ===
[[w:Philosophy of mathematics  |Philosophy of mathematics]] is that branch of philosophy which attempts to answer questions such as: ‘why is mathematics useful in describing nature?’, ‘in which sense, if any, do mathematical entities such as numbers exist?’ and ‘why and how are mathematical statements true?’ This reasoning comes about when we realize (through thought and experimentation) how the behavior of Nature follows mathematics to an extremely high degree of accuracy. The deeper we probe the laws of Nature, the more the physical world disappears and becomes a world of pure math. Mathematical realism holds that mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind. We do not invent mathematics, but rather discover it. Triangles, for example, are real entities that have an existence &lt;ref&gt;- http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/platonism-mathematics/&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis |Mathematical universe hypothesis]] states that ''Our external physical reality is a mathematical structure''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Tegmark |first=Max |date=February 2008 |title=The Mathematical Universe |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=101–150 |doi=10.1007/s10701-007-9186-9 |arxiv=0704.0646|bibcode = 2008FoPh...38..101T |s2cid=9890455 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  That is, the physical universe is not merely ''described by'' mathematics, but ''is'' mathematics (specifically, a [[w:mathematical structure |mathematical structure]]).  

The principle constraints to any mathematical universe simulation hypothesis are; 

1. the computational resources required. The ancestor simulation can resolve this by adapting from the [[w:virtual rality |virtual reality]] approach where only the observable region is simulated and only to the degree required, and

2. that any 'self-aware structures' (humans for example) within the simulation must &quot;subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Tegmark (1998), p. 1.&lt;/ref&gt;. Succinctly, our computer games may be able to simulate our physical world, but they are still only simulations of a physical reality (regardless of how realistic they may seem) ... we are not yet able to program the physical dimensions of mass, space and time from mathematical structures.


=== Deep-universe simulation ===
As a deep-universe simulation is programmed by an external (external to the universe) intelligence (the Programmer God hypothesis), we cannot presume a priori knowledge regarding the simulation source code other than from this code the laws of physics could emerge, and so any deep-universe simulation model we emulate must be universal, i.e.: independent of any system of units, of the dimensioned physical constants (G, c, h, e .. ) and of any numbering systems. Furthermore, although a deep-universe simulation source code may use mathematical forms we are familiar with, it will have been developed by a non-human intelligence and so we may have to develop new mathematical tools to decipher the underlying logic. By implication therefore, any theoretical basis for a source code that fits the above criteria (that uses techniques that we are not cognizance of) could be construed as our first tangible evidence of a non-human intelligence.


=== Planck scale ===
The [[w:Planck scale |Planck scale]] refers to the magnitudes of space, time, energy and other units, below which (or beyond which) the predictions of the [[w:Standard Model |Standard Model]], [[w:quantum field theory |quantum field theory]] and [[w:general relativity |general relativity]] are no longer reconcilable, and [[w:Quantum Gravity |quantum effects of gravity]] are expected to dominate (quantum gravitational effects only appear at length scales near the Planck scale). Although particles may not be cognizance of our 'laws of physics', they do know the 'laws of nature'. These laws of nature, in a simulation model, would describe the universe OS (operating system), and so below this OS, 'physics' as we know it must necessarily break down. At present the Planck scale is the lowest known level, consequently any attempt to detect evidence of an underlying simulation coding must consider (if not actually begin at) this, the Planck scale&lt;ref&gt;Planck scale, Brian Greene; &quot;[https://youtu.be/jaIAmpdaLvQ]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;.   
{{see|Planck units (geometrical)}}  


=== Dimensioned quantities ===
A [[w:physical constant |physical constant]] is a [[w:physical quantity |physical quantity]] that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and have a constant value in time. These can be divided into 1) dimension-ed (measured using physical units kg, m, s, A ...) such as the [[w:speed of light |speed of light]] ''c'', [[w:gravitational constant |gravitational constant]] ''G'', [[w:Planck constant |Planck constant]] ''h'' ... and 2) dimension-less (units = 1), such as the [[w:Fine-structure_constant |fine structure constant]] ''α''. 

There are also dimension-less [[w:mathematical constant |mathematical constants]] such as [[w:pi |pi]]. The mathematical constant is a number that can occur within the simulation, pi for example can emerge from the rotation of an object. The fundamental physical constant conversely is a parameter specifically chosen by the programmer and encoded into the simulation code directly and so whilst it may be inferable, it is not derived from mathematical constants ([[w:Fine-structure_constant#Numerological_explanations_and_multiverse_theory |Richard Feynman on the fine structure constant]]). It should also be dimension-less otherwise the simulation itself becomes dimensioned, and so the dimensioned constants themselves must be derivable (from within the simulation).

Physicist [[w: |Lev Okun]] noted &quot;Theoretical equations describing the physical world deal with dimensionless quantities and their
solutions depend on dimensionless fundamental parameters. But experiments, from which these theories are extracted and by which they could be tested, involve measurements, i.e. comparisons with standard dimension-ful scales. Without standard dimension-ful units and
hence without certain conventions physics is unthinkable &lt;ref&gt;Michael J. Duff et al, Journal of High Energy Physics, Volume 2002, JHEP03(2002)&lt;/ref&gt;. The [[w:International_System_of_Units |SI units]] for the dimension-ful mksa units are;  meter (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current).  

As physics is dependent on dimension-ful units, physics as a science is the observation of underlying patterns generated (from within the simulation) by the OS (laws of nature), and as physics can experimentally measure down to the quantum level, the universe OS must operate at a much lower level (just as our computer programs run at a higher level to the OS). The best candidate at present for this level (the level at which the mathematical laws of nature operate), is the Planck level, the corresponding Planck units are [[w:Planck length |Planck length]], [[w:Planck mass |Planck mass]], [[w:Planck time |Planck time]], [[w:Planck charge |Planck charge]].


=== Avatars ===
Video games project our 3-D space onto a 2-D screen with the users manipulating the game as external observers. The VR helmet is an attempt to place the user within the simulation (within a 3-D space) but it is still a projection onto a 2-D screen and so is limited by the mobility of the operator (via a [[w:haptic suit |haptic suit]]) and thus not suitable for interactive games if the terrain of the game is limited by the terrain of the operator. An avatar could be placed within a 3-D simulation, however the problem of haptic suit mobility remains.

However, if the avatar is programmed to closely resemble the operator, then the avatar may autonomously represent the operator from within the game. For example, avatars could be programmed to play tennis with the skill level of their operators, realistic virtual tournaments can then be arranged within a 3-D simulation between operators via avatars. In a Game of Life scenario, the avatars could be programmed to achieve certain goals ('Purpose') via experience and learning.


=== Purpose ===
Any simulated universe, whether a simple computer game or NASA program, may presume a 'Purpose', that the simulation, being the result of an 'intelligent design', is intended for an 'intelligent reason' (intent). If ours is a simulated universe then we cannot judge the motives of the Programmer God, however in theological texts we do find a common thread and that is the battle between [[w:good and evil |Good and Evil]]  and so this may be taken as an example 'Purpose'.

[[w:Zoroastrianism |Zoroastrianism]] is one of the world's oldest continuously practiced [[w:religion |religion]]s. It is a multi-faceted faith centered on a [[w:dualistic cosmology |dualistic cosmology]] of [[w:good and evil |good and evil]] and an [[w:eschatology |eschatology]] predicting the ultimate conquest of evil. The [[w:Genesis creation narrative|opening chapters of the Book of Genesis]] provide a [[w:myth |mythic]] history of the infiltration of evil into the world. God places the first man and woman (Adam and Eve) in his [[w:Garden of Eden |Garden of Eden]], from whence they are expelled.

In the context of the above, this becomes a multi-layered Game in which Evil is given dominion over the physical 3-D world and Good dominion over the spiritual realm &lt;ref&gt;New Testament Matthew 4:8-9&lt;/ref&gt;, the battle between these worlds played out within mankind as both an internal and external struggle &lt;ref&gt;[https://codingthecosmos.com/good-and-evil-the-programmer-god.html The Great Game]&lt;/ref&gt;. To account for suffering and misery as an integral construct to the Game, we could consider the earth as analogous to a meta-verse prison. For example, an avatar  could be tasked (unknowingly) with self-rehabilitation on earth as the means to complete a prison sentence, upon which their 'real' self is then set free in the 'real' world &lt;ref&gt;https://www.wga.org/ Life Sentence, WGA #2126049&lt;/ref&gt;. 


=== Scientific evidence ===
 “Science presumes the fundamental physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;, ...) are fundamental,
 but this requires the dimensioned units (''kg'', ''m'', ''s'', ''A'' ... ) to be independent of each other,
 the simulation hypothesis however requires that these units overlap and cancel,
 for the universe itself does not exist outside of the 'computer'.
 Evidence of a relationship between these units could therefore be construed as evidence of a simulation.” &lt;ref&gt;[https://youtu.be/HqajHGBMJtI Is this anomaly in the fundamental physical constants proof we are in a simulation? (youtube)]&lt;/ref&gt;

At our level, and at the quantum level, the dimensions of mass, length (distance), time and charge (amperes), represented by such units as ''kilograms'', ''pounds'', ''meters'', ''miles'', ''seconds'' … etc. are independent of each other (we cannot measure the distance from Tokyo to London using pounds or kilograms or amperes). The units appear to be distinct (mass cannot be confused with length or time), the independence of these units then becoming an inviolable rule, as every high school science student can attest (the units must always add up!). Indeed, what characterizes a physical universe as opposed to a simulated universe is the notion that there is a fundamental structure underneath, that in some sense mass is, time is and space is … thus we cannot write ''kg'' or ''s'' in terms of ''m''. To do so would totally render our concepts of a physical mass, space and time meaningless. A simulation universe however is required to be (in sum total) unit-less (units = 1), for the simulated universe does not 'exist' in any physical sense outside of the computer.

Evidence therefore that the units do overlap and in certain combinations cancel, rendering our sum universe unit-less, could therefore be construed as evidence that we are in a deep-universe (Programmer God) simulation. An anomaly that appears to link the fundamental physical constants (''G'', ''h'', ''c'', ''e'', ''m''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;) via a mathematical relationship between the units (''kg'' = 15, ''m'' = -13, ''s'' = -30, ''A'' = 3) has been offered as evidence of simulation universe  &lt;ref&gt;Macleod, Malcolm J. {{Cite journal |title= Do the fundamental constants embed evidence of a mathematical universe at the Planck scale? |journal=RG | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.15874.15041/1 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.


== Programming ==
 “God vs. science debates tend to be restricted to the premise that a God does not rely on science and that science does not need a God. As science and God are thus seen as mutually exclusive there are few, if any, serious attempts to construct mathematical models of a universe whose principle axiom does require a God. However, if there is an Intelligence responsible for the 14 billion year old universe of modern physics, being the universe of Einstein and Dirac, and beginning with the big bang as the act of 'creation', then we must ask how it might be done? What construction technique could have been used to set the laws of physics in motion?” &lt;ref&gt;[https://theprogrammergod.com/ The Programmer God, Are We in a Computer Simulation (Malcolm Macleod, 2003-2022)]&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Numbering systems ===
As well as our decimal system, computers apply binary and hexadecimal numbering systems. In particular the decimal and hexadecimal are of terrestrial origin and may not be considered 'universal'. Furthermore numbering systems measure only the frequency of an event and contain no information as to the event itself. The number 299 792 458 could refer to the speed of light (299 792 458 m/s) or could equally be referring to the number of apples in a container (299 792 458 apples). As such, numbers require a 'descriptive', whether m/s or apples. Numbers also do not include their history, is 299 792 458 for example a derivation of other base numbers?

Present universe simulations use the laws of physics and the physical constants are built in, however both these laws and the physical constants are known only to a limited precision, and so a simulation with 10&lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt; iterations (the present age of the universe in units of Planck time) will accumulate errors. Number based computing may be sufficient for ancestor-simulation models where only the observed region needs to be calculated, but has inherent limitations for deep universe simulations where the entire universe is continuously updated. The actual computational requirements for a Planck scale universe simulation based on a numbering system with the laws of physics embedded would be an unknown and consequently lead to an 'non-testable' hypothesis. This is a commonly applied reasoning for rejecting the deep universe simulation.


=== Geometrical objects ===
A number such as [[w: |pi]] refers to a geometrical construct (the ratio of circle circumference to circle radius) and so is not constrained by any particular numbering system (in the decimal system π = 3.14159...), and so may be considered both universal and eternal. Likewise, by assigning geometrical objects instead of numbers to the Planck units, the problems with a numbering system can be resolved. These objects would however have to fulfill the following conditions, for example the object for length must;

1. embed the function of ''length'' such that a descriptive (km, mile ... ) is not required.

Electron wavelength would then be measurable in terms of the length object, as such the length object must be embedded within the electron (the electron object). Although the mass object would incorporate the function ''mass'', the time object the function ''time'' ..., it is not necessary that there be an individual physical mass or physical length or physical time ..., but only that in relation to the other units, the object must express that function (i.e.: the mass object has the function of mass when in the presence of the objects for space and time). The electron would then be a complex event (complex geometrical object) constructed by combining the objects for mass, length, time and charge into 1 event, and thus electron charge, wavelength, frequency and mass would be different aspects of that 1 geometry (the electron event) and not independent parameters (independent of each other).
 
The objects for mass, length, time and charge must therefore

2. be able to combine with other objects (for mass, time, charge ...) to form more complex objects (events) such as electrons and apples whilst still retaining the underlying information (the individual objects that combined to form that event).

3. combine in such a ratio that they cancel whereby the sum universe, the simulation itself, being a mathematical universe, is unit-less. While internally the universe has measurable units, externally (seen from outside the simulation) the universe has no physical structure.  


Not only must these objects be able to form complex events such as particles, but these events themselves are geometrical objects and so must likewise function according to their geometries. Electrons would orbit protons according to their respective  electron and proton geometries, these orbits the result of geometrical imperatives and not due to any built-in laws of physics (the electron does not need to know physics, the orbital path is a consequence of all the underlying geometries). However, as orbits follow regular and repeating patterns, they can be described (by us) using mathematical formulas. As the events grow in complexity (from atoms to molecules to planets), so too will the patterns (and the formulas we use to describe them). Consequently the ''laws of physics'' would then become our mathematical descriptions of the underlying geometrically imposed patterns. The computational problem could thus be alleviated by instituting a geometrically autonomous universe.

Furthermore, as the sum universe is unit-less, there is no limit to the number of (mass, time, length ...) objects (aka the information content of the universe), other than the capacity of the celestial hard disk upon which the simulation resides. If the 'Programmer' can determine appropriate geometrical objects that satisfy the above and also include a mechanism for the addition of further objects, then a universe could 'grow' accordingly. 
  
There is a caveat; self aware structures within the simulation will perceive a physical mass, space and time as forming their physical reality, in our universe therefore, these mathematical objects must be indistinguishable from our observed physical reality.

 
=== Simulation Time ===
The (dimensionless) simulation clock-rate would be defined as the minimum 'time variable' ('''age''') increment to the simulation. It may be that Gods use analog computers, but as an example;
  
  'begin simulation
  FOR age = 1 TO the_end                       'big bang = 1                 
          conduct certain processes ........ 
  NEXT age 
  'end simulation

[[w:Quantum spacetime |Quantum spacetime]] and [[w:Quantum gravity |Quantum gravity]] models refer to [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] as the smallest discrete unit of time and so the incrementing variable '''age''' could be used to generate units of Planck time (and other Planck units, the physical scaffolding of the universe), for example;

  Initialize_physical_constants;
  FOR age = 1 TO the_end                        'age is a dimensionless variable                            
          generate 1 unit of Planck time;       '1 time object
          generate 1 unit of Planck mass;       '1 mass object
          generate 1 unit of Planck length;     '1 length object
          ........ 
  NEXT age 

The variable ''age'' is the simulation clock-rate (the universe age). If ''age'' is the origin of Planck time then ''age'' = 10&lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt;, the present age of the universe measured in units of Planck time. 

For each ''age'', certain operations are performed, only after they are finished does ''age'' increment (there is no 'time' interval between increments). As ''age'' is dimensionless, it is not the same as dimensioned Planck time (which is a geometrical object). Although operations (between increments) may be extensive, self-aware structures from within the simulation would have no means to determine this, they could only perceive themselves as being in a real-time. Their dimension of time would be a measure of relative motion (a change of state) and so although ultimately deriving from the variable ''age'', their time would not be the same as ''age''. If there were no motion, if all particles and photons were still (no change of state), then their time dimension could not update, ''age'' however would continue to increment. The analogy being pressing the pause button on a movie, this would not affect the computer clock-rate itself. Thus we have 3 time structures; the dimension-less simulation clock-rate variable ''age'', the physical time unit (Planck time object), and time as change of state (the observers time dimension). 


==== Expanding universe ====
By thus adding units of mass, space and time with each increment to the simulation ''age'', the universe would grow in size and mass accordingly. As the universe expands in size per increment to ''age'', this expansion could also be used to 'pull' particles with it thus introducing momentum (particle motion). The expansion of the observable universe would not be the same as this expansion, although it would be driven by this expansion. 

The velocity of expansion would be the maximum attainable velocity and so the origin of the speed of light ''c'' (to go faster than this velocity would mean leaving the simulation itself), thus both the velocity of expansion (and so ''c'') and the incrementing variable ''age'' (and so Planck time) are constants.

The forward increment to ''age'' would constitute the [[w:arrow of time |arrow of time]]. Reversing this would reverse the arrow of time, the universe would likewise shrink in size and mass accordingly (a [[w:white hole |white hole]] is the (time) reversal of a [[w:black hole |black hole]]). 

  FOR age = the_end TO 1 STEP -1                                 
          delete 1 unit of Planck time;
          delete 1 unit of Planck mass;
          delete 1 unit of Planck length;
          ........ 
  NEXT age 


====Universe time-line====

As the universe expands and if the data storage capacity expands proportionately, then the 'past' could be retained.
  
  FOR age = 1 TO the_end                                 
          ........
          FOR n = 1 TO total_number_of_particles
                 .........
                 SAVE particle_details{age, particle(n)}
          NEXT n
  NEXT age 

Because particles are pulled along by this expansion, which has the effect of increasing simulation data storage capacity accordingly, previous information will not be over-written by new information. The analogy would be the storing of every [[w:Keystroke_logging |keystroke]]. This also forms a universe '''time-line''' against which previous information can be compared with new information (a 'memory' of events).


====Time travel====
If the simulation data is stored in entirety (a Planck scale version of the [[w:Akashic records |Akashic records]]), the simulation can be replayed. We could even speculate that if mankind made a bad 'move', such as initiating a nuclear war, it may be possible to rewind the simulation clock back to a period prior to that move and continue from there (as we can do when playing chess against a computer). All future events from that point in time would then be over-written. Time-travel (travelling backwards in time) for an individual may not be possible but for the entire universe it is simply time reversal.


=== Singularity ===
In a simulation, the data (software) requires a storage device that is ultimately hardware (RAM, HD ...). In a data world of 1's and 0's such as a computer game, characters within that game may analyze other parts of their 1's and 0's game, but they have no means to analyze the hard disk upon which they (and their game) are stored, for the hard disk is an electro-mechanical device, is not part of their 1's and 0's world, it is a part of the 'real world', the world of the Programmer. Furthermore the rules programmed into their game would constitute for them the laws of physics (the laws by which their game operates), but these may or may not resemble the laws that operate in the 'real world'. Thus any region where the laws of physics (the laws of the game world) break down would be significant. A [[w:singularity |singularity]] inside a black hole is such a region.

For the black-hole electron, the mass point-state would then be analogous to a storage address on a hard disk, the interface between the simulation world and the real world, a massive black-hole as a data sector. 

The surface of the black-hole would then be of the simulation world, the size of the black hole surface reflecting the stored information, the interior of the black-hole however would be the interface between the data world and the 'hard disk' of the real world, and so would not exist in any 'physical' terms. It is external to the simulation. As analogy, we may discuss the 3-D surface area of a black-hole but not its volume (interior).


=== Laws of Physics ===
The scientific method is built upon testable hypothesis and reproducible results. Water always boils (in defined conditions), at 100°C. In a geometrical universe particles behave according to geometrical imperatives, the geometry of the electron and proton ensuring that electrons will orbit nuclei in repeating and predictable patterns. The laws of physics would then be a set of mathematical formulas that describe these patterns, the more complex the orbits, the more complex the formulas required to describe them and so forth. However if there is a source code from which these geometrical conditions were programmed, then there may also be non-repeating events, back-doors built into the code (a common practice by terrestrial programmers), these by definition would lie outside the laws of physics and so be labelled as miracles, yet they would be no less valid.  


=== Determinism ===
[[File:Three body problem figure-8 orbit animation.gif|400px|thumb|An animation of the figure-8 solution to the three-body problem over a single period T ≃ 6.3259.&lt;ref&gt;Here the gravitational constant ''G'' has been set to 1, and the initial conditions are '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(0) = −'''r'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(0) = (−0.97000436, 0.24308753); '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(0) = (0,0); '''v'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(0) = '''v'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(0) = (0.4662036850, 0.4323657300); '''v'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(0) = (−0.93240737, −0.86473146). The values are obtained from Chenciner &amp; Montgomery (2000).&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Particles form more complex structures such as atoms and molecules via a system of orbitals; nuclear, atomic and gravitational. The [[w:Three-body_problem |3-body problem]] is the problem of taking the initial positions and velocities (or [[w:momentum|momenta |momentum|momenta]]) of three or more point masses and solving for their subsequent motion according to [[w:Newton's laws of motion |Newton's laws of motion]] and [[w:Newton's law of universal gravitation |Newton's law of universal gravitation]].&lt;ref name=&quot;PrincetonCompanion&quot;&gt;{{Citation
| last  = Barrow-Green
| first = June
| year  = 2008
| title = The Three-Body Problem
| editor-last1  = Gowers
| editor-first1 = Timothy
| editor-last2  = Barrow-Green
| editor-first2 = June
| editor-last3 = Leader
| editor-first3 = Imre
| encyclopedia = The Princeton Companion to Mathematics
| pages  = 726–728
| publisher = Princeton University Press
}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Simply put, this means that although a simulation using gravitational orbitals of similar mass may have a pre-determined outcome, it seems that for gods and men alike the only way to know what that outcome will be is to run the simulation itself.


=== Mathematical Universe ===
The mathematical universe refers to universe models whose underlying premise is that the physical universe has a mathematical origin, the physical (particle) universe is a construct of the mathematical universe, and as such physical reality is a perceived reality. It can be considered a form of [[w:Pythagoreanism | Pythagoreanism]] or [[w:Platonism | Platonism]] in that it proposes the existence of ''mathematical objects''; and a form of [[w:philosophy of mathematics | mathematical monism]] in that it denies that anything exists except these ''mathematical objects''.

Physicist [[w:Max Tegmark | Max Tegmark]] in his book &quot;Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Tegmark1998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Tegmark |first=Max |date=November 1998 |title=Is &quot;the Theory of Everything&quot; Merely the Ultimate Ensemble Theory? |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=270 |issue=1 |pages=1–51 |doi=10.1006/aphy.1998.5855 |arxiv = gr-qc/9704009 |bibcode = 1998AnPhy.270....1T }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;M. Tegmark 2014, &quot;[http://mathematicaluniverse.org Our Mathematical Universe]&quot;, Knopf&lt;/ref&gt; proposed that ''Our external physical reality is a mathematical structure''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Tegmark2008&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Tegmark |first=Max |date=February 2008 |title=The Mathematical Universe |journal=Foundations of Physics |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=101–150 |doi=10.1007/s10701-007-9186-9 |arxiv=0704.0646|bibcode = 2008FoPh...38..101T }}&lt;/ref&gt;  That is, the physical universe is not merely ''described by'' mathematics, but ''is'' mathematics (specifically, a [[w:mathematical structure | mathematical structure]]).  Mathematical existence equals physical existence, and all structures that exist mathematically exist physically as well.  Any &quot;self-aware substructures will subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Tegmark (1998), p. 1.&lt;/ref&gt;


== Physics ==
Physicist [[w:Eugene Wigner |Eugene Wigner]] ([[w:The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences |The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]) &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Wigner | first1 = E. P. | authorlink = Eugene Wigner| doi = 10.1002/cpa.3160130102 | title = The unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences. Richard Courant lecture in mathematical sciences delivered at New York University, May 11, 1959 | journal = Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics | volume = 13 | pages = 1–14 | year = 1960 | pmid =  | pmc = |bibcode = 1960CPAM...13....1W }}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of mathematics for the formulation of the laws of physics is a wonderful gift which we neither understand nor deserve. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

The following illustrates how a geometrical approach to a Planck scale deep universe simulation could be implemented &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.2531429| title = A Planck scale (Programmer God) Simulation Hypothesis via a mathematical electron (overview)}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


=== Mass, length, time, charge ===
{{main|Planck units (geometrical)}} 
''The biggest problem with any mathematical universe approach is constructing a physical reality (the physical dimensions of mass, space and time) from mathematical structures. Our computer games may be able to simulate our physical world, but they are still simulations of a physical reality. The 1999 film The Matrix and the ancestor simulation both still begin with a physical level (a base reality), the planet earth. Here we look at the theory behind constructing physical units from mathematical structures''.

We can assign geometrical objects to the primary units mass '''M''', length '''L''', time '''T''', ampere '''A'''. However for a simulated universe to be unit-less, the units must be able to cancel within a certain ratio such that in sum total there is no physical universe (when seen from outside the simulation, the universe is merely a data set on a celestial hard-drive). In the following table are illustrated objects '''MTLA''' in terms of 2 dimensionless physical constants; the [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']] and [[v:Electron_(mathematical)#Omega | Omega '''Ω''']], and to fulfill the above condition, a set of mathematical relationships ('''u&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;''') between them &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

These objects correspond to the Planck units, and so by replacing the unit relationship '''u'''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; with its SI equivalent (i.e.: u&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; -&gt; kg), these geometrical mass, length, time and charge objects can be interchangeable with (and will be indistinguishable from) the 'physical' Planck mass, length, time and charge units. As these are geometrical objects, we can also use them to build more complex objects. The energy object for example is M*L&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/T&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The electron object is shown below. Thus we may have dimension-ful units from within the simulation, yet still maintain a dimensionless universe externally.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Geometrical units
! Attribute
! Geometrical object
! Unit relationship
|-
| mass 
| &lt;math&gt;M = 1&lt;/math&gt;  
| &lt;math&gt;15&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| time 
| &lt;math&gt;T = 2\pi&lt;/math&gt;  
| &lt;math&gt;-30&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| length  
| &lt;math&gt;L = 2\pi^2\Omega^2&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;-13&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| velocity  
| &lt;math&gt;V = 2\pi\Omega^2&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;17&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| ampere 
| &lt;math&gt;A = \frac{2^6 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; 
| &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The unit relationships show how these units interrelate to each other. In a particular ratio they will overlap and cancel, for example, here (amperes, length, time) and (mass, length and time) ratios cancel;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{({u^3})^3{(u^{-13}})^3}{(u^{-30})}\;(\frac{ampere^3 \;length^3}{time}) = \frac{{(u^{-13})}^{15}} {{(u^{15})}^{9}{(u^{-30})}^{11}} (\frac{length^{15}}{mass^9 \;time^{11}}) = 1&lt;/math&gt;


=== Mathematical electron ===
{{main|Electron (mathematical)}}

''If the electron is a mathematical particle, and the universe is constructed from electrons, then the universe is a mathematical universe'' 

We can use the above ratio to construct our '[[v:Electron_(mathematical) |mathematical electron]]' formula; '''f&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;''' (AL as an ampere-meter are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]).

:&lt;math&gt;T = (\pi),\; u^{-30}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = ({2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}),\; u^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = \frac{ \sigma_{e}^3}{2T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^3)^3 (u^{-13})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1&lt;/math&gt;


In order to give the electron its dimensioned (measurable) parameters; electron mass, wavelength, frequency, charge ... the geometry of the mathematical electron (the electron 'event' &lt;math&gt;f_e&lt;/math&gt;) will include the MLTA (mass, length, time, charge) objects, this electron 'event' dictating how these objects are arranged into those dimensioned electron parameters. The electron itself is then equivalent to a programming sub-routine, &lt;math&gt;f_e&lt;/math&gt; does not have dimension units of its own (there is no physical electron), it is a geometrical formula that encodes the MLTA information required to implement those electron parameters. 

:&lt;math&gt;f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23}&lt;/math&gt;, units = 1

[[w:electron mass | electron mass]]     &lt;math&gt;m_e = \frac{M}{f_e}&lt;/math&gt; (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]])

[[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] &lt;math&gt;\lambda_e = 2\pi L f_e&lt;/math&gt; (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]])

[[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]]    &lt;math&gt;e = A.T&lt;/math&gt;


Embedded within the function '''f&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;''' are the objects '''ALT'''. The '''AL''' magnetic monopoles confer the electric properties of the electron and also determine the duration of the electron frequency component (0.2389 x 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; units of '''age'''). At the conclusion of this electric state duration (0.2389 x 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; units of '''age'''), the '''AL''' units intersect with time '''T''', the units then collapse (units '''(A*L)&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/T''' = 1), exposing a unit of '''M''' (Planck mass) for 1 unit of '''age''', which we could define as the ''mass point-state''. This would be the electron center. 

This mass state, as a single 'point', can have assigned co-ordinates within the universe super-structure. [[w:Wave-particle duality |Wave-particle duality]] at the Planck level can then be simulated as an oscillation between the electric (magnetic monopole) ''wave-state'' (the duration dictated by the particle formula) to this unitary mass ''point-state''. In the formula ''E = hv'', ''h'' ([[w:Planck constant |Planck's constant]]) refers to the wave-state, with the ''v'' term referring to the frequency of occurrence of ''h'' (per second). Conversely ''E = mc2'' refers to the point-state, and as there is 1 wave-state per 1 point-state, ''hv = mc2''. The ''m'' of physics however refers to mass as a constant property of the particle whereas here particle mass has a frequency component (it is a measure of the frequency of occurrence of the mass point-state over time) and so particle mass becomes average particle mass (point mass per second). 


 By this artifice, although the 'physical' mass, space, time universe is constructed from particles, particles themselves are not physical, they are mathematical and when summed, the mass, length, time, charge units cancel. Thus we may construct a physical universe from within a mathematical framework &lt;ref&gt; [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects]&lt;/ref&gt;.


=== Null universe ===
{{main|Black-hole (Planck)}}
''We next need to construct a scaffolding for our particles''

If the universe expands per increment of '''age''' by adding units of mass, length, time and charge, and if these units overlap and cancel, then the sum universe is unit-less. This also means that to make the object time '''T''', we must also make an equivalent of '''MLA''' to balance this ratio, and so to create time T, the time required to read this sentence for example, the universe has to grow larger (add space L&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) and more massive (add mass M). Likewise, if time went backward the universe would have to shrink in size and mass. But regardless of the age of the universe, if we combine all the mass, space and time within, the universe would disappear (units = 1). Seen from the outside, there is no universe.


=== Relativistic universe ===
{{main|Relativity (Planck)}}
''The simulation clock can give us the expansion of the universe in size and mass via these Planck objects. A 14 billion year old universe would put ''age'' = 10&lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt;. This expansion can also be used to introduce motion (particle momentum) by pulling particles with it, the problem however is that this expansion occurs at the speed of light (''c'' = 1 unit of Planck length per 1 unit of Planck time), and so we need to provide a reference for our surroundings (if everything is moving away from us at the speed of light). One solution is for an expanding 4-axis hyper-sphere universe to project onto a fixed 3-D (Newtonian) background using the mathematics of perspective. This can be achieved using the electromagnetic spectrum''.
 
The [[w:Perspective_(graphical) |mathematics of perspective]] is a technique used to project a 3-D image onto a 2-D screen (i.e.: a photograph or a landscape painting), using the same approach here would implement a 4-axis expanding hypersphere super-structure in which 3-D space is the projection &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title= 4. Programming cosmic microwave background for Planck unit Simulation Hypothesis modeling |journal=RG |date=March 2020 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.31308.16004/7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The expanding hyper-sphere can be used to replace independent particle motion (momentum) with motion as a function of the expansion itself, as the universe expands, it pulls all particles along with it. In the mass point-state, the particle can be assigned defined co-ordinates in the hyper-sphere and so all particles simultaneously in the point-state per unit of '''age''' may then be measured relative to each other. As photons (the electromagnetic spectrum) have no mass state, they cannot be pulled along by the universe expansion (consequently they are date stamped, as it takes 8 minutes for a photon to travel from the sun, that photon is 8 minutes old when it reaches us) and so photons would be restricted to a lateral motion within the hyper-sphere. As the electromagnetic spectrum is the principal source of information regarding the environment, a 3-D relative space would be observed (as a projected image from within the 4-axis hyper-sphere), the [[w:Lorentz_transformation |relativity formulas]] can then be used to translate between the [[v:Relativity_(Planck) |hyper-sphere co-ordinates]] and 3-D space co-ordinates &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title= 1. Programming relativity for Planck unit Simulation Hypothesis modeling |journal=RG |date=March 2020 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.18574.00326/3 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.   

In hyper-sphere co-ordinate terms; '''age''' (the simulation clock-rate), and velocity (the velocity of expansion as the origin of '''c''') would be constants and thus all particles and objects would travel at, and only at, ''V = c'', however in 3-D space co-ordinate terms, time and motion would be relative to the observer. The [[w:Dimension#Time |time dimension]] of the observer measures the change in state = change of information = change in relative position of particles in respect to each other and thus derives from, but is not the same as, the expansion clock-rate '''age''' or object time '''T''', for in the absence of motion there is no means for the observer to measure either, the dimensionless '''age''' variable however would continue to increment (the universe hyper-sphere would continue to expand at the speed of light). 


[[File:8body-27orbital-gravitational-orbit.gif|thumb|right|640px|8-body (8 mass points, 28 point-point orbitals) orbit]]
=== Gravitational orbitals ===
{{main|Quantum gravity (Planck)}}
''Although we can accurately predict the motion of planetary bodies in space using our gravity models, these are not suitable when we have to include the influence of grains of sand blowing in the wind or waves crashing onto a rocky beach as a deep simulation must do in real time. A  solution is to form dimensionless rotating particle to particle orbital pairs at the Planck scale, each rotating according to the orbital radius, the planetary orbits emerging naturally as the averaging over time of these underlying rotating orbitals. For example, using this approach, it would not be necessary to have any information regarding the earth and the moon, their relative masses, their (constantly changing) [[w:barycenter |barycenter]], or any dimensioned constants, for the orbit to be plotted in real (universe) time down to the particle level.''


All particles simultaneously in the point-state at any unit of '''age''' form gravitational orbital pairs with each other &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title=2. Quantum gravity n-body orbitals for Planck scale simulation hypothesis |journal=RG |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.11496.93445/12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For each increment to ''age'', these orbital pairs then rotate by a specific angle depending on the radius of the orbital to travel 1 unit of Planck length. The results are then summed and averaged and so the entire universe can be updated in real time (before the next increment to ''age'').  The observed [[w:orbits |gravitational orbits]] of planets are the sum of these ([[w:n-body |n-body]]) orbital pairs averaged over time. Thus it is in principle not necessary to have direct information regarding the orbiting objects in order to derive their respective orbits.

  FOR age = 1 TO the_end                                 
          'gravitational orbits via orbitals
          FOR n = 1 TO total_number_of_particles
                 IF particle{n}_is_in_the_point_state   
                        form_an_orbital_with_all_other_point_state_particles
                        rotate_orbital_1_Planck_length
                 END IF 
                 sum_and_average_all_coordinates
          NEXT n
  NEXT age 

Orbits, being also driven by the universe expansion, occur at the speed of light, however if the orbit along the expansion time-line is not noted by the observer, who instead relies on the electromagnetic spectrum, then the orbital period will be measured in terms of 3D space co-ordinates.


=== Atomic orbitals ===
As atomic orbitals also involve 2 particles rotating, they can be treated as modified gravitational orbitals. If the orbital itself is a 'physical' unit of momentum, akin to a photon, albeit of inverse phase, then when the photon strikes the atom, it will impact the orbital, not the particle, resulting in a lengthening or shortening of the orbital radius in the process. Electron transition between orbitals can then be mapped as a modification of the orbital (change in orbital radius) in discrete steps according to the wavelength of the incoming photon (which is absorbed or ejected by the orbital), the electron itself is not directly involved &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last1 = Macleod | first1 = Malcolm J. |title=4. Atomic orbitals in Planck scale simulation hypothesis |journal=RG |date=Feb 2011 | doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.23106.71367/2}}&lt;/ref&gt;.   


== External links == 
* [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical) | Programming Planck units as geometrical objects]] 
* [[v:electron_(mathematical) | The mathematical electron]]
* [[v:Relativity_(Planck) | Programming relativity at the Planck scale]]
* [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck) | Programming gravity at the Planck level]]
* [[v:Black-hole_(Planck) | Programming the cosmic microwave background at the Planck level]]
* [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | The sqrt of Planck momentum]]
* [https://theprogrammergod.com/ The Programmer God, Are We in a Computer Simulation] (Book)
* [https://codingthecosmos.com/ Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website
* [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website
* [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark (Book)
* [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0202289308020011/ Dirac-Kerr-Newman black-hole electron] -Alexander Burinskii (article)
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/ The Matrix, (1999)]
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras/ Pythagoras &quot;all is number&quot;] - Stanford University
* [[w:Simulation Hypothesis | Simulation Hypothesis]]
* [[w:Mathematical universe hypothesis | Mathematical universe hypothesis]]
* [[w:Philosophy of mathematics | Philosophy of mathematics]]
* [[w:Philosophy of physics | Philosophy of physics]]
* [[w:Platonism | Platonism]]
* [https://philpapers.org/rec/GRUTIA-2 Simulation theory as evidence for God] (academic peer-reviewed article)


==References==
{{Reflist}}


[[Category:Philosophy| ]]
[[Category:Philosophy of science| ]]</text>
      <sha1>fgzviqoa84zqevt2mjx5rx1yxr1nuiw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>203942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409265</id>
      <parentid>2408830</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T15:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5588" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Background ===
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])

=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
: - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])
: - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
: - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
: - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220725.pdf |pdf]])
: - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Computer programming]]</text>
      <sha1>3atjg139jgfv8cz8xt68dsmlpz56gtu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409395</id>
      <parentid>2409265</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T06:37:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5588" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Background ===
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])

=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
: - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])
: - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
: - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
: - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220726.pdf |pdf]])
: - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Computer programming]]</text>
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|+ &lt;math&gt;8316=2^{2}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 7\cdot 11&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
! !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n%b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;
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|- 
! !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n%b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;
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|+ &lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
! !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
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      <text bytes="245" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="248" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


 &lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="248" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;ma
th&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="247" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="252" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n\text{b}&lt;/math&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="253" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n\text{%}b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
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        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="254" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n\text{\%}b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
      <sha1>lpx6foq1p6zh9y6uc576bm3ctkasgws</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409262</id>
      <parentid>2409261</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:58:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="253" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n\text{?}b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
      <sha1>3m4z1psf5bxb7n2q9c4egzyxdwf2ofo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409263</id>
      <parentid>2409262</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:59:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="259" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
      <sha1>4xakiarh6kir1oidrjn5dzhideyn8ph</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409264</id>
      <parentid>2409263</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T15:00:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="247" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !!  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
      <sha1>m4ie1ly6x1wmfrycjckdfny5h2ju0wm</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409268</id>
      <parentid>2409264</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T15:12:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replaced content with &quot;&lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="17" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;n\%b&lt;/math&gt;</text>
      <sha1>8b4zq4wirl3ijn5n9gxhzjxtw0jpa52</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409291</id>
      <parentid>2409268</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:42:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="384" xml:space="preserve">{| class=wikitable 
|+ &lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
! !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|}</text>
      <sha1>25csb3m4juaoyoky3bwew3e0m3tsjh4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409294</id>
      <parentid>2409291</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:49:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="340" xml:space="preserve">{| class=wikitable 
|+ &lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
! !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!n/b!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|}</text>
      <sha1>5znv1tani5dxq5wmyh7oma8loosryl8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409295</id>
      <parentid>2409294</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:50:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="353" xml:space="preserve">{| class=wikitable 
|+ &lt;math&gt;126=2\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 7&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
! !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; !! &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; !!&lt;math&gt;b^2/n&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;  !! &lt;math&gt;\text{change in}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;n\text{ or }b^x&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;n/b&lt;/math&gt;!!&lt;math&gt;\text{factors}&lt;/math&gt;
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|- 
|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8
|}</text>
      <sha1>3lcvnmyjbh4k1foey3kn8jp0x3re666</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:ThaniosAkro/sandbox</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>219126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409213</id>
      <parentid>2409210</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:12:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* of 2 residues */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="18701" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
======of residue and non-residue======


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>cig4bis32owpoc0v1066mha2964e835</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409217</id>
      <parentid>2409213</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:18:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* of 2 non-residues */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19236" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>r25st08uto03o7havk4dyhllvxmkipw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409218</id>
      <parentid>2409217</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:25:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* of residue and non-residue */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19968" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>cj601i1n7z322ffw4nwd1dlctv0rj4g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409253</id>
      <parentid>2409218</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:52:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Quadratic Congruences */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20745" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

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     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

==Law of addition==
===Adding a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>3ngdxnp0uksiwzm6f2ce7c3xyx9ori4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409312</id>
      <parentid>2409253</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:47:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adding a constant */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21569" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

==Law of addition==
===Euler's criterion===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
In number theory, '''Euler's criterion''' is a formula for determining whether or not an integer is a quadratic residue modulo a prime number. Precisely,

Let ''p'' be an odd prime and ''a'' be an integer coprime to ''p''. Then

:&lt;math&gt;
a^{\tfrac{p-1}{2}} \equiv
\begin{cases}
\;\;\,1\pmod{p}&amp; \text{ if there is an integer }x \text{ such that }a\equiv x^2 \pmod{p},\\
     -1\pmod{p}&amp; \text{ if there is no such integer.}
\end{cases}
&lt;/math&gt;

Euler's criterion can be concisely reformulated using the Legendre symbol:
:&lt;math&gt;
\left(\frac{a}{p}\right) \equiv a^{\tfrac{p-1}{2}} \pmod p.
&lt;/math&gt;
It is known that &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue modulo &lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore &lt;math&gt;(3^5) % 11&lt;/math&gt; should be &lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; (3**5) % 11
1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

It is known that &lt;math&gt;7&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic non-residue modulo &lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore &lt;math&gt;(7^5) % 11&lt;/math&gt; should be &lt;math&gt;-1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; (7**5) % 11
10
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;10 \equiv -1 \pmod{11}&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>qbnj6spfyrmrarikgjipcknlxwmwr6a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409313</id>
      <parentid>2409312</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T22:04:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Euler's criterion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22082" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

==Law of addition==
===Euler's criterion===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
In number theory, '''Euler's criterion''' is a formula for determining whether or not an integer is a quadratic residue modulo a prime number. Precisely,

Let ''p'' be an odd prime and ''a'' be an integer coprime to ''p''. Then

:&lt;math&gt;
a^{\tfrac{p-1}{2}} \equiv
\begin{cases}
\;\;\,1\pmod{p}&amp; \text{ if there is an integer }x \text{ such that }a\equiv x^2 \pmod{p},\\
     -1\pmod{p}&amp; \text{ if there is no such integer.}
\end{cases}
&lt;/math&gt;

Euler's criterion can be concisely reformulated using the Legendre symbol:
:&lt;math&gt;
\left(\frac{a}{p}\right) \equiv a^{\tfrac{p-1}{2}} \pmod p.
&lt;/math&gt;
It is known that &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue modulo &lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore &lt;math&gt;(3^5) % 11&lt;/math&gt; should be &lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; (3**5) % 11
1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

It is known that &lt;math&gt;7&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic non-residue modulo &lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore &lt;math&gt;(7^5) % 11&lt;/math&gt; should be &lt;math&gt;-1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; (7**5) % 11
10
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;10 \equiv -1 \pmod{11}&lt;/math&gt;
Python's decimal module provides a method for computing &lt;math&gt;(a^x)\ %\ p&lt;/math&gt; very efficiently for both small and very large numbers.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; import decimal
&gt;&gt;&gt; decimal.Context().power(3,5,11)
Decimal('1')
&gt;&gt;&gt; decimal.Context().power(7,5,11)
Decimal('10')
&gt;&gt;&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; p = 761838257287
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = 3456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; pow = p &gt;&gt; 1; pow
380919128643
&gt;&gt;&gt; decimal.Context().power(a,pow,p)
Decimal('761838257286')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;761838257286 \equiv -1 \pmod{761838257287}&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
=====For speed=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}
======Many comparisons======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
======Divide by 2======
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=====For clarity=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>fwgi22mb361scys950xalcmsdwumj7d</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409314</id>
      <parentid>2409313</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T22:11:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Euler's criterion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22182" xml:space="preserve">
&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; cube roots of &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;W = 0.828 + 2.035\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0 = 1.2 + 0.5\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_1 = \frac{-1.2 - 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_2 = \frac{-1.2 + 0.5\sqrt{3}}{2} + \frac{- 1.2\sqrt{3} - 0.5}{2}\cdot i&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;w_0^3 = w_1^3 = w_2^3 = W&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt; 


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;y = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;
===allEqual===

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(-x)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) = x^3 + x&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = p&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;y = f(x) =  (x-5)^3 - 4(x-5) + 7&lt;/math&gt;

{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; padding-bottom:0.2em; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.75em;&quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
====Welcomee====
{{Robelbox|title=[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]]|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFF800;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;

=====Welcomen=====
{{Robelbox|title=|theme={{{theme|9}}}}}
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-top:0.25em; 
     padding-bottom:0.2em; 
     padding-left:0.5em; 
     padding-right:0.75em;
     background-color: #FFFFFF;
     &quot;&gt;
[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Wikiversity]] is a [[Wikiversity:Sister projects|Wikimedia Foundation]] project devoted to [[learning resource]]s, [[learning projects]], and [[Portal:Research|research]] for use in all [[:Category:Resources by level|levels]], types, and styles of education from pre-school to university, including professional training and informal learning. We invite [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|teachers]], [[Wikiversity:Learning goals|students]], and [[Portal:Research|researchers]] to join us in creating [[open educational resources]] and collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning community|learning communities]]. To learn more about Wikiversity, try a [[Help:Guides|guided tour]], learn about [[Wikiversity:Adding content|adding content]], or [[Wikiversity:Introduction|start editing now]].

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{Robelbox/close}}
&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category: main page templates]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

==Law of addition==
===Euler's criterion===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
In number theory, '''Euler's criterion''' is a formula for determining whether or not an integer is a quadratic residue modulo a prime number. Precisely,

Let ''p'' be an odd prime and ''a'' be an integer coprime to ''p''. Then

:&lt;math&gt;
a^{\tfrac{p-1}{2}} \equiv
\begin{cases}
\;\;\,1\pmod{p}&amp; \text{ if there is an integer }x \text{ such that }a\equiv x^2 \pmod{p},\\
     -1\pmod{p}&amp; \text{ if there is no such integer.}
\end{cases}
&lt;/math&gt;

Euler's criterion can be concisely reformulated using the Legendre symbol:
:&lt;math&gt;
\left(\frac{a}{p}\right) \equiv a^{\tfrac{p-1}{2}} \pmod p.
&lt;/math&gt;
It is known that &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue modulo &lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore &lt;math&gt;(3^5)\ %\ 11&lt;/math&gt; should be &lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; (3**5) % 11
1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

It is known that &lt;math&gt;7&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic non-residue modulo &lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore &lt;math&gt;(7^5)\ %\ 11&lt;/math&gt; should be &lt;math&gt;-1.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; (7**5) % 11
10
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;10 \equiv -1 \pmod{11}&lt;/math&gt;
Python's decimal module provides a method for computing &lt;math&gt;(a^x)\ %\ p&lt;/math&gt; very efficiently for both small and very large numbers.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
&gt;&gt;&gt; import decimal
&gt;&gt;&gt; decimal.Context().power(3,5,11)
Decimal('1')
&gt;&gt;&gt; decimal.Context().power(7,5,11)
Decimal('10')
&gt;&gt;&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; p = 761838257287
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = 3456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; pow = p &gt;&gt; 1; pow
380919128643
&gt;&gt;&gt; decimal.Context().power(a,pow,p)
Decimal('761838257286')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;761838257286 \equiv -1 \pmod{761838257287}&lt;/math&gt;
Value &lt;math&gt;a = 3456789&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue modulo &lt;math&gt;p = 761838257287.&lt;/math&gt;
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===Adding 2 congruences===
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
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===Quadratic Congruences===
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
====Quadratic Residues====
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
=====Products=====
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
======of 2 residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of 2 non-residues======
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

======of residue and non-residue======
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

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Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

===Examples===
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;39x^2 + 64y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;64x^2 + 39y^2 - 2496 = 0&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

====Techniques====
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=====For speed=====
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======Many comparisons======
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If your code contains many numerical comparisons, it may be tempting to put:

&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if a == b == c == d == e == f == g == h == 0 :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If all values 
&lt;code&gt;a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h&lt;/code&gt; are equal and non-zero, processing the above statement takes time.
For greater speed, put &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and the value most likely to be non-zero at beginning of comparison:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
if 0 == f == a == b == c == d == e == g == h :
    pass
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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======Divide by 2======
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
Division by 2 seems simple enough:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b / 2
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Divisions are time consuming. If b is a large Decimal number, the following code is faster:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = D('0.5') * b
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
If b is &lt;code&gt;type int,&lt;/code&gt; right shift is faster than multiplication by &lt;code&gt;0.5:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a = b &gt;&gt; 1
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Also, right shift preserves precision of &lt;code&gt;type int:&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b/2 ; a
6.172839450617284e+27
&gt;&gt;&gt; a = b &gt;&gt; 1 ; a
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

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To preserve rightmost bit:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&gt;&gt;&gt; b = 12345678901234567890123456789
&gt;&gt;&gt; rightbit = b &amp; 1 ; rightbit 
1
&gt;&gt;&gt; b &gt;&gt;= 1 ; b
6172839450617283945061728394
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=====For clarity=====
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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

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{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===tables===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!  || No equal roots !! 2 equal roots  !! 3 equal roots  !! 4 equal roots  !! 2 pairs of equal roots
|-
| Cubic: 1(a), 2(a)
| different
| different
| different
| same
| different
|-
| Quadratic: 1(b), 2(b)
| different
| different
| same, 1root
| null
| same, 2roots
|-
| Linear: 1(c), 2(c)
| different
| same
| null
| null
| null
|}


See [[Cubic_function#Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic | Function_as_product_of_linear_function_and_quadratic]] above.

To calculate all roots:


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.
a,b,c,d = 1,-3,-9,-5

# Associated quadratic:
p = -1
A = a
B = A*p + b
C = B*p + c

# Associated linear function:
a1 = A
b1 = a1*p + B

print ('x3 =', -b1/a1)
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
x3 = 5.0
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Roots of cubic function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 9x - 5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;-1, -1, 5.&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code.

&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Testing=
======table1======
{|style=&quot;border-left:solid 3px blue;border-right:solid 3px blue;border-top:solid 3px blue;border-bottom:solid 3px blue;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|
Hello

As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.
When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|}

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[[File:0410cubic01.png|thumb|400px|'''
Graph of cubic function with coefficient a negative.'''
&lt;/br&gt;
There is no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.
]]
Coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; may be negative as shown in diagram.


As &lt;math&gt;abs(x)&lt;/math&gt; increases, the value of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is dominated by the term &lt;math&gt;-ax^3.&lt;/math&gt;

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large negative value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always positive.

When &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; has a very large positive value, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is always negative.


Unless stated otherwise, any reference to &quot;cubic function&quot; on this page will assume coefficient &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; positive.
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&lt;math&gt;x_{poi} = -1&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;

=====Various planes in 3 dimensions=====
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&lt;gallery&gt;
File:0713x=4.png|&lt;small&gt;plane x=4.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713y=3.png|&lt;small&gt;plane y=3.&lt;/small&gt;
File:0713z=-2.png|&lt;small&gt;plane z=-2.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
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&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785696718753769480731766797379907324784621070388503875343276415727
  3501384623091229702492483605585073721264412149709993583141322266592750559275579995050115278206057147
  0109559971605970274534596862014728517418640889198609552329230484308714321450839762603627995251407989
  6872533965463318088296406206152583523950547457502877599617298355752203375318570113543746034084988471
  6038689997069900481503054402779031645424782306849293691862158057846311159666871301301561856898723723
  5288509264861249497715421833420428568606014682472077143585487415565706967765372022648544701585880162
  0758474922657226002085584466521458398893944370926591800311388246468157082630100594858704003186480342
  1948972782906410450726368813137398552561173220402450912277002269411275736272804957381089675040183698
  6836845072579936472906076299694138047565482372899718032680247442062926912485905218100445984215059112
  0249441341728531478105803603371077309182869314710171111683916581726889419758716582152128229518488472
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\theta_1&lt;/math&gt;


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[[File:0422xx_x_2.png|thumb|400px|'''
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating relationship between &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^2 - x - 2&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x - 1.&lt;/math&gt;'''
&lt;/br&gt;
]]
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&lt;math&gt;O\ (0,0,0)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;M\ (A_1,B_1,C_1)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ (A_2,B_2,C_2)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
(6) - (7),\ 4Apq + 2Bq =&amp;\ 0\\
	       2Ap + B =&amp;\ 0\\
                   2Ap =&amp;\ - B\\
\\
                     p =&amp;\ \frac{-B}{2A}\ \dots\ (8)
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
1.&amp;4141475869yugh\\
  &amp;2645er3423231sgdtrf\\
  &amp;dhcgfyrt45erwesd
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ &lt;/math&gt;


:&lt;math&gt;
  4\sin 18^\circ
  = \sqrt{2(3 - \sqrt 5)}
  = \sqrt 5 - 1
&lt;/math&gt;
====Introduction to floats====
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Although integers are great for many situations, they have a serious limitation, integers are [[Wikipedia:Natural number|whole numbers]]. This means that they do not include all [[Wikipedia:Real number|real numbers]]. A ''real number'' is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia:Real number]]&lt;/ref&gt;, which means that it can have fractions in decimal forms. &lt;code&gt;4.5&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;1.25&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;0.75&lt;/code&gt; are all real numbers. In computer science, real numbers are represented as floats. To test if a number is float, we can use the &lt;code&gt;isinstance&lt;/code&gt; built-in function.
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(4.5, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.25, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.75, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(3.14159, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(2.71828, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(1.0, float)
True
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(271828, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0, float)
False
&gt;&gt;&gt; isinstance(0.0, float)
True
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;


As a general rule of thumb, floats have a ''[[Wikipedia:Decimal mark|decimal point]]'' and integers do not have a ''decimal point''. So even though &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; are the same number, &lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt; is an integer while &lt;code&gt;4.0&lt;/code&gt; is a float.

The basic arithmetic operations used for integers will also work for floats. (Bitwise operators will not work with floats.)
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.0 + 2.0
6.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; -1.0 + 4.5
3.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.75 - 1.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.13 - 1.1
3.03
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 // 1.0
4.0
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 / 1.0
4.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 4.5 % 1.0
0.5
&gt;&gt;&gt; 7.75 * 0.25
1.9375
&gt;&gt;&gt; 0.5 * 0.5
0.25
&gt;&gt;&gt; 1.5 ** 2.0
2.25
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>lcny2ctxegq7ozypbcq3z4blyw5q6a4</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Open Educational Resources/Sources</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>230361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409353</id>
      <parentid>2393894</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T02:59:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.218.28.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>0's</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6331" xml:space="preserve">See the [https://opentextbc.ca/oerdiscipline/ BC Campus: OER by Discipline Guide]. Additional sources of open educational resources are listed below.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Repository 
! Content
! Level
! Audience
! Quality
! License
! Contributors
! Approval
!Size
|-
|[https://2012books.lardbucket.org '''2012 Book Archive''']
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|CC-BY-NC-SA
|Authors
|Review
|100 texts
|-
|[https://aimath.org/textbooks/approved-textbooks/ American Institute of Math]
|Math Texts
|Secondary, College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Curators
|Review
|62
|-
|[http://library.baycollege.edu/c.php?g=426415&amp;p=5207157 Bay College]
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Varies
|N/A
|35
|-
| [https://open.bccampus.ca/find-open-textbooks/ '''BC Open Textbooks''']
| Textbooks
| College
| Teachers
| High
| Varies
| Teachers
| Review
|396
|-
|[http://bookboon.com BookBoon]
|Textbooks
|Secondary, College
|Anyone
|Varies
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
|0?
|-
|[https://courses.lumenlearning.com/catalog/boundlesscourses Boundless Learning] (on Lumen)
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|Varies
|
|Authored on site
|Editors
|22
|-
|[https://www.ck12.org/fbbrowse/list?grade=all%20grades&amp;language=all%20languages&amp;subject=all%20subjects '''CK12''']
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|[[wikibooks:User-Generated Content in Education/CK-12 Flexbooks|CC-SA]] pre-2012
|Authored on site
|Editors
|200+
|- style=&quot;background-color:#fff; color:#666;&quot;
| [http://www.collegeopentextbooks.org &lt;s&gt;College Open Textbooks&lt;/s&gt;]
| Textbooks
| College
| Anyone
| Varies
| Varies
| Authors
| Review
|0: now [https://collegeopentextbooks.org/category/company/ spam]
|-
| [https://www.cccoer.org/learn/find-oer/ Community College Consortium]
| Varies
| College
| Anyone
| Varies
| Varies
| Varies
| Varies
| --
|- style=&quot;background-color:#fff; color:#666;&quot;
|[http://cool4ed.org/findetextbooks.html &lt;s&gt;COOL4ed&lt;/s&gt;]
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
| 0: --&gt; Merlot
|-
|[https://www.coursesource.org/ CourseSource]
|Lessons
|College
|Anyone
|High
|CC-BY-NC-SA
|Varies
|Review
|
|-
| [http://www.creativecommons.org Creative Commons]
| Multimedia
| All
| Anyone
| Varies
| Varies
| Anyone
| None
|
|-
| [http://www.curriki.org Curriki]
| Lessons, Other
| Primary, Secondary
| Teachers
| Ratings
| CC-BY
| Teachers
| Review
|?
|-
|[https://EdX.org edX] + [https://openedx.atlassian.net/wiki/spaces/COMM/pages/162245773 open edX]
|Courses
|Secondary
|Anyone
|High
|Varies&lt;ref&gt;License can be set per course, but it seems no longer possible to search by license&lt;/ref&gt; 
|Teachers
|
|? 
|-
|[https://oer.galileo.usg.edu Galileo]
|Texts, Lessons
|College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
|100
|-
| [http://globaltext.terry.uga.edu/home Global Text Project]
| Textbooks
| College
| Anyone
| Varies
| CC-BY
| Varies
| None
|
|-
|[https://www.hippocampus.org/ HippoCampus]
|Multimedia, Texts
|Secondary, College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Teachers
|Review
|
|-
|[https://libretexts.org/index.html LibreTexts]
|Textbooks, Maps
|Secondary
|Anyone
|Varies
|Varies
|Teachers
|None
|390
|-
| [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/catalog/lumen Lumen Learning]
| Courses
| College
| Anyone
| High
| Varies
| Teachers
| Review
|22
|-
| [http://www.merlot.org MERLOT II]
| Courses, Other
| All
| Teachers
| Ratings
| CC-BY
| Anyone
| None
|
|-
|[https://milneopentextbooks.org/category/available-now/ Milne Open Texts] + OpenSUNY
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|Varies
|
|Teachers
|Editors
|45
|-
| [http://ocw.mit.edu '''MIT Open Courseware''']
| Courses
| College
| Anyone
| High
| CC-BY-NC-SA
| MIT Professors
| N/A
|3000+
|-
|[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books '''NCBI''' (science and health)]
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|Public Domain
|Varies
|Review
|[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/browse/#W3sidHlwZVtdIjoiQm9vayJ9LHsic29ydCI6InB1YmRhdGUifSx7InNvcnRfZGlyZWN0aW9uIjoicmV2ZXJzZSJ9LHsiY3NyZi10b2tlbiI6IjkwQzY0ODUzRkI3NTNCNTFfMDAwMFNJRCJ9XQ== 1250+]
|-
| [http://www.oercommons.org '''OER Commons''']
| Courses, Other
| All
| Anyone
| Ratings
| CC-BY-SA
| Anyone
| Review
|[https://www.oercommons.org/browse?batch_size=20&amp;sort_by=title&amp;view_mode=summary&amp;f.material_types=textbook&amp;f.license_types=no-strings-attached 1150+]
|-
|[http://opencourselibrary.org/ Open Course Library]
|Courses
|College
|Anyone
|High
|CC-BY
|Teachers
|Review
|
|-
|[https://www.openculture.com/free_textbooks '''Open Culture''']
|Textbooks
|All
|Anyone
|Varies
|CC
|Varies
|?
|200
|-
|[https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub OpenOregon]
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|CC-BY
|Varies
|Review
|88
|-
| [http://openstaxcollege.org/ '''OpenStax''']
| Textbooks
| College
| Anyone
| High
| CC-BY
| Teachers
| Review
|72
|-
|[http://www.opentextbookstore.com/catalog.php OpenTextBookStore]
|Math Texts
|Secondary, College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Authors
|Review
|35
|-
|[http://www.openwa.org/ Open Washington]
|Varies
|College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
|
|-
| [http://www.saylor.org '''Saylor.org''']
| Courses
| College
| Anyone
| High
| CC-BY
| By Contract
| N/A
|110+
|-
|[http://serendipity.utpl.edu.ec/ Serendipity]
|Varies
|All
|Anyone
|Varies
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
|
|-
|[https://www.siyavulaeducation.com/work-oer.html Siyavula]
|Texts, Apps
|Primary, Secondary
|Anyone
|Varies
|CC-BY, CC-ND
|Varies
|Editors
|14
|-
|[https://www.skillscommons.org/ SkillsCommons]
|Varies
|Secondary, College
|Anyone
|Varies
|CC-BY
|Varies
|Review
|
|-
|[http://libguides.tcc.edu/c.php?g=304364&amp;p=3088246 Tidewater CC Lib Guide]
|Varies
|College
|Teachers
|Varies
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
|
|-
|[https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/ '''UMN Open Textbooks''']
|Textbooks
|College
|Anyone
|High
|Varies
|Varies
|Review
|1024
|-
| [http://en.wikibooks.org '''Wikibooks''']
| Textbooks
| All
| Anyone
| Varies
| CC-BY-SA
| Anyone
| None
|
|-
| [http://www.wikieducator.org '''WikiEducator''']
| Lessons
| Primary, Secondary
| Teachers
| Varies
| CC-BY-SA
| Anyone
| None
|
|-
| [http://en.wikiversity.org '''Wikiversity''']
| Courses, Other
| Secondary, College
| Anyone
| Varies
| CC-BY-SA
| Anyone
| None
|
|}

== See Also ==
* [https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-learning/article/2018/01/10/finding-oer-remains-challenging-solutions-abound Inside Higher Ed: Finding OER]
* [https://oer.deepwebaccess.com/oer/desktop/en/search.html Mason OER Metafinder (MOM)]
*</text>
      <sha1>tte8bbxfak3lwqximeqc4b7lu264mvz</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Microprocessor Based System Design</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>232469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409300</id>
      <parentid>2408891</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T20:59:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5041" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220725.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>59qubna02fz14dtx8ma7sjq4u3ggjp4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409398</id>
      <parentid>2409300</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T06:53:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5041" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220726.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>9pic7limg5ngcn6e8vb88i1lld617po</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal of Medicine/Dyslexia</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>241508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409316</id>
      <parentid>2408561</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T22:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>tidying refs, dois where available</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="89919" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
|journal         = WikiJournal of Medicine
|last1           = Anis
|first1          = Ozzie
|orcid1          = 0000-0002-4061-2429
|et_al           = true
|correspondence1 = by [[w:Special:EmailUser/Ozzie10aaaa|online form]]
|submitted       = 30 October 2018
|accepted        = 15 October 2019
|doi             = 10.15347/wjm/2019.005
|keywords        = Dyslexia,speech, learning
|w1              = Dyslexia
|abstract        =

'''Dyslexia''' is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulty learning to read and spell.{{efn|This article is about ''developmental dyslexia'', i.e., dyslexia that begins in early childhood,&lt;ref&gt;Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. &quot;[https://oed.com/view/Entry/331223 dyslexia, ''n'']. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012 (&quot;a learning disability specifically affecting the attainment of literacy, with difficulty esp. in word recognition, spelling, and the conversion of letters to sounds, occurring in a child with otherwise normal development, and now usually regarded as a neurodevelopmental disorder with a genetic component.&quot;)&lt;/ref&gt; as opposed to ''acquired dyslexia''. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of developmental disorder, but acquired dyslexia is a substantially different condition, generally requiring different assessment strategies and different treatment approaches than developmental dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Woollams
|first=Anna M.
|date=2014-01-19
|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia
|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2012.0398
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
|language=en
|volume=369
|issue=1634
|pages=20120398
|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398
|issn=0962-8436
|pmc=PMC3866427
|pmid=24324241
}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Rose&quot;&gt;Sir Jim Rose, [http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14790/7/00659-2009DOM-EN_Redacted.pdf ''Identifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties''] (An independent report from Sir Jim Rose to the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, 2009).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Webster's Third New International Dictionary. &quot;[[mwod:dyslexia|dyslexia, noun]]&quot;. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016 (&quot;a variable often familial learning disability involving difficulties in acquiring and processing language that is typically manifested by a lack of proficiency in reading, spelling, and writing&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Longe, Jacqueline L., ed. &quot;[https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/dyslexia Dyslexia]&quot;. Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. 3rd ed. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2006. {{ISBN|9781414403687}} (&quot;Dyslexia is a learning disorder characterized by problems in processing words into meaningful information. This is most strongly reflected in difficulty in learning to read.&quot;)&lt;/ref&gt; Underlying deficits typically include impaired [[w:Phonological_awareness|phonological awareness]] (an awareness of the sound structure of words) and processing; difficulty with verbal working memory; and slow verbal processing speed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Moll
|first=Kristina
|last2=Göbel
|first2=Silke M.
|last3=Gooch
|first3=Debbie
|last4=Landerl
|first4=Karin
|last5=Snowling
|first5=Margaret J.
|date=May 2016
|title=Cognitive Risk Factors for Specific Learning Disorder: Processing Speed, Temporal Processing, and Working Memory
|journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities
|volume=49
|issue=3
|pages=272–281
|doi=10.1177/0022219414547221
|pmid=25124507
|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43639/1/Moll_Cognitive.pdf
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Observable problems include frequent spelling errors that same-age children do not exhibit; difficulty learning how to decode individual words, including &quot;sounding out&quot; words; and struggling to pronounce words correctly and fluently when reading aloud. Deficits in reading comprehension often occur as a secondary consequence.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Dyslexia - Symptoms
|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/symptoms/
|website=nhs.uk
|accessdate=9 October 2019
|language=en
|date=15 August 2018
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous disorder, which means that not all people with dyslexia have the same signs, symptoms, underlying deficits, or functional impairment. Children and adults with dyslexia exhibit higher rates of [[w:comorbidity|comorbid]] conditions such as developmental language disorders; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD);&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Moura
|first=Octávio
|last2=Pereira
|first2=Marcelino
|last3=Alfaiate
|first3=Cláudia
|last4=Fernandes
|first4=Eva
|last5=Fernandes
|first5=Boavida
|last6=Nogueira
|first6=Susana
|last7=Moreno
|first7=Joana
|last8=Simões
|first8=Mário R.
|date=March 2017
|title=Neurocognitive functioning in children with developmental dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Multiple deficits and diagnostic accuracy
|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
|volume=39
|issue=3
|pages=296–312
|doi=10.1080/13803395.2016.1225007
|pmid=27617883
|hdl=10316/47224
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Araujo|first1= Alexandra Prufer de Queiroz Campos|title= Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia: a history of overlap|journal=Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria|volume= 70|issue= 2 |date=2012|pages= 83-84|doi=10.1590/S0004-282X2012000200001}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sexton
|first=Chris C.
|last2=Gelhorn
|first2=Heather L.
|last3=Bell
|first3=Jill A.
|last4=Classi
|first4=Peter M.
|date=November 2012
|title=The Co-occurrence of Reading Disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, Treatment, Psychosocial Impact, and Economic Burden
|journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities
|volume=45
|issue=6
|pages=538–564
|doi=10.1177/0022219411407772
|pmid=21757683
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and difficulties with motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration, and personal organization, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia. Dyslexia manifests on a continuum of severity—it is a dimensional disorder.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Fletcher
|first=Jack M.
|date=July 2009
|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept
|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society
|volume=15
|issue=4
|pages=501–508
|quote=... international epidemiological studies have shown that dyslexia is dimensional and exists as the lower end of a normal continuum of reading ability
|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900
|pmc=3079378
|pmid=19573267
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Snowling
|first=Margaret J.
|date=January 2013
|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view
|journal=Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs
|volume=13
|issue=1
|pages=7–14
|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x
|pmc=4538781
|pmid=26290655
|quote=In short, dyslexia is not a clear-cut diagnostic category. Rather, in keeping with other neurodevelopmental disorders that affect learning, it can be thought of as the behavioural outcome of a multiple risk factors, both genetic and environmental. It is also increasingly recognised that dyslexia co-occurs with other disorders; in particular, many children with dyslexia have language impairments, symptoms of inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and problems of motor coordination. This nuanced view of dyslexia as a dimension that has continuities and comorbidities with other disorders has significant implications for contemporary theory and practice. (p. 4 of author's copy on PMC) (citations omitted)
}}&lt;/ref&gt; People with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.&lt;ref name=&quot;ninds1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page
|last=
|first=
|date=11 September 2015
|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|access-date=
|accessdate=27 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|archivedate=27 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Paul A. |last2=Hulme |first2=Charles |last3=Nash |first3=Hannah M. |last4=Gooch |first4=Debbie |last5=Hayiou‐Thomas |first5=Emma |last6=Snowling |first6=Margaret J. |title=Developmental dyslexia: predicting individual risk |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |date=2015 |volume=56 |issue=9 |pages=976–987 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.12412}} (&quot;Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder which runs in families; the consensus view for many years has been that it is the behavioral outcome of an underlying phonological deficit.&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NIH2014Def&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/disorders.aspx
|title=What are reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402125917/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/disorders.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lancet2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Peterson
|first1=Robin L.
|last2=Pennington
|first2=Bruce F.
|title=Developmental dyslexia
|journal=Lancet
|volume=379
|issue=9830
|pages=1997–2007
|date=May 2012
|pmid=22513218
|pmc=3465717
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is believed to be caused by both [[w:genetics|genetic]] and environmental factors, and their [[w:Gene–environment interaction|interaction]].&lt;ref name=Lancet2012 /&gt; Dyslexia often runs in families.&lt;ref name=NIH2014Def/&gt; Dyslexia that develops subsequent to a [[w:traumatic brain injury|traumatic brain injury]], [[w:stroke|stroke]], or [[w:dementia|dementia]] is usually called ''acquired dyslexia''.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia are problems within the [[w:brain|brain]]'s language processing.&lt;ref name=NIH2014Def/&gt; Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, spelling, and reading skills.&lt;ref name=NIH2015Diag&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx
|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by [[w:hearing problems|hearing]] or [[w:vision problem|vision problem]]s or by insufficient [[w:Reading education|teaching]] or opportunity to learn.&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt;

Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx
|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Treatments targeting vision are not effective.&lt;ref name=Handler2011&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Handler
|first1=SM
|last2=Fierson
|first2=WM
|last3=Section on
|first3=Ophthalmology
|last4=Council on Children with
|first4=Disabilities
|last5=American Academy of
|first5=Ophthalmology
|last6=American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and
|first6=Strabismus
|last7=American Association of Certified
|first7=Orthoptists
|title=Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision.
|journal=Pediatrics
|date=March 2011
|volume=127
|issue=3
|pages=e818–56
|pmid=21357342
|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-3670
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is the most common [[w:learning disability|learning disability]] and occurs in all areas of the world.&lt;ref name=UmphredLazaro2013m&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Umphred, Darcy Ann
|author2=Lazaro, Rolando T.
|author3=Roller, Margaret
|author4=Burton, Gordon
|title=Neurological Rehabilitation
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA383
|year=2013
|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences
|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9
|page=383
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173020/https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA383
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; It affects 3–7% of the population,&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt;&lt;ref name=Koo2013&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Kooij
|first1=J. J. Sandra
|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic assessment and treatment
|date=2013
|publisher=Springer
|location=London|doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9
|isbn=9781447141389
|page=83
|edition=3rd
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&amp;pg=PA83
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430012545/https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&amp;pg=PA83
|archivedate=30 April 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx
|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
==History==
Dyslexia was clinically described by [[w:Oswald Berkhan|Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881,&lt;ref name=&quot;Oswald Berkhan ref 1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|author=Berkhan O
|year=1917
|title=Über die Wortblindheit, ein Stammeln im Sprechen und Schreiben, ein Fehl im Lesen
|trans-title=About word blindness, adyslalia of speech and writing, a weakness in reading
|language=German
|journal=Neurologisches Centralblatt
|volume=36
|pages=914–27
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&amp;dq=editions%3AUCALB3248710&amp;q=Wortblindheit#search_anchor
}}&lt;/ref&gt; but the term ''dyslexia'' was coined in 1883 by [[w:Rudolf Berlin|Rudolf Berlin]], an [[w:ophthalmologist|ophthalmologist]] in [[w:Stuttgart|Stuttgart]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Berlin&quot;&gt;Berlin, Rudolf. [No title.] ''Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des Württembergischen Ärztlichen Landesvereins'' [Correspondence Sheet of the Württemberg Medical Association] 53 (1883): 209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Websters&quot;&gt;Webster's Third New International Dictionary. &quot;History and Etymology for dyslexia&quot;, s.v. &quot;[[mwod:dyslexia|dyslexia, noun]]&quot;. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=''Über Dyslexie''
|trans-title=About dyslexia
|year=1884
|journal=Archiv für Psychiatrie
|volume=15
|pages=276–278
}}&lt;/ref&gt; He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|title=Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences and Analytical Index: A Yearly Report of the Progress of the General Sanitary Sciences Throughout the World
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_IhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA39
|year=1888
|publisher=F. A. Davis Company
|page=39
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200623/https://books.google.com/books?id=5_IhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA39
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from [[w:Seaford, East Sussex|Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the ''[[w:British Medical Journal|British Medical Journal]]'' titled &quot;Congenital Word Blindness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Brooks
|editor1-first=Patricia
|editor2-last=Vera
|editor2-first=Kempe
|title=Encyclopedia of language development
|first1=Franck |last1=Ramus|first2= Irene|last2= Altarelli
|chapter=Developmental Dyslexia
|date=2014
|publisher=SAGE
|page=130|doi=10.4135/9781483346441.n43
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR30
|isbn=9781483346434
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Mishra
|first1=Srikanta K.
|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders.
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=October 2014
|pmid=25386132
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860
|pmc=4209830
|volume=8
|pages=860
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Signs and symptoms==

In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include [[w:speech delay|delayed onset]] of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt; A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.&lt;ref name=&quot;LilienfeldLynn2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&amp;pg=PT88
|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior
|last2=Lynn
|first2=Steven Jay
|last3=Ruscio
|first3=John
|last4=Beyerstein
|first4=Barry L.
|date=15 September 2011
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5
|pages=88–89
|last1=Lilienfeld
|first1=Scott O.
|authorlink1=Scott Lilienfeld
|authorlink4=Barry Beyerstein
|accessdate=19 May 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109130327/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&amp;pg=PT88
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt;

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit [[w:medical sign|signs]] of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words–both of which depend on [[w:phonological awareness|phonological awareness]].&lt;ref name=DAss&gt;{{cite web
|title=Dyslexia and Related Disorders
|date=January 2003
|website=Alabama Dyslexia Association
|publisher=[[International Dyslexia Association]]
|accessdate=29 April 2015
|url=http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124053/http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf
|archivedate=4 March 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds or may blend sounds when producing words, indicating reduced [[w:phonemic awareness|phonemic awareness]].&lt;ref name=&quot;PeerReid2014&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Peer
|editor1-first=Lindsay
|editor2-last=Reid
|editor2-first=Gavin
|first1=Stephanie
|last1=Miller
|first2=Marjorie
|last2=Bussman Gillis
|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators
|chapter=The Language Puzzle: Connecting the Study of Linguistics with a Multisensory Language Instructional Programme in Foreign Language Learning
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA219
|year=2014
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5
|page=219
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204808/https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA219
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shaywitz2013a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Shaywitz, Sally E.
|author2=Shaywitz, Bennett A.
|chapter=Chapter 34 Making a Hidden Disability Visible: What Has Been Learned from Neurobiological Studies of Dyslexia
|editor1=Swanson, H. Lee
|editor2=Harris, Karen R.
|editor3=Graham, Steve
|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&amp;pg=PA647
|edition=2
|year=2013
|publisher=Guilford Press
|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143943/https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&amp;pg=PA647
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|647}} People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or [[w:dysgraphia|dysgraphia]], which depends on [[w:Orthography|orthographic coding]].&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt;

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in [[w:spelling|spelling]] tests or when reading nonsense words–a measure of phonological awareness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Jarrad
|first1=Lum
|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies
|journal=Research of Developmental Disabilities
|date=October 2013
|pages=3460–76
|pmid=23920029
|pmc=3784964
|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017
|volume=34
|issue=10
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Associated conditions===
Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum
|journal=Cortex
|volume=47
|issue=1
|pages=117–27
|date=September 2009
|pmid=19818437
|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016
|last1=Nicolson
|first1=R. I.
|last2=Fawcett
|first2=A. J.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These associated disabilities include:
*[[w:Dysgraphia|Dysgraphia]]: A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with [[w:eye–hand coordination|eye–hand coordination;]] it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.&lt;ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Reynolds
|first1=Cecil R.
|last2=Fletcher-Janzen
|first2=Elaine
|title=Encyclopedia of Special Education
|date=2 January 2007
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-0-471-67798-7
|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&amp;pg=PA771 771]
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing [[w:Automaticity|automaticity]], organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.&lt;ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007/&gt;
*[[w:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml
|title=Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
|last=
|first=
|date=March 2016
|website=NIH: National Institute of Mental Health
|publisher=
|access-date=26 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723192735/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml
|archivedate=23 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.&lt;ref name=&quot;Koo2013&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ComerGould2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&amp;pg=RA1-PA233
|title=Psychology Around Us
|date=2011
|publisher=RR Donnelley
|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6
|page=1
|author1=Comer, Ronald
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604000711/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&amp;pg=RA1-PA233
|archivedate=4 June 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last2=Gagliano
|first2=A
|last3=Curatolo
|first3=P
|year=2010
|title=Comorbidity of ADHD and Dyslexia
|url=http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/260009__925867416.pdf
|journal=Developmental Neuropsychology
|volume=35
|issue=5
|pages=475–493
|doi=10.1080/87565641.2010.494748
|pmid=20721770
|last1=Germanò
|first1=E
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Approximately 15%&lt;ref name=&quot;Handler2011&quot; /&gt; or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;&lt;ref name=&quot;FatemiSartorius2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&amp;pg=PA308
|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry
|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media
|year=2008
|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6
|edition=3
|page=308
|author1=Fatemi, S. Hossein
|author2=Sartorius, Norman
|author3=Clayton, Paula J.
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101234/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&amp;pg=PA308
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Handler2011&quot; /&gt;
*[[w:Auditory processing disorder|Auditory processing disorder]]: A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.&lt;ref name=&quot;Capellini2007a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Capellini, Simone Aparecida
|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&amp;pg=PA94
|year=2007
|publisher=Nova Publishers
|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7
|page=94
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109113545/https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&amp;pg=PA94
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|title=The diagnosis and management of auditory processing disorder
|journal=Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools
|volume=42
|issue=3
|pages=303–8
|date=July 2011
|pmid=21757566
|doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0032)
|last1=Moore
|first1=D. R.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This can lead to problems with [[w:auditory memory|auditory memory]] and auditory [[w:sequencing|sequencing]]. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own [[w:logographic cues|logographic cues]] to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Pammer2014&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pammer
|first1=Kristen
|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers.
|journal=Scientifica
|date=January 2014
|pmid=24527259
|pmc=3913493
|doi=10.1155/2014/802741
|volume=2014
|pages=802741
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Law
|first1=J
|title=relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=2014
|pmid=25071512
|pmc=4078926
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482
|volume=8
|pages=482
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[w:Developmental coordination disorder|Developmental coordination disorder]]: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-[[w:motor skills|motor control]], [[w:kinesthetic|kinesthetic]] coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with [[w:Working memory|short-term memory]], and organization.&lt;ref name=Pickering2012&gt;{{cite book
|author=Susan J. Pickering
|chapter=Chapter 2. Working Memory in Dyslexia
|editor1=Alloway, Tracy Packiam
|editor2=Gathercole, Susan E.
|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&amp;pg=PA29
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109194637/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&amp;pg=PA29
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Causes ==
{{fig
 |number      =  1
 |image       = Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif
 |caption     = Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation
 |attribution = Anatomography, [[creativecommons:by-sa/2.1/jp/deed.en|CC BY-SA 2.1 JP]]
 |align       = right
 |size        = width (default = 250px)
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}

Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oswald Berkhan ref 1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReidFawcett2008x&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyytinen |first1=Heikki |last2=Erskine |first2=Jane |last3=Ahonen |first3=Timo |last4=Aro |first4=Mikko |last5=Eklund |first5=Kenneth |last6=Guttorm |first6=Tomi |last7=Hintikka |first7=Sini |last8=Hamalainen |first8=Jarmo |last9=Ketonen |first9=Ritva |last10=Laakso |first10=Marja-Leena |last11=Leppanen |first11=Paavo H.T. |last12=Lyytinen |first12=Paula |last13=Poikkeus |first13=Anna-Maija |last14=Puolakanaho |first14=Anne |last15=Richardson |first15=Ulla |last16=Salmi |first16=Paula |last17=Tolvanen |first17=Asko |last18=Torppa |first18=Minna |last19=Viholainen |first19=Helena |chapter=Early Identification and Prevention of Dyslexia: Results from a Prospective Follow-up Study of Children at Familial Risk for Dyslexia |title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia |date=2008  |doi=10.4135/9780857020987.n7|editor1-first=Gavin |editor1-last=Reid|editor2-first= Angela J.|editor2-last= Fawcett|editor3-first= Frank|editor3-last= Manis|editor4-first= Linda S.|editor4-last= Siegel
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9
|page=127
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200307/https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&amp;pg=PA127
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stein2014&quot; &gt;{{cite journal
|first1=John
|last1=Stein
|year=2014
|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention
|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports
|volume=1
|issue=4
|pages=267–80
|pmid=25346883
|pmc=4203994
|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

===Neuroanatomy===
Modern [[w:neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, such as [[w:functional magnetic resonance imaging|functional magnetic resonance imaging]] ([[w:fMRI|fMRI]]) and [[w:positron emission tomography|positron emission tomography]] (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;Whitaker2010r&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Whitaker, Harry A.
|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&amp;pg=PA180
|year=2010
|publisher=Elsevier
|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7
|page=180
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173223/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&amp;pg=PA180
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some people with dyslexia show less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the [[w:inferior frontal gyrus|inferior frontal gyrus]], [[w:inferior parietal lobule|inferior parietal lobule]], and the middle and [[w:Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].&lt;ref name=Pammer2014/&gt; Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual [[w:lexicon|lexicon]] and for auditory verbal [[w:short-term memory|short-term memory]] components have been proposed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Price
|first1=cathy
|title=A Review and Synthesis of the first 20 years of Pet and fMRI studies of heard Speech, Spoken Language and Reading
|journal=NeuroImage
|date=16 August 2012
|volume=62
|issue=2
|pages=816–847
|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062
|pmid=22584224
}}&lt;/ref&gt; with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the [[w:cerebellum|cerebellum]] and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Sharifi
|first1=S
|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review.
|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical
|date=May 2014
|pages=217–231
|pmid=25068111
|pmc=4110352
|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003
|volume=5
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Brandler
|first1=William
|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders
|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine
|date=February 2014
|pages=83–90
|pmid=24275328
|pmc=3969300
|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008
|volume=20
|issue=2
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the [[w:fluency|fluency]] problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the [[w:Autonomic nervous system|automatization]] of some tasks, such as reading.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Cain
|first1=Kate
|title=Reading development and difficulties
|date=2010
|publisher=TJ International
|page=134
|edition=1st
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&amp;pg=PA134&amp;dq=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia#v=onepage&amp;q=cerebellar%20theory%20of%20dyslexia&amp;f=false
|accessdate=21 March 2015
|isbn=9781405151559
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact that some children  with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Levav
|first1=Itzhak
|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental health
|date=2009
|publisher=Green Publishing
|page=52
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&amp;pg=PA52&amp;dq=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia#v=onepage&amp;q=cerebellar%20theory%20of%20dyslexia&amp;f=false
|accessdate=21 March 2015
|isbn=9789652294685
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Genetics===
Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-[[w:autopsy|autopsy]] examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stein2014&quot; /&gt; Observed anatomical differences in the [[w:language center|language center]]s of such brains include microscopic [[w:cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations known as [[wikt:ectopia|ectopias]], and more rarely, [[w:blood vessel|vascular]] micro-malformations, and  [[w:microgyrus|microgyrus]]—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.&lt;ref name=&quot;Faust2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1=Faust, Miriam
|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&amp;pg=PA941
|year=2012
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|last1=Stein|first1=John|doi=10.1002/9781118432501.ch45|chapter=The Neurobiological Basis of Dyslexia: The Magnocellular Theory
|pages=941–43
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200538/https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&amp;pg=PA941
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The previously cited studies and others&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Benitez
|first1=A
|title=Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia
|journal=Neurology (In Spanish)
|date=November 2010
|pmid=21093706
|doi=10.1016/j.nrl.2009.12.010
|volume=25
|issue=9
|pages=563–81
}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of [[w:fetal|fetal]] brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Kere
|first1=Julia
|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype
|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
|date=September 2014
|pages=236–43
|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102
|pmid=25078623
|volume=452
|issue=2
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including [[w:DCDC2|DCDC2]] and [[w:KIAA0319|KIAA0319]] on [[w:chromosome 6|chromosome 6]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall2012v&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Marshall, Chloë R.|doi=10.4324/9780203100288-10|chapter=The genetics of developmental disorders|last1=Newbury|first1=Dianne
|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&amp;pg=PA53
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7
|pages=53–56
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109103320/https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&amp;pg=PA53
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:DYX1C1|DYX1C1]] on [[w:chromosome 15|chromosome 15]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Rosen2013v&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Rosen, Glenn D.|last1=Galaburda|first1=Albert M.|chapter=Dyslexia: Advances in Cross-level Research
|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&amp;pg=PA342
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0
|page=342
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143349/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&amp;pg=PA342
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Gene–environment interaction===
The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using [[w:twin studies|twin studies]], which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Parental Education Moderates Genetic Influences on Reading Disability
|journal=Psychol. Sci.
|volume=19
|issue=11
|pages=1124–30
|date=November 2008
|pmid=19076484
|pmc=2605635
|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x
|last1=Friend
|first1=A
|last2=Defries
|first2=J. C.
|last3=Olson
|first3=R. K.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and teaching quality&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|bibcode=2010Sci...328..512T
|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading
|journal=Science
|volume=328
|issue=5977
|pages=512–4
|last1=Taylor
|first1=J.
|last2=Roehrig
|first2=A. D.
|last3=Hensler
|first3=B. Soden
|last4=Connor
|first4=C. M.
|last5=Schatschneider
|first5=C.
|year=2010
|doi=10.1126/science.1186149
|pmid=20413504
|pmc=2905841
}}&lt;/ref&gt; have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.&lt;ref name=pmid19209992&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pennington
|first1=Bruce F.
|last2=McGrath
|first2=Lauren M.
|last3=Rosenberg
|first3=Jenni
|last4=Barnard
|first4=Holly
|last5=Smith
|first5=Shelley D.
|last6=Willcutt
|first6=Erik G.
|last7=Friend
|first7=Angela
|last8=Defries
|first8=John C.
|last9=Olson
|first9=Richard K.
|date=January 2009
|title=Gene × Environment Interactions in Reading Disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Developmental Psychology
|volume=45
|issue=1
|pages=77–89
|doi=10.1037/a0014549
|pmid=19209992
|pmc=2743891
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.&lt;ref name=pmid19209992/&gt; 

As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that [[w:epigenetic|epigenetic]] modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of [[w:gene expression|gene expression]], [[wikipedia:Histone#Histone_modification|histone modifications]], and [[w:methylation|methylation]] in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last=Roth
|first=Tania L.
|last2=Roth
|first2=Eric D.
|last3=Sweatt
|first3=J. David
|date=September 2010
|title=Epigenetic regulation of genes in learning and memory
|journal=Essays in Biochemistry
|volume=48
|issue=1
|pages=263–74
|pmid=20822498
|doi=10.1042/bse0480263
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Smith
|first=Shelley D.
|date=2011-12
|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders
|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
|volume=3
|issue=4
|pages=356–364
|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y
|issn=1866-1947
|pmc=3261263
|pmid=22113455
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
====Language====
The [[w:orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Paulesu|first1= Eraldo|last2= Brunswick|first2= Nicola |last3= Paganelli|first3= Federica|date=2010|chapter=Cross-cultural differences in unimpaired and dyslexic reading: Behavioral and functional anatomical observations in readers of regular and irregular orthographies|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|editor1-first=Nicola|editor1-last= Brunswick|editor2-first= Siné|editor2-last= McDougall|editor3-first= Paul|editor3-last= de Mornay Davies|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781135167813|doi=10.4324/9780203858462-23|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|266}} English and French have comparatively &quot;deep&quot; [[w:phonemic orthographies|phonemic orthographies]] within the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] [[w:writing system|writing system]], with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and [[w:morpheme|morpheme]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;DickinsonNeuman2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Juel, Connie
|chapter=The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading
|editor1=David K. Dickinson
|editor2=Susan B. Neuman
|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA421
|year=2013
|publisher=Guilford Publications
|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109162332/https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA421
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|421}} Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish have mostly alphabetic orthographies, which primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called &quot;shallow&quot; orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;/&gt;{{rp|266}}  [[w:Logograph|Logograph]]ic writing systems, such as [[w:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]], have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Annual Research Review: The nature and classification of reading disorders – a commentary on proposals for DSM-5
|journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
|date = 1 May 2012
|pmc = 3492851
|pmid = 22141434
|pages = 593–607
|volume = 53
|issue = 5
|doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x
|first = Margaret J
|last = Snowling
|first2 = Charles
|last2 = Hulme
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Pathophysiology==
{{fig
 |number      =  2
 |image       = Gray733.png
 |caption     = Corpus callosum view, front part at top of image
 |attribution = Public domain
 |align       = right
 |size        = 150px
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}

Most people who are right-hand dominant have the left hemisphere of their brain specialize more in language processing. In terms of the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization may be less pronounced or even absent in cases with dyslexia. Additionally, anatomical differences in the [[wikipedia:Corpus_callosum|corpus callosum]], the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres, have been linked to dyslexia via different studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;habi&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Habib
|first1=Michael
|title=Pediatric Neurology Part I
|volume=111
|chapter=Dyslexia
|date=2013
|pages=229–235
|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444528919000233
|accessdate=19 December 2018
|language=en
|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00023-3
|pmid=23622168
|series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology
|isbn=9780444528919
}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading/language. Finally, the left [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|inferior frontal gyrus]] has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=habi/&gt; Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia thus identifying the effects of certain genes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape
|journal = Journal of Medical Genetics
|date = 2007
|pmc = 2597981
|pmid = 17307837
|pages = 289–297
|volume = 44
|issue = 5
|doi = 10.1136/jmg.2006.046516
|first = Johannes
|last = Schumacher
|first2 = Per
|last2 = Hoffmann
|first3 = Christine
|last3 = Schmäl
|first4 = Gerd
|last4 = Schulte‐Körne
|first5 = Markus M
|last5 = Nöthen
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Dual route theory===

The dual-route theory of [[w:Reading (process)|reading]] aloud was first described in the early 1970s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pritchard 2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|author=Pritchard SC
|author2=Coltheart M
|author3=Palethorpe S
|author4=Castles A
|title=Nonword reading: comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data
|journal=J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform
|volume=38
|issue=5
|pages=1268–88
|date=October 2012
|pmid=22309087
|doi=10.1037/a0026703
|last2=Coltheart
|last3=Palethorpe
|last4=Castles
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013z&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Eysenck, Michael
|author2=Keane, Mark T.
|title=Cognitive Psychology 6e
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA373
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7
|page=373
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109123837/https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA373
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a &quot;dictionary&quot; lookup procedure.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Eysenck, Michael
|author2=Keane, Mark T.
|title=Cognitive Psychology 6e
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA450
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7
|page=450
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109170422/https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA450
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can &quot;sound out&quot; a written word.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;HulmeJoshi2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Hulme
|editor1-first=Charles
|editor2-last=Joshi
|editor2-first=R. Malatesha
|editor3-last=Snowling
|editor3-first=Margaret J.
|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&amp;pg=PT151
|year=2012
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|doi=10.4324/9780203053782-16|last1=Felton|first1=Rebecca H.|chapter=The Development of Reading Skills in Poor Readers: Educational Implications
|page=151
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109141419/https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&amp;pg=PT151
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, [[w:phonemes|phonemes]], [[w:graphemes|graphemes]]) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pritchard 2012&quot; /&gt; The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers).&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Sprenger-Charolles
|first1=Liliane
|title=Prevalence and Reliability of Phonological, Surface, and Mixed Profiles in Dyslexia: A Review of Studies Conducted in Languages Varying in Orthographic Depth
|journal=Scientific Studies of Reading
|date=2011
|pages=498–521
|doi=10.1080/10888438.2010.524463
|volume=15
|issue=6
|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00733553
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830150246/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00733553
|archivedate=30 August 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Diagnosis==
===Classification===

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rose&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Boada
|first=Richard
|last2=Willcutt
|first2=Erik G.
|last3=Pennington
|first3=Bruce F.
|date=2012
|title=Understanding the Comorbidity Between Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Topics in Language Disorders
|quote=... Pennington proposed a multiple deficit model for complex disorders like dyslexia, hypothesizing that such complex disorders are heterogeneous conditions that arise from the additive and interactive effects of multiple genetic and environmental risk factors, which then lead to weaknesses in multiple cognitive domains.
|volume=32
|issue=3
|page=270
|doi=10.1097/tld.0b013e31826203ac
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Pennington
|first=B
|date=September 2006
|title=From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders
|journal=Cognition
|volume=101
|issue=2
|pages=385–413
|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008
|pmid=16844106
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (''phonological processing''); and verbal working memory deficits.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Peterson
|first=Robin L.
|last2=Pennington
|first2=Bruce F.
|date=28 March 2015
|title=Developmental Dyslexia
|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842
|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
|volume=11
|issue=1
|pages=283–307
|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842
|ssrn=2588407
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;very-short&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Snowling|first1= Margaret J.|title=Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|date= 2019|isbn=9780192550422|doi=10.1093/actrade/9780198818304.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is a [[w:neurodevelopmental disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]], subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a ''learning disorder with impairment in reading'' (ICD-11 prefixes &quot;developmental&quot; to &quot;learning disorder&quot;; DSM-5 uses &quot;specific&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1008636089
|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading
|work=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics)
|publisher=World Health Organization
|access-date=2019-10-07
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5.
|date=2013
|publisher=American Psychiatric Association
|quote=Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in reading ... Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities.
|isbn=9780890425541
|edition=5th
|location=Arlington, VA
|oclc=830807378
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=FragaGonzález
|first=Gorka
|last2=Karipidis
|first2=Iliana
|last3=Tijms
|first3=Jurgen
|date=2018-10-19
|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder
|journal=Brain Sciences
|volume=8
|issue=10
|pages=189
|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189
|issn=2076-3425
|pmc=6209961
|pmid=30347764
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is not a problem with [[w:intelligence|intelligence]]. [[w:Emotional and behavioral disorders|Emotional problems]] often arise secondary to learning difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;Campbell2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Campbell
|first1=Robert Jean
|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&amp;pg=PA310
|year=2009
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1
|pages=310–312
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101113/https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&amp;pg=PA310
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke|National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] describes dyslexia as &quot;difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;ninds1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page
|last=
|first=
|date=11 September 2015
|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|access-date=
|accessdate=27 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|archivedate=27 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as &quot;a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling&quot; and is characterized by &quot;difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;PhillipsKelly2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Phillips, Sylvia
|author2=Kelly, Kathleen
|author3=Symes, Liz
|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7
|year=2013
|publisher=SAGE
|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0
|page=7
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109093024/https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Phonological awareness'' enables one to identify, discriminate, remember ([[w:working memory|working memory]]), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—[[w:phonemes|phonemes]], [[w:onsite-rime|onsite-rime]] segments, syllables, and words.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Stahl
|first1=Steven A.
|last2=Murray
|first2=Bruce A.
|title=Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading.
|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology
|volume=86
|issue=2
|pages=221–234
|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.221
|date=1994
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|title=Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Perception in 4-Year-Old Children With Delayed Expressive Phonology Skills
|journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
|date=1 November 2003
|volume=12
|issue=4
|pages=463–471
|doi=10.1044/1058-0360(2003/092)
|pmid=14658998
|last1=Rvachew
|first1=Susan
|last2=Ohberg
|first2=Alyssa
|last3=Grawburg
|first3=Meghann
|last4=Heyding
|first4=Joan
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Assessment===

====Principles of Assessment====
* Strive for a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s); school psychologist; pediatrician; and, as appropriate, [[w:Speech-language pathology|speech and language pathologist (speech therapist)]]; and [[w:Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]].&lt;ref name=&quot;iding&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first3=Catherine|last3= Christo|first2= John M.|last2= Davis|first1= Stephen E.|last1= Brock|title=Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at School|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|date=2009|page=59|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-88600-8|isbn=978-0-387-88600-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Possess a thorough familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones (write first name; draw a square), and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognize rhyming words; identify the initial sounds in words).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Mather|first1= Nancy |first2=Barbara J. |last2=Wendling|title=Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention|location=Hoboken, NJ|publisher= John Wiley &amp; Sons|date= 2012|isbn=978-0470927601}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Avoid over-reliance on tests. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reid|first1= Gavin|first2= Jennie|last2= Guise|title=The Dyslexia Assessment|location=London|publisher= Bloomsbury|date= 2017|isbn=978-1472945082}} (&quot;... assessment for dyslexia includes more than tests; it involves comprehensive insights into the student's learning. This requires a full and comprehensive individual assessment as well as consideration of the environment and contextual factors.&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=M. S.|last1= Thambirajah|title=Developmental Assessment of the School-Aged Child with Developmental Disabilities: A Clinician's Guide|location=London|publisher= Jessica Kingsley|date= 2011|page= 74|isbn=978-1849051811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Take advantage of the empirically supported &quot;response to intervention&quot; (RTI) approach,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Jimerson|first1= Shane R.|first2= Matthew K. |last2=Burns|first3= Amanda M.|last3= VanDerHeyden|title=Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher= Springer Science+Business Media|date= 2016|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7568-3|isbn=978-1-4899-7568-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Snowling |first1=Margaret J. |title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view: Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view |journal=Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs |date=2013 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Assessment instruments (tests)====
There are a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility that a person might have dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;testing&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests
|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities
|publisher=University of Michigan
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313000802/http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests
|archivedate=13 March 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;PeerReid2013p&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Peer, Lindsay
|author2=Reid, Gavin
|title=Introduction to Dyslexia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT35
|year=2013
|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|doi=10.4324/9780203962695
|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3
|pages=35–40
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109134343/https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT35
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.&lt;ref name=balexia/&gt; Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.&lt;ref name=&quot;balexia&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Screening and assessment
|url=http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
|website=British Dyslexia Association
|accessdate=11 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330101403/http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
|archivedate=30 March 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Fletcher
|first1=Jack
|title=Dyslexia: the evolution of a scientific concept
|journal=Journal of International Neuropsychology Society
|date=2009
|pages=501–508
|pmc=3079378
|pmid=19573267
|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900
|volume=15
|issue=4
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include:&lt;ref name=&quot;gerd&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Schulte-Körne
|first1=Gerd
|title=The Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Dyslexia
|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
|date=October 2010
|volume=107
|issue=41
|pages=718–727
|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
|pmid=21046003
|pmc=2967798
|issn=1866-0452
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*General measures of cognitive ability, such as the [[wikipedia:Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children|Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]], [[wikipedia:Woodcock–Johnson_Tests_of_Cognitive_Abilities|Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities]], or [[wikipedia:Stanford–Binet_Intelligence_Scales|Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_26|last1=Mather|first1= N.|last2= Schneider|first2= D.|chapter= The use of intelligence tests in the diagnosis of specific reading disability
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts#v=onepage&amp;q=Handbook%20of%20Intelligence%3A%20Evolutionary%20theory%2C%20historical%20perspective%2C%20and%20current%20concepts&amp;f=false
|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts
|editor1-last=Goldstein
|editor1-first=Sam
|editor2-last=Princiotta
|editor2-first=Dana
|editor3-last=Naglieri
|editor3-first=Jack A.
|date=2014
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=9781493915620
|pages=415–433
|language=en
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the [[wikipedia:Strengths_and_Difficulties_Questionnaire|Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire]]. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the [[wikipedia:Vanderbilt_ADHD_diagnostic_rating_scale|Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales]] or the [[wikipedia:Screen_for_child_anxiety_related_disorders|Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)]]. [[wikipedia:Screening_(medicine)|Screening]] uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Collett
|first1=Brent R.
|last2=Ohan
|first2=Jeneva L.
|last3=Myers
|first3=Kathleen M.
|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry
|date=1 September 2003
|volume=42
|issue=9
|pages=1015–1037
|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6
|pmid=12960702
|url=https://jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/fulltext
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=English
|issn=0890-8567
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Stone
|first1=Lisanne L
|last2=Janssens
|first2=Jan M A M
|last3=Vermulst
|first3=Ad A
|last4=Van Der Maten
|first4=Marloes
|last5=Engels
|first5=Rutger C M E
|last6=Otten
|first6=Roy
|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4–7
|journal=BMC Psychology
|date=20 February 2015
|volume=3
|issue=1
|pages=4
|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8
|pmid=25815194
|pmc=4364334
|issn=2050-7283
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Swart
|first1=G. T.
|title=The Clinician's Guide To The Behavior Assessment System For Children
|journal=The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review
|date=NaN
|volume=14
|issue=3
|pages=90
|issn=1716-9119
|pmc=2542918
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Birmaher
|first1=B.
|last2=Khetarpal
|first2=S.
|last3=Brent
|first3=D.
|last4=Cully
|first4=M.
|last5=Balach
|first5=L.
|last6=Kaufman
|first6=J.
|last7=Neer
|first7=S. M.
|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics
|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
|date=NaN
|volume=36
|issue=4
|pages=545–553
|doi=10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018
|pmid=9100430
|issn=0890-8567
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking &lt;16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the [[wikipedia:Iowa_Tests_of_Educational_Development|Iowa Tests of Educational Development]], that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the [[wikipedia:Wide_Range_Achievement_Test|Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[wikipedia:Woodcock–Johnson_Tests_of_Cognitive_Abilities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Lindquist
|first1=E. F.
|title=The Iowa tests of educational development: how to use the test results; a manual for teachers and counselors
|date=1953
|publisher=Science Research Associates
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&amp;q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development&amp;dq=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=en
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Dell
|first1=Cindy Ann
|last2=Harrold
|first2=Barbara
|last3=Dell
|first3=Thomas
|title=Test Review: Wilkinson, G. S., &amp; Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test—Fourth Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. WRAT4 Introductory Kit (includes manual, 25 test/response forms [blue and green], and accompanying test materials): $243.00
|journal=Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
|date=1 October 2008
|volume=52
|issue=1
|pages=57–60
|doi=10.1177/0034355208320076
|language=en
|issn=0034-3552
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Semrud-Clikeman
|first1=Margaret
|last2=Ellison
|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter
|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders|edition= 2nd
|date=2009|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-88963-4
|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media
|isbn=9780387889634
|page=119
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&amp;pg=PT119#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=en
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Screening==
Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.&lt;ref name=&quot;iding&quot; /&gt; In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consist of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.&lt;ref name=&quot;very-short&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93–94}}&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/190599/Letters_and_Sounds_-_DFES-00281-2007.pdf Letters and Sounds: Principles and Practice of High Quality Phonics], Ref: DFES-00281-2007 (00281-2007BKT-EN), Primary National Strategy, Department for Education and Skills (United Kingdom), 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the ''Phonics screening check''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/phonics-screening-check-2019-materials
|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials
|work=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency
|access-date=14 October 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt; used by United Kingdom schools during [[w:Year One (education)|Year One]].

In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that &quot;[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s.&quot; Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/747410566
|title=Developmental assessment of the school-aged child with developmental disabilities : a clinician's guide
|last=Thambirajah, M. S.
|date=2011
|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers
|isbn=9780857003256
|location=London
|oclc=747410566
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Management ==
Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Bogon
|first1=Johana
|title=TVA based assessment of visual attention functions in developmental dyslexia
|journal=Frontiers in Psychology
|date=October 2014
|pmc=4199262
|pmid=25360129
|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172
|volume=5
|pages=1172
}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brunswick2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1=Brunswick, Nicola|first1=Fiona|last1= White|first2=Richard|last2= Mendez|first3=Rosanne|last3= Rieley|chapter=Preparing for Work: Dyslexic Undergraduates Making the Transition into Employment
|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&amp;pg=PA115
|accessdate=10 April 2012
|date=10 April 2012
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|doi=10.1002/9781119945000.ch12
|pages=112–122
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231081312/http://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&amp;pg=PA115
|archivedate=31 December 2013
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.&lt;ref name=pmid21046003&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Schulte-Körne
|first1=G
|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia
|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
|date=October 2010
|pages=718–26
|pmc=2967798
|pmid=21046003
|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
|volume=107
|issue=41
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For [[w:dyslexia intervention|dyslexia intervention]] with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between [[w:grapheme|grapheme]]s (letters) and [[w:phoneme|phoneme]]s (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.&lt;ref name=Lyytinen&gt;{{Cite book
|author=Lyytinen, Heikki
|author2=Erskine, Jane
|author3=Aro, Mikko
|author4=Richardson, Ulla
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&amp;pg=PA454
|chapter=Reading and reading disorders|doi=10.1002/9780470757833.ch22
|editor-last=Hoff
|editor-first=Erika
|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development
|pages=454–474
|publisher=Blackwell
|place=
|year=2009
|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204820/https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&amp;pg=PA454
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=van der Leij
|first1=Aryan
|title=Dyslexia and early intervention: what did we learn from the Dutch Dyslexia Programme?
|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date=1 November 2013
|volume=19
|issue=4
|pages=241–255
|doi=10.1002/dys.1466
|pmid=24133037
|issn=1099-0909
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There is some evidence that the use of specially-tailored fonts may help with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Renske&gt;{{Cite journal
|first=Renske
|last=de Leeuw
|title=Special Font For Dyslexia?
|place=[[University of Twente]]
|page=32
|date=December 2010
|language=English, Dutch
|url=http://www.ilo.gw.utwente.nl/ilo/attachments/032_Masterthesis_Leeuw.pdf
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101034537/http://www.ilo.gw.utwente.nl/ilo/attachments/032_Masterthesis_Leeuw.pdf
|archivedate=1 November 2011
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These fonts, which include [[w:Dyslexie|Dyslexie]], [[w:OpenDyslexic|OpenDyslexic]], and [[w:Lexie Readable|Lexie Readable]], were created based on the idea that many of the letters of the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] are visually similar and may, therefore, confuse people with dyslexia. Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic both put emphasis on making each letter more distinctive in order to be more easily identified.&lt;ref name=sawers&gt;{{cite web
|last=Sawers
|first=Paul
|title=Dyslexie: A typeface for dyslexics
|url=https://thenextweb.com/shareables/2011/06/30/dyslexie-a-typeface-for-dyslexics/
|accessdate=9 April 2012
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413154354/http://thenextweb.com/shareables/2011/06/30/dyslexie-a-typeface-for-dyslexics/
|archivedate=13 April 2012
|df=dmy-all
|date=2011-06-30
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The benefits, however, might largely be due to the added spacing between words.&lt;ref name=Mar2016/&gt; In terms of music and any possible positive effects on people with dyslexia, until now there is currently no evidence or data showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of  adolescents with dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Music education for improving reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia
|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
|issue=8
|last=Cogo-Moreira
|first=Hugo
|last2=Andriolo
|first2=Régis B
|last3=Yazigi
|first3=Latife
|last4=Ploubidis
|first4=George B
|last5=Brandão de Ávila
|first5=Clara Regina
|last6=Mari
|first6=Jair J
|date=15 August 2012
|pages=CD009133
|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd009133.pub2
|pmid=22895983
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Prognosis==
Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=O’Hare
|first1=Anne
|title=Dyslexia: what do paediatricians need to know?
|journal=Pediatrics and Child Health
|date=2010
|pages=338–343
|doi=10.1016/j.paed.2010.04.004
|volume=20
|issue=7
}}&lt;/ref&gt; While there are fonts that may help people with dyslexia better understand writing, this might simply be due to the added spacing between words.&lt;ref name=Renske/&gt;&lt;ref name=Mar2016&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Marinus
|first1=E
|last2=Mostard
|first2=M
|last3=Segers
|first3=E
|last4=Schubert
|first4=TM
|last5=Madelaine
|first5=A
|last6=Wheldall
|first6=K
|title=A Special Font for People with Dyslexia: Does it Work and, if so, why?
|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date=August 2016
|volume=22
|issue=3
|pages=233–44
|pmid=27194598
|doi=10.1002/dys.1527
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; The New York educational system (NYED) indicates &quot;a daily uninterrupted 90 minute block of instruction in reading&quot;, furthermore &quot;instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency&quot; so as to improve the individuals reading ability.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED
|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm
|website=www.p12.nysed.gov
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Epidemiology==
The percentage of people with dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title = Psychiatry, 2 Volume Set
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ
|publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons
|date = 29 January 2015
|isbn = 9781118845493
|first = Allan
|last = Tasman
|first2 = Jerald
|last2 = Kay
|first3 = Jeffrey A.
|last3 = Lieberman
|first4 = Michael B.
|last4 = First
|first5 = Michelle
|last5 = Riba
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906081853/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ
|archivedate = 6 September 2015
|df = dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; While it is diagnosed more often in males,&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt; some believe that it affects males and females equally.

There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world, but despite significant differences in writing systems, dyslexia occurs in different populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Protopapas
|first1=Athanassios
|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
|date=2013
|pmid=24324245
|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090
|pmc=3866431
|volume=369
|issue=1634
|pages=20130090
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting [[w:Chinese character|Chinese character]]s into their meanings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Zhao
|first1=Jing
|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition.
|journal=Scientific Reports
|date=November 2014
|pmc=4238300
|pmid=25412386
|doi=10.1038/srep07068
|volume=4
|pages=7068
|bibcode = 2014NatSR...4E7068Z
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall2012l&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Marshall, Chloë R.|doi=10.4324/9780203100288-14|chapter=Issues of culture and language in developmental disorders: The case of dyslexia in Chinese learners|last1=Wong|first1=Simpson W. L.|first2=Moon X. Y.|last2=Xiao|first3=Kevin K. H.|last3=Chung
|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7
|pages=
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&amp;pg=PA152
|page=152
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109144200/https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&amp;pg=PA152
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title = Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood
|url = https://books.google.com/?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&amp;pg=PA177
|publisher = Jason Aronson
|date = 16 January 2012
|isbn = 9780765708663
|first = Elena
|last = Garralda
|first2 = Jean-Philippe
|last2 = Raynaud
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies
|journal = CoDAS
|pages = 509–519
|volume = 26
|issue = 6
|doi = 10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135
|pmid = 25590915
|first = Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto
|last = Navas
|first2 = Érica de Cássia
|last2 = Ferraz
|first3 = Juliana Postigo Amorina
|last3 = Borges
|first4 = Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto
|last4 = Navas
|first5 = Érica de Cássia
|last5 = Ferraz
|first6 = Juliana Postigo Amorina
|last6 = Borges
|year = 2014
|df = dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Research and social perceptions==
{{fig
 |number      = 3
 |image       = Writing Systems Template Image.svg
 |caption     = Writing Systems
 |attribution = ThisIsNotEditorX, CC BY-SA-4.0
 |align       = right
 |size        = 140 px
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}
Most currently available dyslexia research relates to [[w:Writing system|alphabetic writing system]]s, and especially to [[w:Languages of Europe|European languages]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Reid2012a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Reid
|first1=Gavin
|title=The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&amp;pg=PA16
|year=2012
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-61710-2
|page=16
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109205019/https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&amp;pg=PA16
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Richlan
|first1=Fabio
|title=Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia; the role of orthographic depth
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=May 2014
|pmid=24904383
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347
|pmc=4033006
|volume=8
|pages=347
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The outward expression of individuals with reading disability and regular poor readers is the same in some respects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Reading Difficulty and Disability
|url=https://report.nih.gov/NIHfactsheets/Pdfs/ReadingDifficultyandDisability(NICHD).pdf
|website=report.nih.gov
|publisher=NIH
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.&lt;ref name=pmid21046003/&gt; There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=de Berr
|first1=J
|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia
|journal=BMC Public Health
|date=2014
|pmc=3913008
|pmid=24460949
|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77
|volume=14
|pages=77
}}&lt;/ref&gt; If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = The Inclusion of Students with Dyslexia in Higher Education: A Systematic Review Using Narrative Synthesis
|journal = Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date = 1 November 2014
|pmc = 4253321
|pmid = 25293652
|pages = 346–369
|volume = 20
|issue = 4
|doi = 10.1002/dys.1484
|first = Marco
|last = Pino
|first2 = Luigina
|last2 = Mortari
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Ramus|first1=F|last2=Altarelli|first2=I|last3=Jednoróg|first3=K|last4=Zhao|first4=J|last5=di Covella|first5=LS|date=7 August 2017|title=Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: pitfalls and promise.|url=http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/answers/faq|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=84|pages=434–452|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001|issn=1873-7528|pmid=28797557|accessdate=31 August 2017|via=}}This article is published ahead of print
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|author=Alan Beaton|date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research|author=Thomas Richard Miles|date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|location=|pages=|authorlink=Thomas Richard Miles}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice|author1=Gavin Reid|author2=Angela Fawcett|date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&amp;pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|author=Michael Thomson|date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia|author=Gavin Reid|date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&amp;C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties|author=Mark Selikowitz|date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis|author=Andrew W. Ellis|date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate|author1=Julian G. Elliott|author2=Elena L. Grigorenko|date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|location=|pages=|authorlink=Julian Elliott}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Norton|first1=Elizabeth S.|last2=Beach|first2=Sara D.|last3=Gabrieli|first3=John D. E.|date=1 February 2015|title=Neurobiology of dyslexia|url=|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|volume=30|pages=73–78|doi=10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007|issn=1873-6882|pmc=4293303|hdl=1721.1/102416|pmid=25290881}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Serrallach|first1=Bettina|last2=Groß|first2=Christine|last3=Bernhofs|first3=Valdis|last4=Engelmann|first4=Dorte|last5=Benner|first5=Jan|last6=Gündert|first6=Nadine|last7=Blatow|first7=Maria|last8=Wengenroth|first8=Martina|last9=Seitz|first9=Angelika|date=15 July 2016|title=Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children|url=|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=10|pages=324|doi=10.3389/fnins.2016.00324|issn=1662-4548|pmc=4945653|pmid=27471442|last10=Brunner|first10=Monika|last11=Seither|first11=Stefan|last12=Parncutt|first12=Richard|last13=Schneider|first13=Peter|last14=Seither-Preisler|first14=Annemarie}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Shao|first1=Shanshan|last2=Niu|first2=Yanfeng|last3=Zhang|first3=Xiaohui|last4=Kong|first4=Rui|last5=Wang|first5=Jia|last6=Liu|first6=Lingfei|last7=Luo|first7=Xiu|last8=Zhang|first8=Jiajia|last9=Song|first9=Ranran|date=28 July 2016|title=Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population|url=|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=30454|bibcode=2016NatSR...630454S|doi=10.1038/srep30454|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4964335|pmid=27464509}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Brewer|first1=Carmen C.|last2=Zalewski|first2=Christopher K.|last3=King|first3=Kelly A.|last4=Zobay|first4=Oliver|last5=Riley|first5=Alison|last6=Ferguson|first6=Melanie A.|last7=Bird|first7=Jonathan E.|last8=McCabe|first8=Margaret M.|last9=Hood|first9=Linda J.|date=11 October 2016|title=Heritability of Non-Speech Auditory Processing Skills|url=|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=24|issue=8|pages=1137–1144|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2015.277|issn=1018-4813|pmc=4872837|pmid=26883091|last10=Drayna|first10=Dennis|last11=Griffith|first11=Andrew J.|last12=Morell|first12=Robert J.|last13=Friedman|first13=Thomas B.|last14=Moore|first14=David R.}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Mascheretti|first1=S.|last2=De Luca|first2=A.|last3=Trezzi|first3=V.|last4=Peruzzo|first4=D.|last5=Nordio|first5=A.|last6=Marino|first6=C.|last7=Arrigoni|first7=F.|date=3 January 2017|title=Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms|journal=Translational Psychiatry|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=e987|doi=10.1038/tp.2016.240|pmid=28045463|pmc=5545717}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Fraga González|first1=Gorka|last2=Žarić|first2=Gojko|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|last4=Bonte|first4=Milene|last5=van der Molen|first5=Maurits W.|date=18 January 2017|title=Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies|url=|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=7|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.3390/brainsci7010010|pmc=5297299|pmid=28106790|accessdate=}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Rudov|first1=A|last2=Rocchi|first2=MB|last3=Accorsi|first3=A|last4=Spada|first4=G|last5=Procopio|first5=AD|last6=Olivieri|first6=F|last7=Rippo|first7=MR|last8=Albertini|first8=MC|date=October 2013|title=Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment.|journal=Epigenetics|volume=8|issue=10|pages=1023–9|doi=10.4161/epi.26026|issn=1559-2308|pmid=23949389|pmc=3891682}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Vágvölgyi|first1=R|last2=Coldea|first2=A|last3=Dresler|first3=T|last4=Schrader|first4=J|last5=Nuerk|first5=HC|date=2016|title=A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects|url=|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=7|pages=1617|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617|pmc=5102880|pmid=27891100|accessdate=}}
{{refend}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2409318</id>
      <parentid>2409316</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T23:05:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>+doi, tidy refs</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="89986" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
|journal         = WikiJournal of Medicine
|last1           = Anis
|first1          = Ozzie
|orcid1          = 0000-0002-4061-2429
|et_al           = true
|correspondence1 = by [[w:Special:EmailUser/Ozzie10aaaa|online form]]
|submitted       = 30 October 2018
|accepted        = 15 October 2019
|doi             = 10.15347/wjm/2019.005
|keywords        = Dyslexia,speech, learning
|w1              = Dyslexia
|abstract        =

'''Dyslexia''' is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulty learning to read and spell.{{efn|This article is about ''developmental dyslexia'', i.e., dyslexia that begins in early childhood,&lt;ref&gt;Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. &quot;[https://oed.com/view/Entry/331223 dyslexia, ''n'']. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012 (&quot;a learning disability specifically affecting the attainment of literacy, with difficulty esp. in word recognition, spelling, and the conversion of letters to sounds, occurring in a child with otherwise normal development, and now usually regarded as a neurodevelopmental disorder with a genetic component.&quot;)&lt;/ref&gt; as opposed to ''acquired dyslexia''. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of developmental disorder, but acquired dyslexia is a substantially different condition, generally requiring different assessment strategies and different treatment approaches than developmental dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Woollams
|first=Anna M.
|date=2014-01-19
|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia
|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2012.0398
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
|language=en
|volume=369
|issue=1634
|pages=20120398
|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398
|issn=0962-8436
|pmc=PMC3866427
|pmid=24324241
}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Rose&quot;&gt;Sir Jim Rose, [http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14790/7/00659-2009DOM-EN_Redacted.pdf ''Identifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties''] (An independent report from Sir Jim Rose to the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, 2009).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Webster's Third New International Dictionary. &quot;[[mwod:dyslexia|dyslexia, noun]]&quot;. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016 (&quot;a variable often familial learning disability involving difficulties in acquiring and processing language that is typically manifested by a lack of proficiency in reading, spelling, and writing&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Longe, Jacqueline L., ed. &quot;[https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/dyslexia Dyslexia]&quot;. Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. 3rd ed. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2006. {{ISBN|9781414403687}} (&quot;Dyslexia is a learning disorder characterized by problems in processing words into meaningful information. This is most strongly reflected in difficulty in learning to read.&quot;)&lt;/ref&gt; Underlying deficits typically include impaired [[w:Phonological_awareness|phonological awareness]] (an awareness of the sound structure of words) and processing; difficulty with verbal working memory; and slow verbal processing speed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Moll
|first=Kristina
|last2=Göbel
|first2=Silke M.
|last3=Gooch
|first3=Debbie
|last4=Landerl
|first4=Karin
|last5=Snowling
|first5=Margaret J.
|date=May 2016
|title=Cognitive Risk Factors for Specific Learning Disorder: Processing Speed, Temporal Processing, and Working Memory
|journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities
|volume=49
|issue=3
|pages=272–281
|doi=10.1177/0022219414547221
|pmid=25124507
|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43639/1/Moll_Cognitive.pdf
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Observable problems include frequent spelling errors that same-age children do not exhibit; difficulty learning how to decode individual words, including &quot;sounding out&quot; words; and struggling to pronounce words correctly and fluently when reading aloud. Deficits in reading comprehension often occur as a secondary consequence.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Dyslexia - Symptoms
|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/symptoms/
|website=nhs.uk
|accessdate=9 October 2019
|language=en
|date=15 August 2018
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous disorder, which means that not all people with dyslexia have the same signs, symptoms, underlying deficits, or functional impairment. Children and adults with dyslexia exhibit higher rates of [[w:comorbidity|comorbid]] conditions such as developmental language disorders; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD);&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Moura
|first=Octávio
|last2=Pereira
|first2=Marcelino
|last3=Alfaiate
|first3=Cláudia
|last4=Fernandes
|first4=Eva
|last5=Fernandes
|first5=Boavida
|last6=Nogueira
|first6=Susana
|last7=Moreno
|first7=Joana
|last8=Simões
|first8=Mário R.
|date=March 2017
|title=Neurocognitive functioning in children with developmental dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Multiple deficits and diagnostic accuracy
|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
|volume=39
|issue=3
|pages=296–312
|doi=10.1080/13803395.2016.1225007
|pmid=27617883
|hdl=10316/47224
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Araujo|first1= Alexandra Prufer de Queiroz Campos|title= Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia: a history of overlap|journal=Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria|volume= 70|issue= 2 |date=2012|pages= 83-84|doi=10.1590/S0004-282X2012000200001}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sexton
|first=Chris C.
|last2=Gelhorn
|first2=Heather L.
|last3=Bell
|first3=Jill A.
|last4=Classi
|first4=Peter M.
|date=November 2012
|title=The Co-occurrence of Reading Disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, Treatment, Psychosocial Impact, and Economic Burden
|journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities
|volume=45
|issue=6
|pages=538–564
|doi=10.1177/0022219411407772
|pmid=21757683
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and difficulties with motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration, and personal organization, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia. Dyslexia manifests on a continuum of severity—it is a dimensional disorder.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Fletcher
|first=Jack M.
|date=July 2009
|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept
|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society
|volume=15
|issue=4
|pages=501–508
|quote=... international epidemiological studies have shown that dyslexia is dimensional and exists as the lower end of a normal continuum of reading ability
|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900
|pmc=3079378
|pmid=19573267
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Snowling
|first=Margaret J.
|date=January 2013
|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view
|journal=Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs
|volume=13
|issue=1
|pages=7–14
|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x
|pmc=4538781
|pmid=26290655
|quote=In short, dyslexia is not a clear-cut diagnostic category. Rather, in keeping with other neurodevelopmental disorders that affect learning, it can be thought of as the behavioural outcome of a multiple risk factors, both genetic and environmental. It is also increasingly recognised that dyslexia co-occurs with other disorders; in particular, many children with dyslexia have language impairments, symptoms of inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and problems of motor coordination. This nuanced view of dyslexia as a dimension that has continuities and comorbidities with other disorders has significant implications for contemporary theory and practice. (p. 4 of author's copy on PMC) (citations omitted)
}}&lt;/ref&gt; People with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.&lt;ref name=&quot;ninds1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page
|last=
|first=
|date=11 September 2015
|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|access-date=
|accessdate=27 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|archivedate=27 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Paul A. |last2=Hulme |first2=Charles |last3=Nash |first3=Hannah M. |last4=Gooch |first4=Debbie |last5=Hayiou‐Thomas |first5=Emma |last6=Snowling |first6=Margaret J. |title=Developmental dyslexia: predicting individual risk |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |date=2015 |volume=56 |issue=9 |pages=976–987 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.12412}} (&quot;Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder which runs in families; the consensus view for many years has been that it is the behavioral outcome of an underlying phonological deficit.&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NIH2014Def&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/disorders.aspx
|title=What are reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402125917/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/disorders.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lancet2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Peterson
|first1=Robin L.
|last2=Pennington
|first2=Bruce F.
|title=Developmental dyslexia
|journal=Lancet
|volume=379
|issue=9830
|pages=1997–2007
|date=May 2012
|pmid=22513218
|pmc=3465717
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is believed to be caused by both [[w:genetics|genetic]] and environmental factors, and their [[w:Gene–environment interaction|interaction]].&lt;ref name=Lancet2012 /&gt; Dyslexia often runs in families.&lt;ref name=NIH2014Def/&gt; Dyslexia that develops subsequent to a [[w:traumatic brain injury|traumatic brain injury]], [[w:stroke|stroke]], or [[w:dementia|dementia]] is usually called ''acquired dyslexia''.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia are problems within the [[w:brain|brain]]'s language processing.&lt;ref name=NIH2014Def/&gt; Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, spelling, and reading skills.&lt;ref name=NIH2015Diag&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx
|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by [[w:hearing problems|hearing]] or [[w:vision problem|vision problem]]s or by insufficient [[w:Reading education|teaching]] or opportunity to learn.&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt;

Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx
|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Treatments targeting vision are not effective.&lt;ref name=Handler2011&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Handler
|first1=SM
|last2=Fierson
|first2=WM
|last3=Section on
|first3=Ophthalmology
|last4=Council on Children with
|first4=Disabilities
|last5=American Academy of
|first5=Ophthalmology
|last6=American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and
|first6=Strabismus
|last7=American Association of Certified
|first7=Orthoptists
|title=Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision.
|journal=Pediatrics
|date=March 2011
|volume=127
|issue=3
|pages=e818–56
|pmid=21357342
|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-3670
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is the most common [[w:learning disability|learning disability]] and occurs in all areas of the world.&lt;ref name=UmphredLazaro2013m&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Umphred, Darcy Ann
|author2=Lazaro, Rolando T.
|author3=Roller, Margaret
|author4=Burton, Gordon
|title=Neurological Rehabilitation
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA383
|year=2013
|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences
|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9
|page=383
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173020/https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA383
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; It affects 3–7% of the population,&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt;&lt;ref name=Koo2013&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Kooij
|first1=J. J. Sandra
|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic assessment and treatment
|date=2013
|publisher=Springer
|location=London|doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9
|isbn=9781447141389
|page=83
|edition=3rd
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&amp;pg=PA83
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430012545/https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&amp;pg=PA83
|archivedate=30 April 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx
|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
==History==
Dyslexia was clinically described by [[w:Oswald Berkhan|Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881,&lt;ref name=&quot;Oswald Berkhan ref 1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|author=Berkhan O
|year=1917
|title=Über die Wortblindheit, ein Stammeln im Sprechen und Schreiben, ein Fehl im Lesen
|trans-title=About word blindness, adyslalia of speech and writing, a weakness in reading
|language=German
|journal=Neurologisches Centralblatt
|volume=36
|pages=914–27
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&amp;dq=editions%3AUCALB3248710&amp;q=Wortblindheit#search_anchor
}}&lt;/ref&gt; but the term ''dyslexia'' was coined in 1883 by [[w:Rudolf Berlin|Rudolf Berlin]], an [[w:ophthalmologist|ophthalmologist]] in [[w:Stuttgart|Stuttgart]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Berlin&quot;&gt;Berlin, Rudolf. [No title.] ''Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des Württembergischen Ärztlichen Landesvereins'' [Correspondence Sheet of the Württemberg Medical Association] 53 (1883): 209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Websters&quot;&gt;Webster's Third New International Dictionary. &quot;History and Etymology for dyslexia&quot;, s.v. &quot;[[mwod:dyslexia|dyslexia, noun]]&quot;. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=''Über Dyslexie''
|trans-title=About dyslexia
|year=1884
|journal=Archiv für Psychiatrie
|volume=15
|pages=276–278
}}&lt;/ref&gt; He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|title=Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences and Analytical Index: A Yearly Report of the Progress of the General Sanitary Sciences Throughout the World
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_IhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA39
|year=1888
|publisher=F. A. Davis Company
|page=39
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200623/https://books.google.com/books?id=5_IhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA39
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from [[w:Seaford, East Sussex|Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the ''[[w:British Medical Journal|British Medical Journal]]'' titled &quot;Congenital Word Blindness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Brooks
|editor1-first=Patricia
|editor2-last=Vera
|editor2-first=Kempe
|title=Encyclopedia of language development
|first1=Franck |last1=Ramus|first2= Irene|last2= Altarelli
|chapter=Developmental Dyslexia
|date=2014
|publisher=SAGE
|page=130|doi=10.4135/9781483346441.n43
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR30
|isbn=9781483346434
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Mishra
|first1=Srikanta K.
|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders.
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=October 2014
|pmid=25386132
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860
|pmc=4209830
|volume=8
|pages=860
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Signs and symptoms==

In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include [[w:speech delay|delayed onset]] of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt; A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.&lt;ref name=&quot;LilienfeldLynn2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&amp;pg=PT88
|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior
|last2=Lynn
|first2=Steven Jay
|last3=Ruscio
|first3=John
|last4=Beyerstein
|first4=Barry L.
|date=15 September 2011
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5
|pages=88–89
|last1=Lilienfeld
|first1=Scott O.
|authorlink1=Scott Lilienfeld
|authorlink4=Barry Beyerstein
|accessdate=19 May 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109130327/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&amp;pg=PT88
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt;

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit [[w:medical sign|signs]] of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words–both of which depend on [[w:phonological awareness|phonological awareness]].&lt;ref name=DAss&gt;{{cite web
|title=Dyslexia and Related Disorders
|date=January 2003
|website=Alabama Dyslexia Association
|publisher=[[International Dyslexia Association]]
|accessdate=29 April 2015
|url=http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124053/http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf
|archivedate=4 March 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds or may blend sounds when producing words, indicating reduced [[w:phonemic awareness|phonemic awareness]].&lt;ref name=&quot;PeerReid2014&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Peer
|editor1-first=Lindsay
|editor2-last=Reid
|editor2-first=Gavin
|first1=Stephanie
|last1=Miller
|first2=Marjorie
|last2=Bussman Gillis
|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators
|chapter=The Language Puzzle: Connecting the Study of Linguistics with a Multisensory Language Instructional Programme in Foreign Language Learning
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA219
|year=2014
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5
|page=219
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204808/https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA219
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shaywitz2013a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Shaywitz, Sally E.
|author2=Shaywitz, Bennett A.
|chapter=Chapter 34 Making a Hidden Disability Visible: What Has Been Learned from Neurobiological Studies of Dyslexia
|editor1=Swanson, H. Lee
|editor2=Harris, Karen R.
|editor3=Graham, Steve
|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&amp;pg=PA647
|edition=2
|year=2013
|publisher=Guilford Press
|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143943/https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&amp;pg=PA647
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|647}} People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or [[w:dysgraphia|dysgraphia]], which depends on [[w:Orthography|orthographic coding]].&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt;

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in [[w:spelling|spelling]] tests or when reading nonsense words–a measure of phonological awareness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Jarrad
|first1=Lum
|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies
|journal=Research of Developmental Disabilities
|date=October 2013
|pages=3460–76
|pmid=23920029
|pmc=3784964
|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017
|volume=34
|issue=10
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Associated conditions===
Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum
|journal=Cortex
|volume=47
|issue=1
|pages=117–27
|date=September 2009
|pmid=19818437
|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016
|last1=Nicolson
|first1=R. I.
|last2=Fawcett
|first2=A. J.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These associated disabilities include:
*[[w:Dysgraphia|Dysgraphia]]: A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with [[w:eye–hand coordination|eye–hand coordination;]] it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.&lt;ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Reynolds
|first1=Cecil R.
|last2=Fletcher-Janzen
|first2=Elaine
|title=Encyclopedia of Special Education
|date=2 January 2007
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-0-471-67798-7
|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&amp;pg=PA771 771]
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing [[w:Automaticity|automaticity]], organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.&lt;ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007/&gt;
*[[w:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml
|title=Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
|last=
|first=
|date=March 2016
|website=NIH: National Institute of Mental Health
|publisher=
|access-date=26 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723192735/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml
|archivedate=23 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.&lt;ref name=&quot;Koo2013&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ComerGould2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&amp;pg=RA1-PA233
|title=Psychology Around Us
|date=2011
|publisher=RR Donnelley
|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6
|page=1
|author1=Comer, Ronald
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604000711/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&amp;pg=RA1-PA233
|archivedate=4 June 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last2=Gagliano
|first2=A
|last3=Curatolo
|first3=P
|year=2010
|title=Comorbidity of ADHD and Dyslexia
|url=http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/260009__925867416.pdf
|journal=Developmental Neuropsychology
|volume=35
|issue=5
|pages=475–493
|doi=10.1080/87565641.2010.494748
|pmid=20721770
|last1=Germanò
|first1=E
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Approximately 15%&lt;ref name=&quot;Handler2011&quot; /&gt; or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;&lt;ref name=&quot;FatemiSartorius2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&amp;pg=PA308
|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry
|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media
|year=2008
|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6
|edition=3rd|chapter=Disruptive Behavior Disorders|first1=Anna |last1=Baumgaertel|first2= Lisa |last2=Blaskey |first3= Smita X.|last3= Antia|doi=10.1007/978-1-59745-252-6_18 
|page=308
|editor1=Fatemi, S. Hossein
|editor2=Clayton, Paula J.
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101234/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&amp;pg=PA308
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Handler2011&quot; /&gt;
*[[w:Auditory processing disorder|Auditory processing disorder]]: A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.&lt;ref name=&quot;Capellini2007a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Capellini, Simone Aparecida
|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&amp;pg=PA94
|year=2007
|publisher=Nova Publishers
|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7
|page=94
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109113545/https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&amp;pg=PA94
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|title=The diagnosis and management of auditory processing disorder
|journal=Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools
|volume=42
|issue=3
|pages=303–8
|date=July 2011
|pmid=21757566
|doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0032)
|last1=Moore
|first1=D. R.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This can lead to problems with [[w:auditory memory|auditory memory]] and auditory [[w:sequencing|sequencing]]. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own [[w:logographic cues|logographic cues]] to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Pammer2014&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pammer
|first1=Kristen
|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers.
|journal=Scientifica
|date=January 2014
|pmid=24527259
|pmc=3913493
|doi=10.1155/2014/802741
|volume=2014
|pages=802741
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Law
|first1=J
|title=relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=2014
|pmid=25071512
|pmc=4078926
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482
|volume=8
|pages=482
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[w:Developmental coordination disorder|Developmental coordination disorder]]: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-[[w:motor skills|motor control]], [[w:kinesthetic|kinesthetic]] coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with [[w:Working memory|short-term memory]], and organization.&lt;ref name=Pickering2012&gt;{{cite book
|author=Susan J. Pickering
|chapter=Chapter 2. Working Memory in Dyslexia
|editor1=Alloway, Tracy Packiam
|editor2=Gathercole, Susan E.
|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&amp;pg=PA29
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109194637/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&amp;pg=PA29
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Causes ==
{{fig
 |number      =  1
 |image       = Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif
 |caption     = Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation
 |attribution = Anatomography, [[creativecommons:by-sa/2.1/jp/deed.en|CC BY-SA 2.1 JP]]
 |align       = right
 |size        = width (default = 250px)
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}

Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oswald Berkhan ref 1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReidFawcett2008x&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyytinen |first1=Heikki |last2=Erskine |first2=Jane |last3=Ahonen |first3=Timo |last4=Aro |first4=Mikko |last5=Eklund |first5=Kenneth |last6=Guttorm |first6=Tomi |last7=Hintikka |first7=Sini |last8=Hamalainen |first8=Jarmo |last9=Ketonen |first9=Ritva |last10=Laakso |first10=Marja-Leena |last11=Leppanen |first11=Paavo H.T. |last12=Lyytinen |first12=Paula |last13=Poikkeus |first13=Anna-Maija |last14=Puolakanaho |first14=Anne |last15=Richardson |first15=Ulla |last16=Salmi |first16=Paula |last17=Tolvanen |first17=Asko |last18=Torppa |first18=Minna |last19=Viholainen |first19=Helena |chapter=Early Identification and Prevention of Dyslexia: Results from a Prospective Follow-up Study of Children at Familial Risk for Dyslexia |title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia |date=2008  |doi=10.4135/9780857020987.n7|editor1-first=Gavin |editor1-last=Reid|editor2-first= Angela J.|editor2-last= Fawcett|editor3-first= Frank|editor3-last= Manis|editor4-first= Linda S.|editor4-last= Siegel
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9
|page=127
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&amp;pg=PA127
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stein2014&quot; &gt;{{cite journal
|first1=John
|last1=Stein
|year=2014
|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention
|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports
|volume=1
|issue=4
|pages=267–80
|pmid=25346883
|pmc=4203994
|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

===Neuroanatomy===
Modern [[w:neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, such as [[w:functional magnetic resonance imaging|functional magnetic resonance imaging]] ([[w:fMRI|fMRI]]) and [[w:positron emission tomography|positron emission tomography]] (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;Whitaker2010r&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Whitaker, Harry A.
|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&amp;pg=PA180
|year=2010
|publisher=Elsevier
|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7
|page=180
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173223/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&amp;pg=PA180
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some people with dyslexia show less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the [[w:inferior frontal gyrus|inferior frontal gyrus]], [[w:inferior parietal lobule|inferior parietal lobule]], and the middle and [[w:Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].&lt;ref name=Pammer2014/&gt; Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual [[w:lexicon|lexicon]] and for auditory verbal [[w:short-term memory|short-term memory]] components have been proposed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Price
|first1=cathy
|title=A Review and Synthesis of the first 20 years of Pet and fMRI studies of heard Speech, Spoken Language and Reading
|journal=NeuroImage
|date=16 August 2012
|volume=62
|issue=2
|pages=816–847
|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062
|pmid=22584224
}}&lt;/ref&gt; with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the [[w:cerebellum|cerebellum]] and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Sharifi
|first1=S
|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review.
|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical
|date=May 2014
|pages=217–231
|pmid=25068111
|pmc=4110352
|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003
|volume=5
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Brandler
|first1=William
|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders
|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine
|date=February 2014
|pages=83–90
|pmid=24275328
|pmc=3969300
|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008
|volume=20
|issue=2
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the [[w:fluency|fluency]] problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the [[w:Autonomic nervous system|automatization]] of some tasks, such as reading.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Cain
|first1=Kate
|title=Reading development and difficulties
|date=2010
|publisher=TJ International
|page=134
|edition=1st
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&amp;pg=PA134&amp;dq=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia#v=onepage&amp;q=cerebellar%20theory%20of%20dyslexia&amp;f=false
|accessdate=21 March 2015
|isbn=9781405151559
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact that some children  with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Levav
|first1=Itzhak
|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental health
|date=2009
|publisher=Green Publishing
|page=52
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&amp;pg=PA52&amp;dq=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia#v=onepage&amp;q=cerebellar%20theory%20of%20dyslexia&amp;f=false
|accessdate=21 March 2015
|isbn=9789652294685
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Genetics===
Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-[[w:autopsy|autopsy]] examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stein2014&quot; /&gt; Observed anatomical differences in the [[w:language center|language center]]s of such brains include microscopic [[w:cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations known as [[wikt:ectopia|ectopias]], and more rarely, [[w:blood vessel|vascular]] micro-malformations, and  [[w:microgyrus|microgyrus]]—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.&lt;ref name=&quot;Faust2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1=Faust, Miriam
|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&amp;pg=PA941
|year=2012
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|last1=Stein|first1=John|doi=10.1002/9781118432501.ch45|chapter=The Neurobiological Basis of Dyslexia: The Magnocellular Theory
|pages=941–43
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200538/https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&amp;pg=PA941
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The previously cited studies and others&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Benitez
|first1=A
|title=Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia
|journal=Neurology (In Spanish)
|date=November 2010
|pmid=21093706
|doi=10.1016/j.nrl.2009.12.010
|volume=25
|issue=9
|pages=563–81
}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of [[w:fetal|fetal]] brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Kere
|first1=Julia
|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype
|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
|date=September 2014
|pages=236–43
|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102
|pmid=25078623
|volume=452
|issue=2
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including [[w:DCDC2|DCDC2]] and [[w:KIAA0319|KIAA0319]] on [[w:chromosome 6|chromosome 6]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall2012v&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Marshall, Chloë R.|doi=10.4324/9780203100288-10|chapter=The genetics of developmental disorders|last1=Newbury|first1=Dianne
|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&amp;pg=PA53
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7
|pages=53–56
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109103320/https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&amp;pg=PA53
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:DYX1C1|DYX1C1]] on [[w:chromosome 15|chromosome 15]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Rosen2013v&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Rosen, Glenn D.|last1=Galaburda|first1=Albert M.|chapter=Dyslexia: Advances in Cross-level Research
|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&amp;pg=PA342
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0
|page=342
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143349/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&amp;pg=PA342
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Gene–environment interaction===
The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using [[w:twin studies|twin studies]], which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Parental Education Moderates Genetic Influences on Reading Disability
|journal=Psychol. Sci.
|volume=19
|issue=11
|pages=1124–30
|date=November 2008
|pmid=19076484
|pmc=2605635
|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x
|last1=Friend
|first1=A
|last2=Defries
|first2=J. C.
|last3=Olson
|first3=R. K.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and teaching quality&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|bibcode=2010Sci...328..512T
|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading
|journal=Science
|volume=328
|issue=5977
|pages=512–4
|last1=Taylor
|first1=J.
|last2=Roehrig
|first2=A. D.
|last3=Hensler
|first3=B. Soden
|last4=Connor
|first4=C. M.
|last5=Schatschneider
|first5=C.
|year=2010
|doi=10.1126/science.1186149
|pmid=20413504
|pmc=2905841
}}&lt;/ref&gt; have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.&lt;ref name=pmid19209992&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pennington
|first1=Bruce F.
|last2=McGrath
|first2=Lauren M.
|last3=Rosenberg
|first3=Jenni
|last4=Barnard
|first4=Holly
|last5=Smith
|first5=Shelley D.
|last6=Willcutt
|first6=Erik G.
|last7=Friend
|first7=Angela
|last8=Defries
|first8=John C.
|last9=Olson
|first9=Richard K.
|date=January 2009
|title=Gene × Environment Interactions in Reading Disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Developmental Psychology
|volume=45
|issue=1
|pages=77–89
|doi=10.1037/a0014549
|pmid=19209992
|pmc=2743891
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.&lt;ref name=pmid19209992/&gt; 

As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that [[w:epigenetic|epigenetic]] modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of [[w:gene expression|gene expression]], [[wikipedia:Histone#Histone_modification|histone modifications]], and [[w:methylation|methylation]] in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last=Roth
|first=Tania L.
|last2=Roth
|first2=Eric D.
|last3=Sweatt
|first3=J. David
|date=September 2010
|title=Epigenetic regulation of genes in learning and memory
|journal=Essays in Biochemistry
|volume=48
|issue=1
|pages=263–74
|pmid=20822498
|doi=10.1042/bse0480263
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Smith
|first=Shelley D.
|date=2011-12
|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders
|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
|volume=3
|issue=4
|pages=356–364
|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y
|issn=1866-1947
|pmc=3261263
|pmid=22113455
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
====Language====
The [[w:orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Paulesu|first1= Eraldo|last2= Brunswick|first2= Nicola |last3= Paganelli|first3= Federica|date=2010|chapter=Cross-cultural differences in unimpaired and dyslexic reading: Behavioral and functional anatomical observations in readers of regular and irregular orthographies|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|editor1-first=Nicola|editor1-last= Brunswick|editor2-first= Siné|editor2-last= McDougall|editor3-first= Paul|editor3-last= de Mornay Davies|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781135167813|doi=10.4324/9780203858462-23|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|266}} English and French have comparatively &quot;deep&quot; [[w:phonemic orthographies|phonemic orthographies]] within the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] [[w:writing system|writing system]], with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and [[w:morpheme|morpheme]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;DickinsonNeuman2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Juel, Connie
|chapter=The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading
|editor1=David K. Dickinson
|editor2=Susan B. Neuman
|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA421
|year=2013
|publisher=Guilford Publications
|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109162332/https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA421
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|421}} Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish have mostly alphabetic orthographies, which primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called &quot;shallow&quot; orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;/&gt;{{rp|266}}  [[w:Logograph|Logograph]]ic writing systems, such as [[w:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]], have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Annual Research Review: The nature and classification of reading disorders – a commentary on proposals for DSM-5
|journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
|date = 1 May 2012
|pmc = 3492851
|pmid = 22141434
|pages = 593–607
|volume = 53
|issue = 5
|doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x
|first = Margaret J
|last = Snowling
|first2 = Charles
|last2 = Hulme
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Pathophysiology==
{{fig
 |number      =  2
 |image       = Gray733.png
 |caption     = Corpus callosum view, front part at top of image
 |attribution = Public domain
 |align       = right
 |size        = 150px
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}

Most people who are right-hand dominant have the left hemisphere of their brain specialize more in language processing. In terms of the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization may be less pronounced or even absent in cases with dyslexia. Additionally, anatomical differences in the [[wikipedia:Corpus_callosum|corpus callosum]], the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres, have been linked to dyslexia via different studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;habi&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Habib
|first1=Michael
|title=Pediatric Neurology Part I
|volume=111
|chapter=Dyslexia
|date=2013
|pages=229–235
|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444528919000233
|accessdate=19 December 2018
|language=en
|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00023-3
|pmid=23622168
|series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology
|isbn=9780444528919
}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading/language. Finally, the left [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|inferior frontal gyrus]] has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=habi/&gt; Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia thus identifying the effects of certain genes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape
|journal = Journal of Medical Genetics
|date = 2007
|pmc = 2597981
|pmid = 17307837
|pages = 289–297
|volume = 44
|issue = 5
|doi = 10.1136/jmg.2006.046516
|first = Johannes
|last = Schumacher
|first2 = Per
|last2 = Hoffmann
|first3 = Christine
|last3 = Schmäl
|first4 = Gerd
|last4 = Schulte‐Körne
|first5 = Markus M
|last5 = Nöthen
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Dual route theory===

The dual-route theory of [[w:Reading (process)|reading]] aloud was first described in the early 1970s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pritchard 2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|author=Pritchard SC
|author2=Coltheart M
|author3=Palethorpe S
|author4=Castles A
|title=Nonword reading: comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data
|journal=J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform
|volume=38
|issue=5
|pages=1268–88
|date=October 2012
|pmid=22309087
|doi=10.1037/a0026703
|last2=Coltheart
|last3=Palethorpe
|last4=Castles
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013z&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Eysenck, Michael
|author2=Keane, Mark T.
|title=Cognitive Psychology 6e
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA373
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7
|page=373
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109123837/https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA373
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a &quot;dictionary&quot; lookup procedure.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Eysenck, Michael
|author2=Keane, Mark T.
|title=Cognitive Psychology 6e
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA450
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7
|page=450
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109170422/https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA450
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can &quot;sound out&quot; a written word.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;HulmeJoshi2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Hulme
|editor1-first=Charles
|editor2-last=Joshi
|editor2-first=R. Malatesha
|editor3-last=Snowling
|editor3-first=Margaret J.
|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&amp;pg=PT151
|year=2012
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|doi=10.4324/9780203053782-16|last1=Felton|first1=Rebecca H.|chapter=The Development of Reading Skills in Poor Readers: Educational Implications
|page=151
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109141419/https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&amp;pg=PT151
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, [[w:phonemes|phonemes]], [[w:graphemes|graphemes]]) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pritchard 2012&quot; /&gt; The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers).&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Sprenger-Charolles
|first1=Liliane
|title=Prevalence and Reliability of Phonological, Surface, and Mixed Profiles in Dyslexia: A Review of Studies Conducted in Languages Varying in Orthographic Depth
|journal=Scientific Studies of Reading
|date=2011
|pages=498–521
|doi=10.1080/10888438.2010.524463
|volume=15
|issue=6
|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00733553
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830150246/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00733553
|archivedate=30 August 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Diagnosis==
===Classification===

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rose&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Boada
|first=Richard
|last2=Willcutt
|first2=Erik G.
|last3=Pennington
|first3=Bruce F.
|date=2012
|title=Understanding the Comorbidity Between Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Topics in Language Disorders
|quote=... Pennington proposed a multiple deficit model for complex disorders like dyslexia, hypothesizing that such complex disorders are heterogeneous conditions that arise from the additive and interactive effects of multiple genetic and environmental risk factors, which then lead to weaknesses in multiple cognitive domains.
|volume=32
|issue=3
|page=270
|doi=10.1097/tld.0b013e31826203ac
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Pennington
|first=B
|date=September 2006
|title=From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders
|journal=Cognition
|volume=101
|issue=2
|pages=385–413
|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008
|pmid=16844106
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (''phonological processing''); and verbal working memory deficits.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Peterson
|first=Robin L.
|last2=Pennington
|first2=Bruce F.
|date=28 March 2015
|title=Developmental Dyslexia
|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842
|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
|volume=11
|issue=1
|pages=283–307
|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842
|ssrn=2588407
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;very-short&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Snowling|first1= Margaret J.|title=Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|date= 2019|isbn=9780192550422|doi=10.1093/actrade/9780198818304.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is a [[w:neurodevelopmental disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]], subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a ''learning disorder with impairment in reading'' (ICD-11 prefixes &quot;developmental&quot; to &quot;learning disorder&quot;; DSM-5 uses &quot;specific&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1008636089
|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading
|work=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics)
|publisher=World Health Organization
|access-date=2019-10-07
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5.
|date=2013
|publisher=American Psychiatric Association
|quote=Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in reading ... Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities.
|isbn=9780890425541
|edition=5th
|location=Arlington, VA
|oclc=830807378
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=FragaGonzález
|first=Gorka
|last2=Karipidis
|first2=Iliana
|last3=Tijms
|first3=Jurgen
|date=2018-10-19
|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder
|journal=Brain Sciences
|volume=8
|issue=10
|pages=189
|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189
|issn=2076-3425
|pmc=6209961
|pmid=30347764
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is not a problem with [[w:intelligence|intelligence]]. [[w:Emotional and behavioral disorders|Emotional problems]] often arise secondary to learning difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;Campbell2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Campbell
|first1=Robert Jean
|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&amp;pg=PA310
|year=2009
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1
|pages=310–312
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101113/https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&amp;pg=PA310
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke|National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] describes dyslexia as &quot;difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;ninds1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page
|last=
|first=
|date=11 September 2015
|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|access-date=
|accessdate=27 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|archivedate=27 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as &quot;a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling&quot; and is characterized by &quot;difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;PhillipsKelly2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Phillips, Sylvia
|author2=Kelly, Kathleen
|author3=Symes, Liz
|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7
|year=2013
|publisher=SAGE
|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0
|page=7
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109093024/https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Phonological awareness'' enables one to identify, discriminate, remember ([[w:working memory|working memory]]), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—[[w:phonemes|phonemes]], [[w:onsite-rime|onsite-rime]] segments, syllables, and words.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Stahl
|first1=Steven A.
|last2=Murray
|first2=Bruce A.
|title=Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading.
|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology
|volume=86
|issue=2
|pages=221–234
|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.221
|date=1994
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|title=Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Perception in 4-Year-Old Children With Delayed Expressive Phonology Skills
|journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
|date=1 November 2003
|volume=12
|issue=4
|pages=463–471
|doi=10.1044/1058-0360(2003/092)
|pmid=14658998
|last1=Rvachew
|first1=Susan
|last2=Ohberg
|first2=Alyssa
|last3=Grawburg
|first3=Meghann
|last4=Heyding
|first4=Joan
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Assessment===

====Principles of Assessment====
* Strive for a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s); school psychologist; pediatrician; and, as appropriate, [[w:Speech-language pathology|speech and language pathologist (speech therapist)]]; and [[w:Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]].&lt;ref name=&quot;iding&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first3=Catherine|last3= Christo|first2= John M.|last2= Davis|first1= Stephen E.|last1= Brock|title=Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at School|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|date=2009|page=59|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-88600-8|isbn=978-0-387-88600-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Possess a thorough familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones (write first name; draw a square), and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognize rhyming words; identify the initial sounds in words).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Mather|first1= Nancy |first2=Barbara J. |last2=Wendling|title=Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention|location=Hoboken, NJ|publisher= John Wiley &amp; Sons|date= 2012|isbn=978-0470927601}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Avoid over-reliance on tests. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reid|first1= Gavin|first2= Jennie|last2= Guise|title=The Dyslexia Assessment|location=London|publisher= Bloomsbury|date= 2017|isbn=978-1472945082}} (&quot;... assessment for dyslexia includes more than tests; it involves comprehensive insights into the student's learning. This requires a full and comprehensive individual assessment as well as consideration of the environment and contextual factors.&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=M. S.|last1= Thambirajah|title=Developmental Assessment of the School-Aged Child with Developmental Disabilities: A Clinician's Guide|location=London|publisher= Jessica Kingsley|date= 2011|page= 74|isbn=978-1849051811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Take advantage of the empirically supported &quot;response to intervention&quot; (RTI) approach,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Jimerson|first1= Shane R.|first2= Matthew K. |last2=Burns|first3= Amanda M.|last3= VanDerHeyden|title=Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher= Springer Science+Business Media|date= 2016|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7568-3|isbn=978-1-4899-7568-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Snowling |first1=Margaret J. |title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view: Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view |journal=Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs |date=2013 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Assessment instruments (tests)====
There are a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility that a person might have dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;testing&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests
|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities
|publisher=University of Michigan
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313000802/http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests
|archivedate=13 March 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;PeerReid2013p&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Peer, Lindsay
|author2=Reid, Gavin
|title=Introduction to Dyslexia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT35
|year=2013
|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|doi=10.4324/9780203962695
|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3
|pages=35–40
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109134343/https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT35
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.&lt;ref name=balexia/&gt; Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.&lt;ref name=&quot;balexia&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Screening and assessment
|url=http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
|website=British Dyslexia Association
|accessdate=11 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330101403/http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
|archivedate=30 March 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Fletcher
|first1=Jack
|title=Dyslexia: the evolution of a scientific concept
|journal=Journal of International Neuropsychology Society
|date=2009
|pages=501–508
|pmc=3079378
|pmid=19573267
|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900
|volume=15
|issue=4
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include:&lt;ref name=&quot;gerd&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Schulte-Körne
|first1=Gerd
|title=The Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Dyslexia
|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
|date=October 2010
|volume=107
|issue=41
|pages=718–727
|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
|pmid=21046003
|pmc=2967798
|issn=1866-0452
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*General measures of cognitive ability, such as the [[wikipedia:Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children|Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]], [[wikipedia:Woodcock–Johnson_Tests_of_Cognitive_Abilities|Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities]], or [[wikipedia:Stanford–Binet_Intelligence_Scales|Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_26|last1=Mather|first1= N.|last2= Schneider|first2= D.|chapter= The use of intelligence tests in the diagnosis of specific reading disability
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts#v=onepage&amp;q=Handbook%20of%20Intelligence%3A%20Evolutionary%20theory%2C%20historical%20perspective%2C%20and%20current%20concepts&amp;f=false
|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts
|editor1-last=Goldstein
|editor1-first=Sam
|editor2-last=Princiotta
|editor2-first=Dana
|editor3-last=Naglieri
|editor3-first=Jack A.
|date=2014
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=9781493915620
|pages=415–433
|language=en
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the [[wikipedia:Strengths_and_Difficulties_Questionnaire|Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire]]. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the [[wikipedia:Vanderbilt_ADHD_diagnostic_rating_scale|Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales]] or the [[wikipedia:Screen_for_child_anxiety_related_disorders|Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)]]. [[wikipedia:Screening_(medicine)|Screening]] uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Collett
|first1=Brent R.
|last2=Ohan
|first2=Jeneva L.
|last3=Myers
|first3=Kathleen M.
|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry
|date=1 September 2003
|volume=42
|issue=9
|pages=1015–1037
|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6
|pmid=12960702
|url=https://jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/fulltext
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=English
|issn=0890-8567
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Stone
|first1=Lisanne L
|last2=Janssens
|first2=Jan M A M
|last3=Vermulst
|first3=Ad A
|last4=Van Der Maten
|first4=Marloes
|last5=Engels
|first5=Rutger C M E
|last6=Otten
|first6=Roy
|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4–7
|journal=BMC Psychology
|date=20 February 2015
|volume=3
|issue=1
|pages=4
|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8
|pmid=25815194
|pmc=4364334
|issn=2050-7283
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Swart
|first1=G. T.
|title=The Clinician's Guide To The Behavior Assessment System For Children
|journal=The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review
|date=NaN
|volume=14
|issue=3
|pages=90
|issn=1716-9119
|pmc=2542918
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Birmaher
|first1=B.
|last2=Khetarpal
|first2=S.
|last3=Brent
|first3=D.
|last4=Cully
|first4=M.
|last5=Balach
|first5=L.
|last6=Kaufman
|first6=J.
|last7=Neer
|first7=S. M.
|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics
|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
|date=NaN
|volume=36
|issue=4
|pages=545–553
|doi=10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018
|pmid=9100430
|issn=0890-8567
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking &lt;16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the [[wikipedia:Iowa_Tests_of_Educational_Development|Iowa Tests of Educational Development]], that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the [[wikipedia:Wide_Range_Achievement_Test|Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[wikipedia:Woodcock–Johnson_Tests_of_Cognitive_Abilities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Lindquist
|first1=E. F.
|title=The Iowa tests of educational development: how to use the test results; a manual for teachers and counselors
|date=1953
|publisher=Science Research Associates
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&amp;q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development&amp;dq=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=en
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Dell
|first1=Cindy Ann
|last2=Harrold
|first2=Barbara
|last3=Dell
|first3=Thomas
|title=Test Review: Wilkinson, G. S., &amp; Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test—Fourth Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. WRAT4 Introductory Kit (includes manual, 25 test/response forms [blue and green], and accompanying test materials): $243.00
|journal=Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
|date=1 October 2008
|volume=52
|issue=1
|pages=57–60
|doi=10.1177/0034355208320076
|language=en
|issn=0034-3552
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Semrud-Clikeman
|first1=Margaret
|last2=Ellison
|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter
|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders|edition= 2nd
|date=2009|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-88963-4
|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media
|isbn=9780387889634
|page=119
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&amp;pg=PT119#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=en
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Screening==
Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.&lt;ref name=&quot;iding&quot; /&gt; In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consist of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.&lt;ref name=&quot;very-short&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93–94}}&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/190599/Letters_and_Sounds_-_DFES-00281-2007.pdf Letters and Sounds: Principles and Practice of High Quality Phonics], Ref: DFES-00281-2007 (00281-2007BKT-EN), Primary National Strategy, Department for Education and Skills (United Kingdom), 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the ''Phonics screening check''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/phonics-screening-check-2019-materials
|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials
|work=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency
|access-date=14 October 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt; used by United Kingdom schools during [[w:Year One (education)|Year One]].

In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that &quot;[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s.&quot; Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/747410566
|title=Developmental assessment of the school-aged child with developmental disabilities : a clinician's guide
|last=Thambirajah, M. S.
|date=2011
|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers
|isbn=9780857003256
|location=London
|oclc=747410566
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Management ==
Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Bogon
|first1=Johana
|title=TVA based assessment of visual attention functions in developmental dyslexia
|journal=Frontiers in Psychology
|date=October 2014
|pmc=4199262
|pmid=25360129
|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172
|volume=5
|pages=1172
}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brunswick2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1=Brunswick, Nicola|first1=Fiona|last1= White|first2=Richard|last2= Mendez|first3=Rosanne|last3= Rieley|chapter=Preparing for Work: Dyslexic Undergraduates Making the Transition into Employment
|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&amp;pg=PA115
|accessdate=10 April 2012
|date=10 April 2012
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|doi=10.1002/9781119945000.ch12
|pages=112–122
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231081312/http://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&amp;pg=PA115
|archivedate=31 December 2013
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.&lt;ref name=pmid21046003&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Schulte-Körne
|first1=G
|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia
|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
|date=October 2010
|pages=718–26
|pmc=2967798
|pmid=21046003
|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
|volume=107
|issue=41
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For [[w:dyslexia intervention|dyslexia intervention]] with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between [[w:grapheme|grapheme]]s (letters) and [[w:phoneme|phoneme]]s (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.&lt;ref name=Lyytinen&gt;{{Cite book
|author=Lyytinen, Heikki
|author2=Erskine, Jane
|author3=Aro, Mikko
|author4=Richardson, Ulla
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&amp;pg=PA454
|chapter=Reading and reading disorders|doi=10.1002/9780470757833.ch22
|editor-last=Hoff
|editor-first=Erika
|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development
|pages=454–474
|publisher=Blackwell
|place=
|year=2009
|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204820/https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&amp;pg=PA454
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=van der Leij
|first1=Aryan
|title=Dyslexia and early intervention: what did we learn from the Dutch Dyslexia Programme?
|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date=1 November 2013
|volume=19
|issue=4
|pages=241–255
|doi=10.1002/dys.1466
|pmid=24133037
|issn=1099-0909
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There is some evidence that the use of specially-tailored fonts may help with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Renske&gt;{{Cite journal
|first=Renske
|last=de Leeuw
|title=Special Font For Dyslexia?
|place=[[University of Twente]]
|page=32
|date=December 2010
|language=English, Dutch
|url=http://www.ilo.gw.utwente.nl/ilo/attachments/032_Masterthesis_Leeuw.pdf
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101034537/http://www.ilo.gw.utwente.nl/ilo/attachments/032_Masterthesis_Leeuw.pdf
|archivedate=1 November 2011
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These fonts, which include [[w:Dyslexie|Dyslexie]], [[w:OpenDyslexic|OpenDyslexic]], and [[w:Lexie Readable|Lexie Readable]], were created based on the idea that many of the letters of the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] are visually similar and may, therefore, confuse people with dyslexia. Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic both put emphasis on making each letter more distinctive in order to be more easily identified.&lt;ref name=sawers&gt;{{cite web
|last=Sawers
|first=Paul
|title=Dyslexie: A typeface for dyslexics
|url=https://thenextweb.com/shareables/2011/06/30/dyslexie-a-typeface-for-dyslexics/
|accessdate=9 April 2012
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413154354/http://thenextweb.com/shareables/2011/06/30/dyslexie-a-typeface-for-dyslexics/
|archivedate=13 April 2012
|df=dmy-all
|date=2011-06-30
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The benefits, however, might largely be due to the added spacing between words.&lt;ref name=Mar2016/&gt; In terms of music and any possible positive effects on people with dyslexia, until now there is currently no evidence or data showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of  adolescents with dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Music education for improving reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia
|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
|issue=8
|last=Cogo-Moreira
|first=Hugo
|last2=Andriolo
|first2=Régis B
|last3=Yazigi
|first3=Latife
|last4=Ploubidis
|first4=George B
|last5=Brandão de Ávila
|first5=Clara Regina
|last6=Mari
|first6=Jair J
|date=15 August 2012
|pages=CD009133
|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd009133.pub2
|pmid=22895983
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Prognosis==
Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=O’Hare
|first1=Anne
|title=Dyslexia: what do paediatricians need to know?
|journal=Pediatrics and Child Health
|date=2010
|pages=338–343
|doi=10.1016/j.paed.2010.04.004
|volume=20
|issue=7
}}&lt;/ref&gt; While there are fonts that may help people with dyslexia better understand writing, this might simply be due to the added spacing between words.&lt;ref name=Renske/&gt;&lt;ref name=Mar2016&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Marinus
|first1=E
|last2=Mostard
|first2=M
|last3=Segers
|first3=E
|last4=Schubert
|first4=TM
|last5=Madelaine
|first5=A
|last6=Wheldall
|first6=K
|title=A Special Font for People with Dyslexia: Does it Work and, if so, why?
|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date=August 2016
|volume=22
|issue=3
|pages=233–44
|pmid=27194598
|doi=10.1002/dys.1527
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; The New York educational system (NYED) indicates &quot;a daily uninterrupted 90 minute block of instruction in reading&quot;, furthermore &quot;instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency&quot; so as to improve the individuals reading ability.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED
|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm
|website=www.p12.nysed.gov
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Epidemiology==
The percentage of people with dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title = Psychiatry, 2 Volume Set
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ
|publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons
|date = 29 January 2015
|isbn = 9781118845493
|first = Allan
|last = Tasman
|first2 = Jerald
|last2 = Kay
|first3 = Jeffrey A.
|last3 = Lieberman
|first4 = Michael B.
|last4 = First
|first5 = Michelle
|last5 = Riba
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906081853/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ
|archivedate = 6 September 2015
|df = dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; While it is diagnosed more often in males,&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt; some believe that it affects males and females equally.

There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world, but despite significant differences in writing systems, dyslexia occurs in different populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Protopapas
|first1=Athanassios
|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
|date=2013
|pmid=24324245
|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090
|pmc=3866431
|volume=369
|issue=1634
|pages=20130090
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting [[w:Chinese character|Chinese character]]s into their meanings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Zhao
|first1=Jing
|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition.
|journal=Scientific Reports
|date=November 2014
|pmc=4238300
|pmid=25412386
|doi=10.1038/srep07068
|volume=4
|pages=7068
|bibcode = 2014NatSR...4E7068Z
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall2012l&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Marshall, Chloë R.|doi=10.4324/9780203100288-14|chapter=Issues of culture and language in developmental disorders: The case of dyslexia in Chinese learners|last1=Wong|first1=Simpson W. L.|first2=Moon X. Y.|last2=Xiao|first3=Kevin K. H.|last3=Chung
|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7
|pages=
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&amp;pg=PA152
|page=152
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109144200/https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&amp;pg=PA152
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title = Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood
|url = https://books.google.com/?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&amp;pg=PA177
|publisher = Jason Aronson
|date = 16 January 2012
|isbn = 9780765708663
|first = Elena
|last = Garralda
|first2 = Jean-Philippe
|last2 = Raynaud
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies
|journal = CoDAS
|pages = 509–519
|volume = 26
|issue = 6
|doi = 10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135
|pmid = 25590915
|first = Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto
|last = Navas
|first2 = Érica de Cássia
|last2 = Ferraz
|first3 = Juliana Postigo Amorina
|last3 = Borges
|first4 = Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto
|last4 = Navas
|first5 = Érica de Cássia
|last5 = Ferraz
|first6 = Juliana Postigo Amorina
|last6 = Borges
|year = 2014
|df = dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Research and social perceptions==
{{fig
 |number      = 3
 |image       = Writing Systems Template Image.svg
 |caption     = Writing Systems
 |attribution = ThisIsNotEditorX, CC BY-SA-4.0
 |align       = right
 |size        = 140 px
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}
Most currently available dyslexia research relates to [[w:Writing system|alphabetic writing system]]s, and especially to [[w:Languages of Europe|European languages]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Reid2012a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Reid
|first1=Gavin
|title=The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&amp;pg=PA16
|year=2012
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-61710-2
|page=16
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109205019/https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&amp;pg=PA16
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Richlan
|first1=Fabio
|title=Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia; the role of orthographic depth
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=May 2014
|pmid=24904383
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347
|pmc=4033006
|volume=8
|pages=347
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The outward expression of individuals with reading disability and regular poor readers is the same in some respects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Reading Difficulty and Disability
|url=https://report.nih.gov/NIHfactsheets/Pdfs/ReadingDifficultyandDisability(NICHD).pdf
|website=report.nih.gov
|publisher=NIH
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.&lt;ref name=pmid21046003/&gt; There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=de Berr
|first1=J
|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia
|journal=BMC Public Health
|date=2014
|pmc=3913008
|pmid=24460949
|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77
|volume=14
|pages=77
}}&lt;/ref&gt; If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = The Inclusion of Students with Dyslexia in Higher Education: A Systematic Review Using Narrative Synthesis
|journal = Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date = 1 November 2014
|pmc = 4253321
|pmid = 25293652
|pages = 346–369
|volume = 20
|issue = 4
|doi = 10.1002/dys.1484
|first = Marco
|last = Pino
|first2 = Luigina
|last2 = Mortari
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Ramus|first1=F|last2=Altarelli|first2=I|last3=Jednoróg|first3=K|last4=Zhao|first4=J|last5=di Covella|first5=LS|date=7 August 2017|title=Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: pitfalls and promise.|url=http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/answers/faq|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=84|pages=434–452|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001|issn=1873-7528|pmid=28797557|accessdate=31 August 2017|via=}}This article is published ahead of print
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|author=Alan Beaton|date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research|author=Thomas Richard Miles|date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|location=|pages=|authorlink=Thomas Richard Miles}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice|author1=Gavin Reid|author2=Angela Fawcett|date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&amp;pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|author=Michael Thomson|date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia|author=Gavin Reid|date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&amp;C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties|author=Mark Selikowitz|date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis|author=Andrew W. Ellis|date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate|author1=Julian G. Elliott|author2=Elena L. Grigorenko|date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|location=|pages=|authorlink=Julian Elliott}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Norton|first1=Elizabeth S.|last2=Beach|first2=Sara D.|last3=Gabrieli|first3=John D. E.|date=1 February 2015|title=Neurobiology of dyslexia|url=|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|volume=30|pages=73–78|doi=10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007|issn=1873-6882|pmc=4293303|hdl=1721.1/102416|pmid=25290881}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Serrallach|first1=Bettina|last2=Groß|first2=Christine|last3=Bernhofs|first3=Valdis|last4=Engelmann|first4=Dorte|last5=Benner|first5=Jan|last6=Gündert|first6=Nadine|last7=Blatow|first7=Maria|last8=Wengenroth|first8=Martina|last9=Seitz|first9=Angelika|date=15 July 2016|title=Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children|url=|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=10|pages=324|doi=10.3389/fnins.2016.00324|issn=1662-4548|pmc=4945653|pmid=27471442|last10=Brunner|first10=Monika|last11=Seither|first11=Stefan|last12=Parncutt|first12=Richard|last13=Schneider|first13=Peter|last14=Seither-Preisler|first14=Annemarie}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Shao|first1=Shanshan|last2=Niu|first2=Yanfeng|last3=Zhang|first3=Xiaohui|last4=Kong|first4=Rui|last5=Wang|first5=Jia|last6=Liu|first6=Lingfei|last7=Luo|first7=Xiu|last8=Zhang|first8=Jiajia|last9=Song|first9=Ranran|date=28 July 2016|title=Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population|url=|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=30454|bibcode=2016NatSR...630454S|doi=10.1038/srep30454|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4964335|pmid=27464509}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Brewer|first1=Carmen C.|last2=Zalewski|first2=Christopher K.|last3=King|first3=Kelly A.|last4=Zobay|first4=Oliver|last5=Riley|first5=Alison|last6=Ferguson|first6=Melanie A.|last7=Bird|first7=Jonathan E.|last8=McCabe|first8=Margaret M.|last9=Hood|first9=Linda J.|date=11 October 2016|title=Heritability of Non-Speech Auditory Processing Skills|url=|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=24|issue=8|pages=1137–1144|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2015.277|issn=1018-4813|pmc=4872837|pmid=26883091|last10=Drayna|first10=Dennis|last11=Griffith|first11=Andrew J.|last12=Morell|first12=Robert J.|last13=Friedman|first13=Thomas B.|last14=Moore|first14=David R.}}
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*{{cite journal|last1=Vágvölgyi|first1=R|last2=Coldea|first2=A|last3=Dresler|first3=T|last4=Schrader|first4=J|last5=Nuerk|first5=HC|date=2016|title=A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects|url=|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=7|pages=1617|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617|pmc=5102880|pmid=27891100|accessdate=}}
{{refend}}</text>
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      <text bytes="89966" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
|journal         = WikiJournal of Medicine
|last1           = Anis
|first1          = Ozzie
|orcid1          = 0000-0002-4061-2429
|et_al           = true
|correspondence1 = by [[w:Special:EmailUser/Ozzie10aaaa|online form]]
|submitted       = 30 October 2018
|accepted        = 15 October 2019
|doi             = 10.15347/wjm/2019.005
|keywords        = Dyslexia,speech, learning
|w1              = Dyslexia
|abstract        =

'''Dyslexia''' is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulty learning to read and spell.{{efn|This article is about ''developmental dyslexia'', i.e., dyslexia that begins in early childhood,&lt;ref&gt;Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. &quot;[https://oed.com/view/Entry/331223 dyslexia, ''n'']. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012 (&quot;a learning disability specifically affecting the attainment of literacy, with difficulty esp. in word recognition, spelling, and the conversion of letters to sounds, occurring in a child with otherwise normal development, and now usually regarded as a neurodevelopmental disorder with a genetic component.&quot;)&lt;/ref&gt; as opposed to ''acquired dyslexia''. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of developmental disorder, but acquired dyslexia is a substantially different condition, generally requiring different assessment strategies and different treatment approaches than developmental dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Woollams
|first=Anna M.
|date=2014-01-19
|title=Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia
|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2012.0398
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
|language=en
|volume=369
|issue=1634
|pages=20120398
|doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0398
|issn=0962-8436
|pmc=PMC3866427
|pmid=24324241
}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref name=&quot;Rose&quot;&gt;Sir Jim Rose, [http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14790/7/00659-2009DOM-EN_Redacted.pdf ''Identifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties''] (An independent report from Sir Jim Rose to the Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families, 2009).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Webster's Third New International Dictionary. &quot;[[mwod:dyslexia|dyslexia, noun]]&quot;. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016 (&quot;a variable often familial learning disability involving difficulties in acquiring and processing language that is typically manifested by a lack of proficiency in reading, spelling, and writing&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Longe, Jacqueline L., ed. &quot;[https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/dyslexia Dyslexia]&quot;. Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. 3rd ed. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2006. {{ISBN|9781414403687}} (&quot;Dyslexia is a learning disorder characterized by problems in processing words into meaningful information. This is most strongly reflected in difficulty in learning to read.&quot;)&lt;/ref&gt; Underlying deficits typically include impaired [[w:Phonological_awareness|phonological awareness]] (an awareness of the sound structure of words) and processing; difficulty with verbal working memory; and slow verbal processing speed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Moll
|first=Kristina
|last2=Göbel
|first2=Silke M.
|last3=Gooch
|first3=Debbie
|last4=Landerl
|first4=Karin
|last5=Snowling
|first5=Margaret J.
|date=May 2016
|title=Cognitive Risk Factors for Specific Learning Disorder: Processing Speed, Temporal Processing, and Working Memory
|journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities
|volume=49
|issue=3
|pages=272–281
|doi=10.1177/0022219414547221
|pmid=25124507
|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/43639/1/Moll_Cognitive.pdf
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Observable problems include frequent spelling errors that same-age children do not exhibit; difficulty learning how to decode individual words, including &quot;sounding out&quot; words; and struggling to pronounce words correctly and fluently when reading aloud. Deficits in reading comprehension often occur as a secondary consequence.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Dyslexia - Symptoms
|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dyslexia/symptoms/
|website=nhs.uk
|accessdate=9 October 2019
|language=en
|date=15 August 2018
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous disorder, which means that not all people with dyslexia have the same signs, symptoms, underlying deficits, or functional impairment. Children and adults with dyslexia exhibit higher rates of [[w:comorbidity|comorbid]] conditions such as developmental language disorders; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD);&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Moura
|first=Octávio
|last2=Pereira
|first2=Marcelino
|last3=Alfaiate
|first3=Cláudia
|last4=Fernandes
|first4=Eva
|last5=Fernandes
|first5=Boavida
|last6=Nogueira
|first6=Susana
|last7=Moreno
|first7=Joana
|last8=Simões
|first8=Mário R.
|date=March 2017
|title=Neurocognitive functioning in children with developmental dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Multiple deficits and diagnostic accuracy
|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology
|volume=39
|issue=3
|pages=296–312
|doi=10.1080/13803395.2016.1225007
|pmid=27617883
|hdl=10316/47224
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Araujo|first1= Alexandra Prufer de Queiroz Campos|title= Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia: a history of overlap|journal=Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria|volume= 70|issue= 2 |date=2012|pages= 83-84|doi=10.1590/S0004-282X2012000200001}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sexton
|first=Chris C.
|last2=Gelhorn
|first2=Heather L.
|last3=Bell
|first3=Jill A.
|last4=Classi
|first4=Peter M.
|date=November 2012
|title=The Co-occurrence of Reading Disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, Treatment, Psychosocial Impact, and Economic Burden
|journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities
|volume=45
|issue=6
|pages=538–564
|doi=10.1177/0022219411407772
|pmid=21757683
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and difficulties with motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration, and personal organization, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia. Dyslexia manifests on a continuum of severity—it is a dimensional disorder.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Fletcher
|first=Jack M.
|date=July 2009
|title=Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept
|journal=Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society
|volume=15
|issue=4
|pages=501–508
|quote=... international epidemiological studies have shown that dyslexia is dimensional and exists as the lower end of a normal continuum of reading ability
|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900
|pmc=3079378
|pmid=19573267
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Snowling
|first=Margaret J.
|date=January 2013
|title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view
|journal=Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs
|volume=13
|issue=1
|pages=7–14
|doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x
|pmc=4538781
|pmid=26290655
|quote=In short, dyslexia is not a clear-cut diagnostic category. Rather, in keeping with other neurodevelopmental disorders that affect learning, it can be thought of as the behavioural outcome of a multiple risk factors, both genetic and environmental. It is also increasingly recognised that dyslexia co-occurs with other disorders; in particular, many children with dyslexia have language impairments, symptoms of inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and problems of motor coordination. This nuanced view of dyslexia as a dimension that has continuities and comorbidities with other disorders has significant implications for contemporary theory and practice. (p. 4 of author's copy on PMC) (citations omitted)
}}&lt;/ref&gt; People with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.&lt;ref name=&quot;ninds1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page
|last=
|first=
|date=11 September 2015
|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|access-date=
|accessdate=27 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|archivedate=27 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Paul A. |last2=Hulme |first2=Charles |last3=Nash |first3=Hannah M. |last4=Gooch |first4=Debbie |last5=Hayiou‐Thomas |first5=Emma |last6=Snowling |first6=Margaret J. |title=Developmental dyslexia: predicting individual risk |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |date=2015 |volume=56 |issue=9 |pages=976–987 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.12412}} (&quot;Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder which runs in families; the consensus view for many years has been that it is the behavioral outcome of an underlying phonological deficit.&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NIH2014Def&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/disorders.aspx
|title=What are reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402125917/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/disorders.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lancet2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Peterson
|first1=Robin L.
|last2=Pennington
|first2=Bruce F.
|title=Developmental dyslexia
|journal=Lancet
|volume=379
|issue=9830
|pages=1997–2007
|date=May 2012
|pmid=22513218
|pmc=3465717
|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is believed to be caused by both [[w:genetics|genetic]] and environmental factors, and their [[w:Gene–environment interaction|interaction]].&lt;ref name=Lancet2012 /&gt; Dyslexia often runs in families.&lt;ref name=NIH2014Def/&gt; Dyslexia that develops subsequent to a [[w:traumatic brain injury|traumatic brain injury]], [[w:stroke|stroke]], or [[w:dementia|dementia]] is usually called ''acquired dyslexia''.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia are problems within the [[w:brain|brain]]'s language processing.&lt;ref name=NIH2014Def/&gt; Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, spelling, and reading skills.&lt;ref name=NIH2015Diag&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx
|title=How are reading disorders diagnosed?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402093505/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/diagnosed.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by [[w:hearing problems|hearing]] or [[w:vision problem|vision problem]]s or by insufficient [[w:Reading education|teaching]] or opportunity to learn.&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt;

Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx
|title=What are common treatments for reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142536/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/treatment.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Treatments targeting vision are not effective.&lt;ref name=Handler2011&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Handler
|first1=SM
|last2=Fierson
|first2=WM
|last3=Section on
|first3=Ophthalmology
|last4=Council on Children with
|first4=Disabilities
|last5=American Academy of
|first5=Ophthalmology
|last6=American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and
|first6=Strabismus
|last7=American Association of Certified
|first7=Orthoptists
|title=Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision.
|journal=Pediatrics
|date=March 2011
|volume=127
|issue=3
|pages=e818–56
|pmid=21357342
|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-3670
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is the most common [[w:learning disability|learning disability]] and occurs in all areas of the world.&lt;ref name=UmphredLazaro2013m&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Umphred, Darcy Ann
|author2=Lazaro, Rolando T.
|author3=Roller, Margaret
|author4=Burton, Gordon
|title=Neurological Rehabilitation
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA383
|year=2013
|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences
|isbn=978-0-323-26649-9
|page=383
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173020/https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA383
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; It affects 3–7% of the population,&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt;&lt;ref name=Koo2013&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Kooij
|first1=J. J. Sandra
|title=Adult ADHD: Diagnostic assessment and treatment
|date=2013
|publisher=Springer
|location=London|doi=10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9
|isbn=9781447141389
|page=83
|edition=3rd
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&amp;pg=PA83
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430012545/https://books.google.com/books?id=JM_awX-mSPoC&amp;pg=PA83
|archivedate=30 April 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx
|title=How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101751/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/reading/conditioninfo/pages/risk.aspx
|archivedate=2 April 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
==History==
Dyslexia was clinically described by [[w:Oswald Berkhan|Oswald Berkhan]] in 1881,&lt;ref name=&quot;Oswald Berkhan ref 1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|author=Berkhan O
|year=1917
|title=Über die Wortblindheit, ein Stammeln im Sprechen und Schreiben, ein Fehl im Lesen
|trans-title=About word blindness, adyslalia of speech and writing, a weakness in reading
|language=German
|journal=Neurologisches Centralblatt
|volume=36
|pages=914–27
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DmEsAQAAIAAJ&amp;dq=editions%3AUCALB3248710&amp;q=Wortblindheit#search_anchor
}}&lt;/ref&gt; but the term ''dyslexia'' was coined in 1883 by [[w:Rudolf Berlin|Rudolf Berlin]], an [[w:ophthalmologist|ophthalmologist]] in [[w:Stuttgart|Stuttgart]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Berlin&quot;&gt;Berlin, Rudolf. [No title.] ''Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des Württembergischen Ärztlichen Landesvereins'' [Correspondence Sheet of the Württemberg Medical Association] 53 (1883): 209.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Websters&quot;&gt;Webster's Third New International Dictionary. &quot;History and Etymology for dyslexia&quot;, s.v. &quot;[[mwod:dyslexia|dyslexia, noun]]&quot;. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=''Über Dyslexie''
|trans-title=About dyslexia
|year=1884
|journal=Archiv für Psychiatrie
|volume=15
|pages=276–278
}}&lt;/ref&gt; He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|title=Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences and Analytical Index: A Yearly Report of the Progress of the General Sanitary Sciences Throughout the World
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_IhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA39
|year=1888
|publisher=F. A. Davis Company
|page=39
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200623/https://books.google.com/books?id=5_IhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA39
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from [[w:Seaford, East Sussex|Seaford, East Sussex]], published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the ''[[w:British Medical Journal|British Medical Journal]]'' titled &quot;Congenital Word Blindness&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Brooks
|editor1-first=Patricia
|editor2-last=Vera
|editor2-first=Kempe
|title=Encyclopedia of language development
|first1=Franck |last1=Ramus|first2= Irene|last2= Altarelli
|chapter=Developmental Dyslexia
|date=2014
|publisher=SAGE
|page=130|doi=10.4135/9781483346441.n43
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mvfSAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR30
|isbn=9781483346434
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Mishra
|first1=Srikanta K.
|title=Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders.
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=October 2014
|pmid=25386132
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860
|pmc=4209830
|volume=8
|pages=860
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Signs and symptoms==

In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include [[w:speech delay|delayed onset]] of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt; A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.&lt;ref name=&quot;LilienfeldLynn2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&amp;pg=PT88
|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior
|last2=Lynn
|first2=Steven Jay
|last3=Ruscio
|first3=John
|last4=Beyerstein
|first4=Barry L.
|date=15 September 2011
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5
|pages=88–89
|last1=Lilienfeld
|first1=Scott O.
|authorlink1=Scott Lilienfeld
|authorlink4=Barry Beyerstein
|accessdate=19 May 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109130327/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&amp;pg=PT88
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt;

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit [[w:medical sign|signs]] of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words–both of which depend on [[w:phonological awareness|phonological awareness]].&lt;ref name=DAss&gt;{{cite web
|title=Dyslexia and Related Disorders
|date=January 2003
|website=Alabama Dyslexia Association
|publisher=[[International Dyslexia Association]]
|accessdate=29 April 2015
|url=http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124053/http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf
|archivedate=4 March 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds or may blend sounds when producing words, indicating reduced [[w:phonemic awareness|phonemic awareness]].&lt;ref name=&quot;PeerReid2014&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Peer
|editor1-first=Lindsay
|editor2-last=Reid
|editor2-first=Gavin
|first1=Stephanie
|last1=Miller
|first2=Marjorie
|last2=Bussman Gillis
|title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia: A Challenge for Educators
|chapter=The Language Puzzle: Connecting the Study of Linguistics with a Multisensory Language Instructional Programme in Foreign Language Learning
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA219
|year=2014
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-60899-5
|page=219
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204808/https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA219
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shaywitz2013a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Shaywitz, Sally E.
|author2=Shaywitz, Bennett A.
|chapter=Making a Hidden Disability Visible: What Has Been Learned from Neurobiological Studies of Dyslexia
|editor1-last=Swanson|editor1-first= H. Lee
|editor2-last=Harris|editor2-first= Karen R.
|editor3-last=Graham|editor3-first= Steve
|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&amp;pg=PA647
|edition=2nd
|year=2013
|publisher=Guilford Press
|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143943/https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&amp;pg=PA647
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|647}} People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or [[w:dysgraphia|dysgraphia]], which depends on [[w:Orthography|orthographic coding]].&lt;ref name=Handler2011/&gt;

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in [[w:spelling|spelling]] tests or when reading nonsense words–a measure of phonological awareness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Jarrad
|first1=Lum
|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies
|journal=Research of Developmental Disabilities
|date=October 2013
|pages=3460–76
|pmid=23920029
|pmc=3784964
|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017
|volume=34
|issue=10
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Associated conditions===
Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum
|journal=Cortex
|volume=47
|issue=1
|pages=117–27
|date=September 2009
|pmid=19818437
|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016
|last1=Nicolson
|first1=R. I.
|last2=Fawcett
|first2=A. J.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These associated disabilities include:
*[[w:Dysgraphia|Dysgraphia]]: A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with [[w:eye–hand coordination|eye–hand coordination;]] it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.&lt;ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Reynolds
|editor1-first=Cecil R.
|editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen
|editor2-first=Elaine
|title=Encyclopedia of Special Education|doi=10.1002/9780470373699.speced0706|first1=Lindsey A. |last1=Phillips|first2=Elaine|last2= Clark
|date=2 January 2007
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|chapter=Dysgraphia
|isbn=978-0-471-67798-7
|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&amp;pg=PA771 771]
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing [[w:Automaticity|automaticity]], organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.&lt;ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007/&gt;
*[[w:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml
|title=Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
|last=
|first=
|date=March 2016
|website=NIH: National Institute of Mental Health
|publisher=
|access-date=26 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723192735/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml
|archivedate=23 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.&lt;ref name=&quot;Koo2013&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ComerGould2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&amp;pg=RA1-PA233
|title=Psychology Around Us
|date=2011
|publisher=RR Donnelley
|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6
|page=1
|author1=Comer, Ronald
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604000711/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&amp;pg=RA1-PA233
|archivedate=4 June 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last2=Gagliano
|first2=A
|last3=Curatolo
|first3=P
|year=2010
|title=Comorbidity of ADHD and Dyslexia
|url=http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/260009__925867416.pdf
|journal=Developmental Neuropsychology
|volume=35
|issue=5
|pages=475–493
|doi=10.1080/87565641.2010.494748
|pmid=20721770
|last1=Germanò
|first1=E
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Approximately 15%&lt;ref name=&quot;Handler2011&quot; /&gt; or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;&lt;ref name=&quot;FatemiSartorius2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&amp;pg=PA308
|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry
|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media
|year=2008
|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6
|edition=3rd|chapter=Disruptive Behavior Disorders|first1=Anna |last1=Baumgaertel|first2= Lisa |last2=Blaskey |first3= Smita X.|last3= Antia|doi=10.1007/978-1-59745-252-6_18 
|page=308
|editor1-last=Fatemi|editor1-first= S. Hossein
|editor2-last=Clayton|editor2-first= Paula J.
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101234/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&amp;pg=PA308
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Handler2011&quot; /&gt;
*[[w:Auditory processing disorder|Auditory processing disorder]]: A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.&lt;ref name=&quot;Capellini2007a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Capellini, Simone Aparecida
|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&amp;pg=PA94
|year=2007
|publisher=Nova Publishers
|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7
|page=94
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109113545/https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&amp;pg=PA94
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|title=The diagnosis and management of auditory processing disorder
|journal=Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools
|volume=42
|issue=3
|pages=303–8
|date=July 2011
|pmid=21757566
|doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0032)
|last1=Moore
|first1=D. R.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This can lead to problems with [[w:auditory memory|auditory memory]] and auditory [[w:sequencing|sequencing]]. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own [[w:logographic cues|logographic cues]] to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Pammer2014&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pammer
|first1=Kristen
|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers.
|journal=Scientifica
|date=January 2014
|pmid=24527259
|pmc=3913493
|doi=10.1155/2014/802741
|volume=2014
|pages=802741
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Law
|first1=J
|title=relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=2014
|pmid=25071512
|pmc=4078926
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482
|volume=8
|pages=482
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[w:Developmental coordination disorder|Developmental coordination disorder]]: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-[[w:motor skills|motor control]], [[w:kinesthetic|kinesthetic]] coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with [[w:Working memory|short-term memory]], and organization.&lt;ref name=Pickering2012&gt;{{cite book
|author=Susan J. Pickering
|chapter= Working Memory in Dyslexia
|editor1-last=Alloway|editor1-first= Tracy Packiam
|editor2-last=Gathercole|editor2-first= Susan E.
|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&amp;pg=PA29
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109194637/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&amp;pg=PA29
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Causes ==
{{fig
 |number      =  1
 |image       = Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation.gif
 |caption     = Inferior parietal lobule - superior view animation
 |attribution = Anatomography, [[creativecommons:by-sa/2.1/jp/deed.en|CC BY-SA 2.1 JP]]
 |align       = right
 |size        = width (default = 250px)
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}

Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oswald Berkhan ref 1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReidFawcett2008x&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyytinen |first1=Heikki |last2=Erskine |first2=Jane |last3=Ahonen |first3=Timo |last4=Aro |first4=Mikko |last5=Eklund |first5=Kenneth |last6=Guttorm |first6=Tomi |last7=Hintikka |first7=Sini |last8=Hamalainen |first8=Jarmo |last9=Ketonen |first9=Ritva |last10=Laakso |first10=Marja-Leena |last11=Leppanen |first11=Paavo H.T. |last12=Lyytinen |first12=Paula |last13=Poikkeus |first13=Anna-Maija |last14=Puolakanaho |first14=Anne |last15=Richardson |first15=Ulla |last16=Salmi |first16=Paula |last17=Tolvanen |first17=Asko |last18=Torppa |first18=Minna |last19=Viholainen |first19=Helena |chapter=Early Identification and Prevention of Dyslexia: Results from a Prospective Follow-up Study of Children at Familial Risk for Dyslexia |title=The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia |date=2008  |doi=10.4135/9780857020987.n7|editor1-first=Gavin |editor1-last=Reid|editor2-first= Angela J.|editor2-last= Fawcett|editor3-first= Frank|editor3-last= Manis|editor4-first= Linda S.|editor4-last= Siegel
|publisher=SAGE Publications
|isbn=978-1-84860-037-9
|page=127
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=937rqz4Ryc8C&amp;pg=PA127
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stein2014&quot; &gt;{{cite journal
|first1=John
|last1=Stein
|year=2014
|title=Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention
|journal=Current Developmental Disorders Reports
|volume=1
|issue=4
|pages=267–80
|pmid=25346883
|pmc=4203994
|doi=10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

===Neuroanatomy===
Modern [[w:neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, such as [[w:functional magnetic resonance imaging|functional magnetic resonance imaging]] ([[w:fMRI|fMRI]]) and [[w:positron emission tomography|positron emission tomography]] (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;Whitaker2010r&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Whitaker, Harry A.
|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&amp;pg=PA180
|year=2010
|publisher=Elsevier
|isbn=978-0-08-096499-7
|page=180
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109173223/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNcDiRV2jJQC&amp;pg=PA180
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some people with dyslexia show less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the [[w:inferior frontal gyrus|inferior frontal gyrus]], [[w:inferior parietal lobule|inferior parietal lobule]], and the middle and [[w:Brodmann area 20|ventral temporal cortex]].&lt;ref name=Pammer2014/&gt; Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual [[w:lexicon|lexicon]] and for auditory verbal [[w:short-term memory|short-term memory]] components have been proposed,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Price
|first1=cathy
|title=A Review and Synthesis of the first 20 years of Pet and fMRI studies of heard Speech, Spoken Language and Reading
|journal=NeuroImage
|date=16 August 2012
|volume=62
|issue=2
|pages=816–847
|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062
|pmid=22584224
}}&lt;/ref&gt; with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the [[w:cerebellum|cerebellum]] and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Sharifi
|first1=S
|title=Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review.
|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical
|date=May 2014
|pages=217–231
|pmid=25068111
|pmc=4110352
|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003
|volume=5
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Brandler
|first1=William
|title=The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders
|journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine
|date=February 2014
|pages=83–90
|pmid=24275328
|pmc=3969300
|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008
|volume=20
|issue=2
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the [[w:fluency|fluency]] problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the [[w:Autonomic nervous system|automatization]] of some tasks, such as reading.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Cain
|first1=Kate
|title=Reading development and difficulties
|date=2010
|publisher=TJ International
|page=134
|edition=1st
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FT6RALjOr9QC&amp;pg=PA134&amp;dq=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia#v=onepage&amp;q=cerebellar%20theory%20of%20dyslexia&amp;f=false
|accessdate=21 March 2015
|isbn=9781405151559
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The fact that some children  with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Levav
|first1=Itzhak
|title=Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental health
|date=2009
|publisher=Green Publishing
|page=52
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=W2RzffMnpg8C&amp;pg=PA52&amp;dq=cerebellar+theory+of+dyslexia#v=onepage&amp;q=cerebellar%20theory%20of%20dyslexia&amp;f=false
|accessdate=21 March 2015
|isbn=9789652294685
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Genetics===
Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-[[w:autopsy|autopsy]] examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stein2014&quot; /&gt; Observed anatomical differences in the [[w:language center|language center]]s of such brains include microscopic [[w:cerebral cortex|cortical]] malformations known as [[wikt:ectopia|ectopias]], and more rarely, [[w:blood vessel|vascular]] micro-malformations, and  [[w:microgyrus|microgyrus]]—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.&lt;ref name=&quot;Faust2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1=Faust, Miriam
|title=The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&amp;pg=PA941
|year=2012
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-1-4443-3040-3|last1=Stein|first1=John|doi=10.1002/9781118432501.ch45|chapter=The Neurobiological Basis of Dyslexia: The Magnocellular Theory
|pages=941–43
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109200538/https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWVqdNFL4cC&amp;pg=PA941
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The previously cited studies and others&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Benitez
|first1=A
|title=Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia
|journal=Neurology (In Spanish)
|date=November 2010
|pmid=21093706
|doi=10.1016/j.nrl.2009.12.010
|volume=25
|issue=9
|pages=563–81
}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of [[w:fetal|fetal]] brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Kere
|first1=Julia
|title=The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype
|journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
|date=September 2014
|pages=236–43
|doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102
|pmid=25078623
|volume=452
|issue=2
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including [[w:DCDC2|DCDC2]] and [[w:KIAA0319|KIAA0319]] on [[w:chromosome 6|chromosome 6]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall2012v&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Marshall, Chloë R.|doi=10.4324/9780203100288-10|chapter=The genetics of developmental disorders|last1=Newbury|first1=Dianne
|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&amp;pg=PA53
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7
|pages=53–56
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109103320/https://books.google.com/books?id=jHqYP39rI40C&amp;pg=PA53
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:DYX1C1|DYX1C1]] on [[w:chromosome 15|chromosome 15]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Rosen2013v&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Rosen, Glenn D.|last1=Galaburda|first1=Albert M.|chapter=Dyslexia: Advances in Cross-level Research
|title=The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&amp;pg=PA342
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-81550-0
|page=342
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143349/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHBxBEekGSkC&amp;pg=PA342
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Gene–environment interaction===
The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using [[w:twin studies|twin studies]], which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Parental Education Moderates Genetic Influences on Reading Disability
|journal=Psychological Science
|volume=19
|issue=11
|pages=1124–30
|date=November 2008
|pmid=19076484
|pmc=2605635
|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x
|last1=Friend
|first1=A
|last2=Defries
|first2=J. C.
|last3=Olson
|first3=R. K.
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and teaching quality&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|bibcode=2010Sci...328..512T
|title=Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading
|journal=Science
|volume=328
|issue=5977
|pages=512–4
|last1=Taylor
|first1=J.
|last2=Roehrig
|first2=A. D.
|last3=Hensler
|first3=B. Soden
|last4=Connor
|first4=C. M.
|last5=Schatschneider
|first5=C.
|year=2010
|doi=10.1126/science.1186149
|pmid=20413504
|pmc=2905841
}}&lt;/ref&gt; have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.&lt;ref name=pmid19209992&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pennington
|first1=Bruce F.
|last2=McGrath
|first2=Lauren M.
|last3=Rosenberg
|first3=Jenni
|last4=Barnard
|first4=Holly
|last5=Smith
|first5=Shelley D.
|last6=Willcutt
|first6=Erik G.
|last7=Friend
|first7=Angela
|last8=Defries
|first8=John C.
|last9=Olson
|first9=Richard K.
|date=January 2009
|title=Gene × Environment Interactions in Reading Disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Developmental Psychology
|volume=45
|issue=1
|pages=77–89
|doi=10.1037/a0014549
|pmid=19209992
|pmc=2743891
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.&lt;ref name=pmid19209992/&gt; 

As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that [[w:epigenetic|epigenetic]] modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of [[w:gene expression|gene expression]], [[wikipedia:Histone#Histone_modification|histone modifications]], and [[w:methylation|methylation]] in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last=Roth
|first=Tania L.
|last2=Roth
|first2=Eric D.
|last3=Sweatt
|first3=J. David
|date=September 2010
|title=Epigenetic regulation of genes in learning and memory
|journal=Essays in Biochemistry
|volume=48
|issue=1
|pages=263–74
|pmid=20822498
|doi=10.1042/bse0480263
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Smith
|first=Shelley D.
|date=2011-12
|title=Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders
|journal=Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
|volume=3
|issue=4
|pages=356–364
|doi=10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y
|issn=1866-1947
|pmc=3261263
|pmid=22113455
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
====Language====
The [[w:orthographic depth|orthographic complexity]] of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Paulesu|first1= Eraldo|last2= Brunswick|first2= Nicola |last3= Paganelli|first3= Federica|date=2010|chapter=Cross-cultural differences in unimpaired and dyslexic reading: Behavioral and functional anatomical observations in readers of regular and irregular orthographies|title=Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies|editor1-first=Nicola|editor1-last= Brunswick|editor2-first= Siné|editor2-last= McDougall|editor3-first= Paul|editor3-last= de Mornay Davies|publisher= Psychology Press|isbn=9781135167813|doi=10.4324/9780203858462-23|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|266}} English and French have comparatively &quot;deep&quot; [[w:phonemic orthographies|phonemic orthographies]] within the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] [[w:writing system|writing system]], with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and [[w:morpheme|morpheme]]s.&lt;ref name=&quot;DickinsonNeuman2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author=Juel, Connie
|chapter=The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading
|editor1=David K. Dickinson
|editor2=Susan B. Neuman
|title=Handbook of Early Literacy Research
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA421
|year=2013
|publisher=Guilford Publications
|isbn=978-1-4625-1470-0
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109162332/https://books.google.com/books?id=_chXAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA421
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|421}} Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish have mostly alphabetic orthographies, which primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called &quot;shallow&quot; orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;/&gt;{{rp|266}}  [[w:Logograph|Logograph]]ic writing systems, such as [[w:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]], have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Annual Research Review: The nature and classification of reading disorders – a commentary on proposals for DSM-5
|journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
|date = 1 May 2012
|pmc = 3492851
|pmid = 22141434
|pages = 593–607
|volume = 53
|issue = 5
|doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x
|first = Margaret J
|last = Snowling
|first2 = Charles
|last2 = Hulme
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Pathophysiology==
{{fig
 |number      =  2
 |image       = Gray733.png
 |caption     = Corpus callosum view, front part at top of image
 |attribution = Public domain
 |align       = right
 |size        = 150px
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}

Most people who are right-hand dominant have the left hemisphere of their brain specialize more in language processing. In terms of the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization may be less pronounced or even absent in cases with dyslexia. Additionally, anatomical differences in the [[wikipedia:Corpus_callosum|corpus callosum]], the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres, have been linked to dyslexia via different studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;habi&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Habib
|first1=Michael
|title=Pediatric Neurology Part I
|volume=111
|chapter=Dyslexia
|date=2013
|pages=229–235
|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444528919000233
|accessdate=19 December 2018
|language=en
|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00023-3
|pmid=23622168
|series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology
|isbn=9780444528919
}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading/language. Finally, the left [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|inferior frontal gyrus]] has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=habi/&gt; Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia thus identifying the effects of certain genes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape
|journal = Journal of Medical Genetics
|date = 2007
|pmc = 2597981
|pmid = 17307837
|pages = 289–297
|volume = 44
|issue = 5
|doi = 10.1136/jmg.2006.046516
|first = Johannes
|last = Schumacher
|first2 = Per
|last2 = Hoffmann
|first3 = Christine
|last3 = Schmäl
|first4 = Gerd
|last4 = Schulte‐Körne
|first5 = Markus M
|last5 = Nöthen
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
===Dual route theory===

The dual-route theory of [[w:Reading (process)|reading]] aloud was first described in the early 1970s.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pritchard 2012&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Pritchard|first1= S. C.
|last2=Coltheart|first2= M.
|last3=Palethorpe|first3= S.
|last4=Castles|first4= A.
|title=Nonword reading: comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data
|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
|volume=38
|issue=5
|pages=1268–88
|date=October 2012
|pmid=22309087
|doi=10.1037/a0026703
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013z&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Eysenck, Michael
|author2=Keane, Mark T.
|title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook|edition=6th
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA373
|year=2013
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-134-44046-7|doi=10.4324/9781315000114
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109123837/https://books.google.com/books?id=U-IF8PAa_jIC&amp;pg=PA373
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|373}} One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a &quot;dictionary&quot; lookup procedure.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013z&quot; /&gt;{{rp|450}} The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can &quot;sound out&quot; a written word.&lt;ref name=&quot;EysenckKeane2013z&quot;/&gt;{{rp|450}}&lt;ref name=&quot;HulmeJoshi2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1-last=Hulme
|editor1-first=Charles
|editor2-last=Joshi
|editor2-first=R. Malatesha
|editor3-last=Snowling
|editor3-first=Margaret J.
|title=Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&amp;pg=PT151
|year=2012
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-49807-7|doi=10.4324/9780203053782-16|last1=Felton|first1=Rebecca H.|chapter=The Development of Reading Skills in Poor Readers: Educational Implications
|page=151
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109141419/https://books.google.com/books?id=MumCCKK4JR8C&amp;pg=PT151
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, [[w:phonemes|phonemes]], [[w:graphemes|graphemes]]) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pritchard 2012&quot; /&gt; The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers).&lt;ref name=&quot;BrunswickMcDougall2010&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Sprenger-Charolles
|first1=Liliane
|title=Prevalence and Reliability of Phonological, Surface, and Mixed Profiles in Dyslexia: A Review of Studies Conducted in Languages Varying in Orthographic Depth
|journal=Scientific Studies of Reading
|date=2011
|pages=498–521
|doi=10.1080/10888438.2010.524463
|volume=15
|issue=6
|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00733553
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830150246/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00733553
|archivedate=30 August 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Diagnosis==
===Classification===

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rose&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Boada
|first=Richard
|last2=Willcutt
|first2=Erik G.
|last3=Pennington
|first3=Bruce F.
|date=2012
|title=Understanding the Comorbidity Between Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Topics in Language Disorders
|quote=... Pennington proposed a multiple deficit model for complex disorders like dyslexia, hypothesizing that such complex disorders are heterogeneous conditions that arise from the additive and interactive effects of multiple genetic and environmental risk factors, which then lead to weaknesses in multiple cognitive domains.
|volume=32
|issue=3
|page=270
|doi=10.1097/tld.0b013e31826203ac
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Pennington
|first=B
|date=September 2006
|title=From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders
|journal=Cognition
|volume=101
|issue=2
|pages=385–413
|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008
|pmid=16844106
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (''phonological processing''); and verbal working memory deficits.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Peterson
|first=Robin L.
|last2=Pennington
|first2=Bruce F.
|date=28 March 2015
|title=Developmental Dyslexia
|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842
|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
|volume=11
|issue=1
|pages=283–307
|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842
|ssrn=2588407
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;very-short&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Snowling|first1= Margaret J.|title=Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|date= 2019|isbn=9780192550422|doi=10.1093/actrade/9780198818304.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dyslexia is a [[w:neurodevelopmental disorder|neurodevelopmental disorder]], subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a ''learning disorder with impairment in reading'' (ICD-11 prefixes &quot;developmental&quot; to &quot;learning disorder&quot;; DSM-5 uses &quot;specific&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/1008636089
|title=6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading
|work=International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics)
|publisher=World Health Organization
|access-date=2019-10-07
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5.
|date=2013
|publisher=American Psychiatric Association
|quote=Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in reading ... Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities.
|isbn=9780890425541
|edition=5th
|location=Arlington, VA
|oclc=830807378
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=FragaGonzález
|first=Gorka
|last2=Karipidis
|first2=Iliana
|last3=Tijms
|first3=Jurgen
|date=2018-10-19
|title=Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder
|journal=Brain Sciences
|volume=8
|issue=10
|pages=189
|doi=10.3390/brainsci8100189
|issn=2076-3425
|pmc=6209961
|pmid=30347764
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is not a problem with [[w:intelligence|intelligence]]. [[w:Emotional and behavioral disorders|Emotional problems]] often arise secondary to learning difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;Campbell2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Campbell
|first1=Robert Jean
|title=Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&amp;pg=PA310
|year=2009
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-534159-1
|pages=310–312
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101113/https://books.google.com/books?id=kpIs03n1hxkC&amp;pg=PA310
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke|National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] describes dyslexia as &quot;difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;ninds1&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page
|last=
|first=
|date=11 September 2015
|website=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
|publisher=National Institutes of Health
|access-date=
|accessdate=27 July 2016
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727234247/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm
|archivedate=27 July 2016
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as &quot;a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling&quot; and is characterized by &quot;difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;PhillipsKelly2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Phillips, Sylvia
|author2=Kelly, Kathleen
|author3=Symes, Liz
|title=Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7
|year=2013
|publisher=SAGE
|isbn=978-1-4462-8704-0
|page=7
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109093024/https://books.google.com/books?id=7ZDCAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Phonological awareness'' enables one to identify, discriminate, remember ([[w:working memory|working memory]]), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—[[w:phonemes|phonemes]], [[w:onsite-rime|onsite-rime]] segments, syllables, and words.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Stahl
|first1=Steven A.
|last2=Murray
|first2=Bruce A.
|title=Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading.
|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology
|volume=86
|issue=2
|pages=221–234
|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.221
|date=1994
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|title=Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Perception in 4-Year-Old Children With Delayed Expressive Phonology Skills
|journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology
|date=1 November 2003
|volume=12
|issue=4
|pages=463–471
|doi=10.1044/1058-0360(2003/092)
|pmid=14658998
|last1=Rvachew
|first1=Susan
|last2=Ohberg
|first2=Alyssa
|last3=Grawburg
|first3=Meghann
|last4=Heyding
|first4=Joan
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Assessment===

====Principles of Assessment====
* Strive for a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s); school psychologist; pediatrician; and, as appropriate, [[w:Speech-language pathology|speech and language pathologist (speech therapist)]]; and [[w:Occupational therapy|occupational therapist]].&lt;ref name=&quot;iding&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first3=Catherine|last3= Christo|first2= John M.|last2= Davis|first1= Stephen E.|last1= Brock|title=Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at School|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|date=2009|page=59|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-88600-8|isbn=978-0-387-88600-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Possess a thorough familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones (write first name; draw a square), and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognize rhyming words; identify the initial sounds in words).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Mather|first1= Nancy |first2=Barbara J. |last2=Wendling|title=Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention|location=Hoboken, NJ|publisher= John Wiley &amp; Sons|date= 2012|isbn=978-0470927601}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Avoid over-reliance on tests. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reid|first1= Gavin|first2= Jennie|last2= Guise|title=The Dyslexia Assessment|location=London|publisher= Bloomsbury|date= 2017|isbn=978-1472945082}} (&quot;... assessment for dyslexia includes more than tests; it involves comprehensive insights into the student's learning. This requires a full and comprehensive individual assessment as well as consideration of the environment and contextual factors.&quot;).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=M. S.|last1= Thambirajah|title=Developmental Assessment of the School-Aged Child with Developmental Disabilities: A Clinician's Guide|location=London|publisher= Jessica Kingsley|date= 2011|page= 74|isbn=978-1849051811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Take advantage of the empirically supported &quot;response to intervention&quot; (RTI) approach,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Jimerson|first1= Shane R.|first2= Matthew K. |last2=Burns|first3= Amanda M.|last3= VanDerHeyden|title=Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support|edition=2nd|location=New York|publisher= Springer Science+Business Media|date= 2016|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7568-3|isbn=978-1-4899-7568-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; which &quot;... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Snowling |first1=Margaret J. |title=Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view: Early identification and interventions for dyslexia: a contemporary view |journal=Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs |date=2013 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Assessment instruments (tests)====
There are a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility that a person might have dyslexia.&lt;ref name=&quot;testing&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests
|title=Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities
|publisher=University of Michigan
|accessdate=15 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150313000802/http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/dyslexics/learn-about-dyslexia/dyslexia-testing/tests
|archivedate=13 March 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;PeerReid2013p&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|author1=Peer, Lindsay
|author2=Reid, Gavin
|title=Introduction to Dyslexia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT35
|year=2013
|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|doi=10.4324/9780203962695
|isbn=978-1-135-37290-3
|pages=35–40
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109134343/https://books.google.com/books?id=OTiAAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT35
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.&lt;ref name=balexia/&gt; Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.&lt;ref name=&quot;balexia&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Screening and assessment
|url=http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
|website=British Dyslexia Association
|accessdate=11 March 2015
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330101403/http://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/educator/screening-and-assessment
|archivedate=30 March 2015
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Fletcher
|first1=Jack
|title=Dyslexia: the evolution of a scientific concept
|journal=Journal of International Neuropsychology Society
|date=2009
|pages=501–508
|pmc=3079378
|pmid=19573267
|doi=10.1017/S1355617709090900
|volume=15
|issue=4
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include:&lt;ref name=&quot;gerd&quot;&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Schulte-Körne
|first1=Gerd
|title=The Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Dyslexia
|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
|date=October 2010
|volume=107
|issue=41
|pages=718–727
|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
|pmid=21046003
|pmc=2967798
|issn=1866-0452
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*General measures of cognitive ability, such as the [[wikipedia:Wechsler_Intelligence_Scale_for_Children|Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children]], [[wikipedia:Woodcock–Johnson_Tests_of_Cognitive_Abilities|Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities]], or [[wikipedia:Stanford–Binet_Intelligence_Scales|Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales]]. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_26|last1=Mather|first1= N.|last2= Schneider|first2= D.|chapter= The use of intelligence tests in the diagnosis of specific reading disability
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ylzEBQAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Handbook+of+Intelligence:+Evolutionary+theory,+historical+perspective,+and+current+concepts#v=onepage&amp;q=Handbook%20of%20Intelligence%3A%20Evolutionary%20theory%2C%20historical%20perspective%2C%20and%20current%20concepts&amp;f=false
|title=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts
|editor1-last=Goldstein
|editor1-first=Sam
|editor2-last=Princiotta
|editor2-first=Dana
|editor3-last=Naglieri
|editor3-first=Jack A.
|date=2014
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=9781493915620
|pages=415–433
|language=en
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the [[wikipedia:Strengths_and_Difficulties_Questionnaire|Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire]]. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the [[wikipedia:Vanderbilt_ADHD_diagnostic_rating_scale|Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales]] or the [[wikipedia:Screen_for_child_anxiety_related_disorders|Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)]]. [[wikipedia:Screening_(medicine)|Screening]] uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Collett
|first1=Brent R.
|last2=Ohan
|first2=Jeneva L.
|last3=Myers
|first3=Kathleen M.
|title=Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry
|date=1 September 2003
|volume=42
|issue=9
|pages=1015–1037
|doi=10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6
|pmid=12960702
|url=https://jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(09)60999-0/fulltext
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=English
|issn=0890-8567
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Stone
|first1=Lisanne L
|last2=Janssens
|first2=Jan M A M
|last3=Vermulst
|first3=Ad A
|last4=Van Der Maten
|first4=Marloes
|last5=Engels
|first5=Rutger C M E
|last6=Otten
|first6=Roy
|title=The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4–7
|journal=BMC Psychology
|date=20 February 2015
|volume=3
|issue=1
|pages=4
|doi=10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8
|pmid=25815194
|pmc=4364334
|issn=2050-7283
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Swart
|first1=G. T.
|title=The Clinician's Guide To The Behavior Assessment System For Children
|journal=The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review
|date=NaN
|volume=14
|issue=3
|pages=90
|issn=1716-9119
|pmc=2542918
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Birmaher
|first1=B.
|last2=Khetarpal
|first2=S.
|last3=Brent
|first3=D.
|last4=Cully
|first4=M.
|last5=Balach
|first5=L.
|last6=Kaufman
|first6=J.
|last7=Neer
|first7=S. M.
|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics
|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
|date=NaN
|volume=36
|issue=4
|pages=545–553
|doi=10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018
|pmid=9100430
|issn=0890-8567
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking &lt;16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the [[wikipedia:Iowa_Tests_of_Educational_Development|Iowa Tests of Educational Development]], that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the [[wikipedia:Wide_Range_Achievement_Test|Wide Range Achievement Test]], or the [[wikipedia:Woodcock–Johnson_Tests_of_Cognitive_Abilities|Woodcock-Johnson]] (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Lindquist
|first1=E. F.
|title=The Iowa tests of educational development: how to use the test results; a manual for teachers and counselors
|date=1953
|publisher=Science Research Associates
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yOc9AAAAYAAJ&amp;q=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development&amp;dq=Iowa+Tests+of+Educational+Development
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=en
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Dell
|first1=Cindy Ann
|last2=Harrold
|first2=Barbara
|last3=Dell
|first3=Thomas
|title=Test Review: Wilkinson, G. S., &amp; Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test—Fourth Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. WRAT4 Introductory Kit (includes manual, 25 test/response forms [blue and green], and accompanying test materials): $243.00
|journal=Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
|date=1 October 2008
|volume=52
|issue=1
|pages=57–60
|doi=10.1177/0034355208320076
|language=en
|issn=0034-3552
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Semrud-Clikeman
|first1=Margaret
|last2=Ellison
|first2=Phyllis Anne Teeter
|title=Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders|edition= 2nd
|date=2009|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-88963-4
|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media
|isbn=9780387889634
|page=119
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGSF9Jyg6AC&amp;pg=PT119#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false
|accessdate=3 October 2019
|language=en
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Screening==
Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.&lt;ref name=&quot;iding&quot; /&gt; In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consist of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.&lt;ref name=&quot;very-short&quot; /&gt;{{rp|93–94}}&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/190599/Letters_and_Sounds_-_DFES-00281-2007.pdf Letters and Sounds: Principles and Practice of High Quality Phonics], Ref: DFES-00281-2007 (00281-2007BKT-EN), Primary National Strategy, Department for Education and Skills (United Kingdom), 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the ''Phonics screening check''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/phonics-screening-check-2019-materials
|title=Phonics screening check: 2019 materials
|work=United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency
|access-date=14 October 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt; used by United Kingdom schools during [[w:Year One (education)|Year One]].

In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that &quot;[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s.&quot; Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/747410566
|title=Developmental assessment of the school-aged child with developmental disabilities : a clinician's guide
|last=Thambirajah, M. S.
|date=2011
|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers
|isbn=9780857003256
|location=London
|oclc=747410566
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Management ==
Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Bogon
|first1=Johana
|title=TVA based assessment of visual attention functions in developmental dyslexia
|journal=Frontiers in Psychology
|date=October 2014
|pmc=4199262
|pmid=25360129
|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172
|volume=5
|pages=1172
}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder.&lt;ref name=&quot;Brunswick2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor1=Brunswick, Nicola|first1=Fiona|last1= White|first2=Richard|last2= Mendez|first3=Rosanne|last3= Rieley|chapter=Preparing for Work: Dyslexic Undergraduates Making the Transition into Employment
|title=Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&amp;pg=PA115
|accessdate=10 April 2012
|date=10 April 2012
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons
|isbn=978-0-470-97479-7|doi=10.1002/9781119945000.ch12
|pages=112–122
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231081312/http://books.google.com/books?id=suc1o0hueowC&amp;pg=PA115
|archivedate=31 December 2013
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.&lt;ref name=pmid21046003&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Schulte-Körne
|first1=G
|title=The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia
|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt International
|date=October 2010
|pages=718–26
|pmc=2967798
|pmid=21046003
|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718
|volume=107
|issue=41
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For [[w:dyslexia intervention|dyslexia intervention]] with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between [[w:grapheme|grapheme]]s (letters) and [[w:phoneme|phoneme]]s (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.&lt;ref name=Lyytinen&gt;{{Cite book
|author=Lyytinen, Heikki
|author2=Erskine, Jane
|author3=Aro, Mikko
|author4=Richardson, Ulla
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&amp;pg=PA454
|chapter=Reading and reading disorders|doi=10.1002/9780470757833.ch22
|editor-last=Hoff
|editor-first=Erika
|title=Blackwell Handbook of Language Development
|pages=454–474
|publisher=Blackwell
|place=
|year=2009
|isbn=978-1-4051-9459-4
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204820/https://books.google.com/books?id=PCy6c9hIL5YC&amp;pg=PA454
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=van der Leij
|first1=Aryan
|title=Dyslexia and early intervention: what did we learn from the Dutch Dyslexia Programme?
|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date=1 November 2013
|volume=19
|issue=4
|pages=241–255
|doi=10.1002/dys.1466
|pmid=24133037
|issn=1099-0909
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There is some evidence that the use of specially-tailored fonts may help with dyslexia.&lt;ref name=Renske&gt;{{Cite journal
|first=Renske
|last=de Leeuw
|title=Special Font For Dyslexia?
|place=[[University of Twente]]
|page=32
|date=December 2010
|language=English, Dutch
|url=http://www.ilo.gw.utwente.nl/ilo/attachments/032_Masterthesis_Leeuw.pdf
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101034537/http://www.ilo.gw.utwente.nl/ilo/attachments/032_Masterthesis_Leeuw.pdf
|archivedate=1 November 2011
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These fonts, which include [[w:Dyslexie|Dyslexie]], [[w:OpenDyslexic|OpenDyslexic]], and [[w:Lexie Readable|Lexie Readable]], were created based on the idea that many of the letters of the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] are visually similar and may, therefore, confuse people with dyslexia. Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic both put emphasis on making each letter more distinctive in order to be more easily identified.&lt;ref name=sawers&gt;{{cite web
|last=Sawers
|first=Paul
|title=Dyslexie: A typeface for dyslexics
|url=https://thenextweb.com/shareables/2011/06/30/dyslexie-a-typeface-for-dyslexics/
|accessdate=9 April 2012
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413154354/http://thenextweb.com/shareables/2011/06/30/dyslexie-a-typeface-for-dyslexics/
|archivedate=13 April 2012
|df=dmy-all
|date=2011-06-30
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The benefits, however, might largely be due to the added spacing between words.&lt;ref name=Mar2016/&gt; In terms of music and any possible positive effects on people with dyslexia, until now there is currently no evidence or data showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of  adolescents with dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title=Music education for improving reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia
|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
|issue=8
|last=Cogo-Moreira
|first=Hugo
|last2=Andriolo
|first2=Régis B
|last3=Yazigi
|first3=Latife
|last4=Ploubidis
|first4=George B
|last5=Brandão de Ávila
|first5=Clara Regina
|last6=Mari
|first6=Jair J
|date=15 August 2012
|pages=CD009133
|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd009133.pub2
|pmid=22895983
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Prognosis==
Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=O’Hare
|first1=Anne
|title=Dyslexia: what do paediatricians need to know?
|journal=Pediatrics and Child Health
|date=2010
|pages=338–343
|doi=10.1016/j.paed.2010.04.004
|volume=20
|issue=7
}}&lt;/ref&gt; While there are fonts that may help people with dyslexia better understand writing, this might simply be due to the added spacing between words.&lt;ref name=Renske/&gt;&lt;ref name=Mar2016&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Marinus
|first1=E
|last2=Mostard
|first2=M
|last3=Segers
|first3=E
|last4=Schubert
|first4=TM
|last5=Madelaine
|first5=A
|last6=Wheldall
|first6=K
|title=A Special Font for People with Dyslexia: Does it Work and, if so, why?
|journal=Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date=August 2016
|volume=22
|issue=3
|pages=233–44
|pmid=27194598
|doi=10.1002/dys.1527
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.&lt;ref name=ninds1/&gt; The New York educational system (NYED) indicates &quot;a daily uninterrupted 90 minute block of instruction in reading&quot;, furthermore &quot;instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency&quot; so as to improve the individuals reading ability.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Response to Intervention Guidance - Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) - Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED
|url=http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance/instruction.htm
|website=www.p12.nysed.gov
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Epidemiology==
The percentage of people with dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title = Psychiatry, 2 Volume Set
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ
|publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons
|date = 29 January 2015
|isbn = 9781118845493
|first = Allan
|last = Tasman
|first2 = Jerald
|last2 = Kay
|first3 = Jeffrey A.
|last3 = Lieberman
|first4 = Michael B.
|last4 = First
|first5 = Michelle
|last5 = Riba
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906081853/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Rp0BgAAQBAJ
|archivedate = 6 September 2015
|df = dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; While it is diagnosed more often in males,&lt;ref name=Lancet2012/&gt; some believe that it affects males and females equally.

There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world, but despite significant differences in writing systems, dyslexia occurs in different populations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Protopapas
|first1=Athanassios
|title=From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
|date=2013
|pmid=24324245
|doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0090
|pmc=3866431
|volume=369
|issue=1634
|pages=20130090
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting [[w:Chinese character|Chinese character]]s into their meanings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Zhao
|first1=Jing
|title=The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition.
|journal=Scientific Reports
|date=November 2014
|pmc=4238300
|pmid=25412386
|doi=10.1038/srep07068
|volume=4
|pages=7068
|bibcode = 2014NatSR...4E7068Z
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Marshall2012l&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|editor=Marshall, Chloë R.|doi=10.4324/9780203100288-14|chapter=Issues of culture and language in developmental disorders: The case of dyslexia in Chinese learners|last1=Wong|first1=Simpson W. L.|first2=Moon X. Y.|last2=Xiao|first3=Kevin K. H.|last3=Chung
|title=Current Issues in Developmental Disorders
|year=2012
|publisher=Psychology Press
|isbn=978-1-136-23067-7
|pages=
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&amp;pg=PA152
|page=152
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109144200/https://books.google.com/books?id=5VK_TWsQ3N4C&amp;pg=PA152
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|title = Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood
|url = https://books.google.com/?id=5ujeVaMa9U0C&amp;pg=PA177
|publisher = Jason Aronson
|date = 16 January 2012
|isbn = 9780765708663
|first = Elena
|last = Garralda
|first2 = Jean-Philippe
|last2 = Raynaud
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies
|journal = CoDAS
|pages = 509–519
|volume = 26
|issue = 6
|doi = 10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135
|pmid = 25590915
|first = Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto
|last = Navas
|first2 = Érica de Cássia
|last2 = Ferraz
|first3 = Juliana Postigo Amorina
|last3 = Borges
|first4 = Ana Luiza Gomes Pinto
|last4 = Navas
|first5 = Érica de Cássia
|last5 = Ferraz
|first6 = Juliana Postigo Amorina
|last6 = Borges
|year = 2014
|df = dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Research and social perceptions==
{{fig
 |number      = 3
 |image       = Writing Systems Template Image.svg
 |caption     = Writing Systems
 |attribution = ThisIsNotEditorX, CC BY-SA-4.0
 |align       = right
 |size        = 140 px
 |pad         = padding (default = 10px 10px 15px 0px)
}}
Most currently available dyslexia research relates to [[w:Writing system|alphabetic writing system]]s, and especially to [[w:Languages of Europe|European languages]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Reid2012a&quot;&gt;{{cite book
|last1=Reid
|first1=Gavin
|title=The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&amp;pg=PA16
|year=2012
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-136-61710-2
|page=16
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109205019/https://books.google.com/books?id=QrBQAmfXYooC&amp;pg=PA16
|archivedate=9 January 2017
|df=dmy-all
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=Richlan
|first1=Fabio
|title=Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia; the role of orthographic depth
|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|date=May 2014
|pmid=24904383
|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347
|pmc=4033006
|volume=8
|pages=347
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The outward expression of individuals with reading disability and regular poor readers is the same in some respects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Reading Difficulty and Disability
|url=https://report.nih.gov/NIHfactsheets/Pdfs/ReadingDifficultyandDisability(NICHD).pdf
|website=report.nih.gov
|publisher=NIH
|accessdate=10 January 2019
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.&lt;ref name=pmid21046003/&gt; There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal
|last1=de Berr
|first1=J
|title=Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia
|journal=BMC Public Health
|date=2014
|pmc=3913008
|pmid=24460949
|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-77
|volume=14
|pages=77
}}&lt;/ref&gt; If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|title = The Inclusion of Students with Dyslexia in Higher Education: A Systematic Review Using Narrative Synthesis
|journal = Dyslexia (Chichester, England)
|date = 1 November 2014
|pmc = 4253321
|pmid = 25293652
|pages = 346–369
|volume = 20
|issue = 4
|doi = 10.1002/dys.1484
|first = Marco
|last = Pino
|first2 = Luigina
|last2 = Mortari
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Ramus|first1=F|last2=Altarelli|first2=I|last3=Jednoróg|first3=K|last4=Zhao|first4=J|last5=di Covella|first5=LS|date=7 August 2017|title=Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: pitfalls and promise.|url=http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/answers/faq|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=84|pages=434–452|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.001|issn=1873-7528|pmid=28797557|accessdate=31 August 2017|via=}}This article is published ahead of print
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMR4AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research|author=Alan Beaton|date=14 October 2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42275-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OywcklCBPkC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Fifty Years in Dyslexia Research|author=Thomas Richard Miles|date=4 August 2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-02747-9|location=|pages=|authorlink=Thomas Richard Miles}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szJZ1LDQv7YC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice|author1=Gavin Reid|author2=Angela Fawcett|date=12 May 2008|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77801-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Jbvue2kNdYC&amp;pg=PP1|title=The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies|author=Michael Thomson|date=18 March 2009|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0-470-74197-9|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFh4kCrMbK4C&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia|author=Gavin Reid|date=17 March 2011|publisher=A&amp;C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-6585-5|edition=3rd|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2xdsMJ1MWgC&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties|author=Mark Selikowitz|date=2 July 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-969177-7|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgXsAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis|author=Andrew W. Ellis|date=25 February 2014|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-317-71630-3|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lz2AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=The Dyslexia Debate|author1=Julian G. Elliott|author2=Elena L. Grigorenko|date=24 March 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-11986-3|location=|pages=|authorlink=Julian Elliott}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXe6BAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1|title=Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories|last1=Agnew|first1=Susie|last2=Stewart|first2=Jackie|last3=Redgrave|first3=Steve|date=8 October 2014|publisher=Andrews UK Limited|isbn=978-1-78333-250-2|location=|pages=}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Norton|first1=Elizabeth S.|last2=Beach|first2=Sara D.|last3=Gabrieli|first3=John D. E.|date=1 February 2015|title=Neurobiology of dyslexia|url=|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|volume=30|pages=73–78|doi=10.1016/j.conb.2014.09.007|issn=1873-6882|pmc=4293303|hdl=1721.1/102416|pmid=25290881}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Serrallach|first1=Bettina|last2=Groß|first2=Christine|last3=Bernhofs|first3=Valdis|last4=Engelmann|first4=Dorte|last5=Benner|first5=Jan|last6=Gündert|first6=Nadine|last7=Blatow|first7=Maria|last8=Wengenroth|first8=Martina|last9=Seitz|first9=Angelika|date=15 July 2016|title=Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children|url=|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=10|pages=324|doi=10.3389/fnins.2016.00324|issn=1662-4548|pmc=4945653|pmid=27471442|last10=Brunner|first10=Monika|last11=Seither|first11=Stefan|last12=Parncutt|first12=Richard|last13=Schneider|first13=Peter|last14=Seither-Preisler|first14=Annemarie}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Shao|first1=Shanshan|last2=Niu|first2=Yanfeng|last3=Zhang|first3=Xiaohui|last4=Kong|first4=Rui|last5=Wang|first5=Jia|last6=Liu|first6=Lingfei|last7=Luo|first7=Xiu|last8=Zhang|first8=Jiajia|last9=Song|first9=Ranran|date=28 July 2016|title=Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population|url=|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|pages=30454|bibcode=2016NatSR...630454S|doi=10.1038/srep30454|issn=2045-2322|pmc=4964335|pmid=27464509}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Brewer|first1=Carmen C.|last2=Zalewski|first2=Christopher K.|last3=King|first3=Kelly A.|last4=Zobay|first4=Oliver|last5=Riley|first5=Alison|last6=Ferguson|first6=Melanie A.|last7=Bird|first7=Jonathan E.|last8=McCabe|first8=Margaret M.|last9=Hood|first9=Linda J.|date=11 October 2016|title=Heritability of Non-Speech Auditory Processing Skills|url=|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=24|issue=8|pages=1137–1144|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2015.277|issn=1018-4813|pmc=4872837|pmid=26883091|last10=Drayna|first10=Dennis|last11=Griffith|first11=Andrew J.|last12=Morell|first12=Robert J.|last13=Friedman|first13=Thomas B.|last14=Moore|first14=David R.}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Mascheretti|first1=S.|last2=De Luca|first2=A.|last3=Trezzi|first3=V.|last4=Peruzzo|first4=D.|last5=Nordio|first5=A.|last6=Marino|first6=C.|last7=Arrigoni|first7=F.|date=3 January 2017|title=Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms|journal=Translational Psychiatry|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=e987|doi=10.1038/tp.2016.240|pmid=28045463|pmc=5545717}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Fraga González|first1=Gorka|last2=Žarić|first2=Gojko|last3=Tijms|first3=Jurgen|last4=Bonte|first4=Milene|last5=van der Molen|first5=Maurits W.|date=18 January 2017|title=Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies|url=|journal=Brain Sciences|volume=7|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.3390/brainsci7010010|pmc=5297299|pmid=28106790|accessdate=}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Rudov|first1=A|last2=Rocchi|first2=MB|last3=Accorsi|first3=A|last4=Spada|first4=G|last5=Procopio|first5=AD|last6=Olivieri|first6=F|last7=Rippo|first7=MR|last8=Albertini|first8=MC|date=October 2013|title=Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment.|journal=Epigenetics|volume=8|issue=10|pages=1023–9|doi=10.4161/epi.26026|issn=1559-2308|pmid=23949389|pmc=3891682}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Vágvölgyi|first1=R|last2=Coldea|first2=A|last3=Dresler|first3=T|last4=Schrader|first4=J|last5=Nuerk|first5=HC|date=2016|title=A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects|url=|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=7|pages=1617|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617|pmc=5102880|pmid=27891100|accessdate=}}
{{refend}}</text>
      <sha1>eqncvwoc8v1ood74b214661z2cthab5</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sylheti language/Family</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>242352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409401</id>
      <parentid>2408629</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T06:58:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>78.101.202.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3279" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! English !! Bengali script !! Latin script
|-
| Parents || মা-বাপ || maa-baaf
|-
| Family (grandparents to grandchildren) || গোষ্ঠী || gushti 
|-
| Family (extended) || হাবিগোষ্ঠী/খান্দান || habigushti/khandan 
|-
| Family (close; parents to children) || পরিবার/সংসার|| foribar/shongshar
|-
| Caste || বংশ || khandan/bongsho
|-
| Father || বাপ || baaf
|-
| Mother || মা || maa
|-
| Maternal grandfather || নানা || nana 
|-
| Maternal grandmother || নানী || nani 
|-
| Paternal grandfather || দাদা || dada 
|-
| Paternal grandmother || দাদী || dadi 
|-
| Paternal uncle || চাচা || sasa 
|-
| Paternal uncle's wife || চাচী || sasi 
|-
| Paternal aunt || ফুফু/হুফু|| fufu / hufu 
|-
| Paternal aunt's husband || ফুফা/হুফা|| fufa / hufa 
|-
| Maternal uncle || মামা || mama 
|-
| Maternal uncle's wife || মামী || mami 
|-
| Maternal aunt || খালা/খালাম্মা/মই || khala/khalamma/moi 
|-
| Maternal aunt's husband || খালু || khalu 
|-
| Father-in-law || হউর || hour 
|-
| Mother-in-law || হড়ী || hori 
|-
| Brother || ভাই || bhai 
|-
| Sister || বইন/বুআই || boin/buai 
|-
| Son || ফুআ/ফুয়া || phua/fua 
|-
| Daughter || ফুরি || furi 
|-
| Grandson || নাতি || nati 
|-
| Granddaughter || নাতিন || natin 
|-
| Husband || জামাই || zamai 
|-
| Wife || বউ || bou 
|-
| Nephew (brother's son) || ভাতিজা || bhatiza 
|-
| Niece (brother's daughter) || ভাতিজি || bhatizi 
|-
| Nephew (sister's son) || ভাইগ্না || bhaigna 
|-
| Niece (sister's daughter) || ভাগ্নি || bhagni 
|-
| Cousin (paternal uncle's son) || চাচার ঘর'র ভাই || sasar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (paternal uncle's daughter) || চাচার ঘর'র বইন || sasar ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (maternal uncle's son) || মামার ঘর'র ভাই || mamar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (maternal uncle's daughter) || মামার ঘর'র বইন || mamar ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (paternal aunt's son) || ফুফুর ঘর'র ভাই || fufur ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (paternal aunt's daughter) || ফুফুর ঘর'র বইন || fufur ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (maternal aunt's son) || খালার ঘর'র ভাই || khalar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (maternal aunt's daughter) || খালার ঘর'র বইন || khalar ghoror boin 
|-
| Brother-in-law (husband's younger brother) || দেওর || deor 
|-
| Brother-in-law (wife's younger brother) || হালা || hala 
|-
| Sister-in-law (wife's younger sister) || হালী || hali 
|-
| Sister-in-law (husband's sister) || ননন্দ || nonond 
|-
| Sister-in-law (husband’s brother’s wife) || জাল || zal 
|-
| Sister-in-law (older brother's wife) || ভাবী || bhabi 
|-
| Dad/Daddy || আব্বু/আব্বা/বাবা || abbu/abba/baba
|-
| Mum/Mummy || আম্মা/আম্মু/মা/মাই || amma/ammu/maa/mai
|-
|}
{{subpage navbar}}

{{CourseCat}}</text>
      <sha1>9lxre8tdyqrscfwkih0n1olbf3rukl4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409402</id>
      <parentid>2409401</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T07:04:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>78.101.202.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3418" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! English !! Bengali script and Sylheti !! Latin script
|-
| Parents || মা-বাপ | ꠝꠣ-ꠛꠣꠚ || maa-baaf
|-
| Family (grandparents to grandchildren) || গোষ্ঠী | ꠉꠥꠡ꠆ꠐꠤ || gushti 
|-
| Family (extended) || হাবিগোষ্ঠী/খান্দান |
ꠢꠣꠛꠤ ꠉꠥꠡ꠆ꠐꠤ/ ꠈꠣꠘ꠆ꠖꠣꠘ꠆
| habigushti/khandan 
|-
| Family (close; parents to children) || পরিবার/সংসার | ꠚꠞꠤꠛꠣꠞ꠆/???|| foribar/shongshar
|-
| Caste || বংশ || khandan/bongsho
|-
| Father || বাপ || baaf
|-
| Mother || মা || maa
|-
| Maternal grandfather || নানা || nana 
|-
| Maternal grandmother || নানী || nani 
|-
| Paternal grandfather || দাদা || dada 
|-
| Paternal grandmother || দাদী || dadi 
|-
| Paternal uncle || চাচা || sasa 
|-
| Paternal uncle's wife || চাচী || sasi 
|-
| Paternal aunt || ফুফু/হুফু|| fufu / hufu 
|-
| Paternal aunt's husband || ফুফা/হুফা|| fufa / hufa 
|-
| Maternal uncle || মামা || mama 
|-
| Maternal uncle's wife || মামী || mami 
|-
| Maternal aunt || খালা/খালাম্মা/মই || khala/khalamma/moi 
|-
| Maternal aunt's husband || খালু || khalu 
|-
| Father-in-law || হউর || hour 
|-
| Mother-in-law || হড়ী || hori 
|-
| Brother || ভাই || bhai 
|-
| Sister || বইন/বুআই || boin/buai 
|-
| Son || ফুআ/ফুয়া || phua/fua 
|-
| Daughter || ফুরি || furi 
|-
| Grandson || নাতি || nati 
|-
| Granddaughter || নাতিন || natin 
|-
| Husband || জামাই || zamai 
|-
| Wife || বউ || bou 
|-
| Nephew (brother's son) || ভাতিজা || bhatiza 
|-
| Niece (brother's daughter) || ভাতিজি || bhatizi 
|-
| Nephew (sister's son) || ভাইগ্না || bhaigna 
|-
| Niece (sister's daughter) || ভাগ্নি || bhagni 
|-
| Cousin (paternal uncle's son) || চাচার ঘর'র ভাই || sasar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (paternal uncle's daughter) || চাচার ঘর'র বইন || sasar ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (maternal uncle's son) || মামার ঘর'র ভাই || mamar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (maternal uncle's daughter) || মামার ঘর'র বইন || mamar ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (paternal aunt's son) || ফুফুর ঘর'র ভাই || fufur ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (paternal aunt's daughter) || ফুফুর ঘর'র বইন || fufur ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (maternal aunt's son) || খালার ঘর'র ভাই || khalar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (maternal aunt's daughter) || খালার ঘর'র বইন || khalar ghoror boin 
|-
| Brother-in-law (husband's younger brother) || দেওর || deor 
|-
| Brother-in-law (wife's younger brother) || হালা || hala 
|-
| Sister-in-law (wife's younger sister) || হালী || hali 
|-
| Sister-in-law (husband's sister) || ননন্দ || nonond 
|-
| Sister-in-law (husband’s brother’s wife) || জাল || zal 
|-
| Sister-in-law (older brother's wife) || ভাবী || bhabi 
|-
| Dad/Daddy || আব্বু/আব্বা/বাবা || abbu/abba/baba
|-
| Mum/Mummy || আম্মা/আম্মু/মা/মাই || amma/ammu/maa/mai
|-
|}
{{subpage navbar}}

{{CourseCat}}</text>
      <sha1>ggp5isgowb954mw74abhxihalytjyuq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409403</id>
      <parentid>2409402</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T07:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>78.101.202.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3426" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! English !! Bengali script and Sylheti !! Latin script
|-
| Parents || মা-বাপ | ꠝꠣ-ꠛꠣꠚ || maa-baaf
|-
| Family (grandparents to grandchildren) || গোষ্ঠী | ꠉꠥꠡ꠆ꠐꠤ || gushti 
|-
| Family (extended) || হাবিগোষ্ঠী/খান্দান |
ꠢꠣꠛꠤ ꠉꠥꠡ꠆ꠐꠤ/ ꠈꠣꠘ꠆ꠖꠣꠘ꠆
| habigushti/khandan 
|-
| Family (close; parents to children) || পরিবার/সংসার | ꠚꠞꠤꠛꠣꠞ꠆/???|| foribar/shongshar
|-
| Caste || বংশ || khandan/bongsho
|-
| Father || বাপ || baaf
|-
| Mother || মা || maa
|-
| Maternal grandfather || নানা || nana 
|-
| Maternal grandmother || নানী || nani 
|-
| Paternal grandfather || দাদা || dada 
|-
| Paternal grandmother || দাদী || dadi 
|-
| Paternal uncle || চাচা || sasa 
|-
| Paternal uncle's wife || চাচী || sasi 
|-
| Paternal aunt || ফুফু/হুফু|| fufu / hufu 
|-
| Paternal aunt's husband || ফুফা/হুফা|| fufa / hufa 
|-
| Maternal uncle || মামা || mama 
|-
| Maternal uncle's wife || মামী || mami 
|-
| Maternal aunt || খালা/খালাম্মা/মই || khala/khalamma/moi 
|-
| Maternal aunt's husband || খালু || khalu 
|-
| Father-in-law || হউর || hour 
|-
| Mother-in-law || হড়ী || hori 
|-
| Brother || ভাই || bhai 
|-
| Sister || বইন/বুআই || boin/buai 
|-
| Son || ফুআ/ফুয়া || phua/fua 
|-
| Daughter || ফুরি || furi 
|-
| Grandson || নাতি || nati 
|-
| Granddaughter || নাতিন || natin 
|-
| Husband || জামাই || zamai 
|-
| Wife || বউ || bou 
|-
| Nephew (brother's son) || ভাতিজা || bhatiza 
|-
| Niece (brother's daughter) || ভাতিজি || bhatizi 
|-
| Nephew (sister's son) || ভাইগ্না || bhaigna 
|-
| Niece (sister's daughter) || ভাগ্নি || bhagni 
|-
| Cousin (paternal uncle's son) || চাচার ঘর'র ভাই || sasar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (paternal uncle's daughter) || চাচার ঘর'র বইন || sasar ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (maternal uncle's son) || মামার ঘর'র ভাই || mamar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (maternal uncle's daughter) || মামার ঘর'র বইন || mamar ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (paternal aunt's son) || ফুফুর ঘর'র ভাই || fufur ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (paternal aunt's daughter) || ফুফুর ঘর'র বইন || fufur ghoror boin 
|-
| Cousin (maternal aunt's son) || খালার ঘর'র ভাই || khalar ghoror bhai 
|-
| Cousin (maternal aunt's daughter) || খালার ঘর'র বইন || khalar ghoror boin 
|-
| Brother-in-law (husband's younger brother) || দেওর || deor 
|-
| Brother-in-law (wife's younger brother) || হালা || hala 
|-
| Sister-in-law (wife's younger sister) || হালী || hali 
|-
| Sister-in-law (husband's younger sister) || ননন্দ || nonond 
|-
| Sister-in-law (husband’s brother’s wife) || জাল || zal 
|-
| Sister-in-law (older brother's wife) || ভাবী || bhabi 
|-
| Dad/Daddy || আব্বু/আব্বা/বাবা || abbu/abba/baba
|-
| Mum/Mummy || আম্মা/আম্মু/মা/মাই || amma/ammu/maa/mai
|-
|}
{{subpage navbar}}

{{CourseCat}}</text>
      <sha1>s0vs9dxjj2q26q9ug9980e3ez44d87h</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal of Medicine/What are Systematic Reviews?</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>245802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409335</id>
      <parentid>2246512</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T00:17:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>tidy refs, +dois where available</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="87095" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| w1 = Systematic review
| first1 = Jack
| last1 = Nunn
| orcid1 = 0000-0003-0316-3254
| affiliation1 = La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| correspondence1 = {{nospam|jack.nunn|latrobe.edu.au}}
| first2 = Steven
| last2 = Chang{{affiliation|name=Nunn}}
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-3193-7969
| abstract = '''Systematic reviews''' are a type of [[w:literature review|review]] that uses repeatable analytical methods to collect secondary data and analyse it. Systematic reviews are a type of evidence synthesis which formulate research questions that are broad or narrow in scope, and identify and synthesize data that directly relate to the systematic review question.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://getitglossary.org/term/systematic+review|title=systematic review|website=GET-IT glossary|access-date=18 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; While some people might associate ‘systematic review’ with 'meta-analysis', there are multiple kinds of review which can be defined as ‘systematic’ which do not involve a meta-analysis. Some systematic reviews critically appraise research studies, and synthesize findings qualitatively or quantitatively.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|vauthors=Armstrong R, Hall BJ, Doyle J, Waters E|date=March 2011|title=Cochrane Update. 'Scoping the scope' of a cochrane review|journal=Journal of Public Health|volume=33|issue=1|pages=147–50|doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdr015|pmid=21345890}}&lt;/ref&gt; Systematic reviews are often designed to provide an exhaustive summary of current evidence relevant to a [[w:research question|research question]]. For example, systematic reviews of [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trials]] are an important way of informing [[w:evidence-based medicine|evidence-based medicine]],&lt;ref name=&quot;CEBM_about&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1914|title=What is EBM?|date=2009-11-20|publisher=Centre for Evidence Based Medicine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406110628/http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1914|archive-date=2011-04-06|access-date=2011-06-17}}&lt;/ref&gt; and a review of existing studies is often quicker and cheaper than embarking on a new study.

While systematic reviews are often applied in the [[w:Biomedical research|biomedical]] or healthcare context, they can be used in other areas where an assessment of a precisely defined subject would be helpful.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Ader|first1=Herman J.|last2=Mellenbergh|first2=Gideon J.|last3=Hand|first3=David J.|title=Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion|publisher=Johannes van Kessel Publishing|year=2008|isbn=978-90-79418-02-2|chapter=Methodological quality|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCnOj4ZFyjkC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;hl=fr#v=onepage&amp;q=%22Methodological%20quality%22&amp;f=false}}&lt;/ref&gt; Systematic reviews may examine clinical tests, public health interventions, environmental interventions,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bilotta|first1=Gary S.|last2=Milner|first2=Alice M.|last3=Boyd|first3=Ian|year=2014|title=On the use of systematic reviews to inform environmental policies|journal=Environmental Science &amp; Policy|volume=42|pages=67–77|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2014.05.010}}&lt;/ref&gt; social interventions, [[w:adverse effects|adverse effects]], qualitative evidence syntheses, methodological reviews, policy reviews, and [[w:Economic evaluation|economic evaluations]].&lt;ref name=&quot;CRD2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.york.ac.uk/media/crd/Systematic_Reviews.pdf|title=Systematic reviews: CRD's guidance for undertaking reviews in health care.|date=2008|publisher=University of York, Centre for Reviews and Dissemination|isbn=978-1-900640-47-3|location=York|access-date=17 June 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=http://www.cebma.org/wp-content/uploads/Pettigrew-Roberts-SR-in-the-Soc-Sc.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616034557/http://www.cebma.org/wp-content/uploads/Pettigrew-Roberts-SR-in-the-Soc-Sc.pdf|archive-date=2015-06-16|title=Systematic reviews in the social sciences|vauthors=Petticrew M, Roberts H|date=2006|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-2110-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An understanding of systematic reviews and how to implement them in practice is highly recommended for professionals involved in the delivery of [[w:health care|health care]], public health and public policy.
}}

==Characteristics==
Systematic reviews can be used to inform decision making in many different disciplines, such as evidence-based healthcare and evidence-based policy and practice.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

A systematic review can be designed to provide an exhaustive summary of current literature relevant to a research question.

A systematic review uses a rigorous and transparent approach for research synthesis, with the aim of assessing and, where possible, minimizing bias in the findings. While many systematic reviews are based on an explicit quantitative meta-analysis of available data, there are also qualitative reviews and other types of mixed-methods reviews which adhere to standards for gathering, analyzing and reporting evidence.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bearman|first=Margaret|last2=Dawson|first2=Phillip|date=2013|title=Qualitative synthesis and systematic review in health professions education|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/medu.12092|journal=Medical Education|language=en|volume=47|issue=3|pages=252–260|doi=10.1111/medu.12092|issn=1365-2923}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Systematic reviews of quantitative data or mixed-method reviews sometimes use statistical techniques (meta-analysis) to combine results of eligible studies. Scoring levels are sometimes used to rate the quality of the evidence depending on the methodology used, although this is discouraged by the Cochrane Library.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current|title=Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions|date=2019-09-20|website=training.cochrane.org|editor-last=Higgins|editor-first=Julian P.T.|series=version 6.1|location=|pages=section 4.6|language=en|access-date=2020-09-14|editor2-last=Thomas|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Chandler|editor3-first=Jacqueline|editor4-last=Cumpston|editor4-first=Miranda|editor5-last=Li|editor5-first=Tianjing|editor6-last=Page|editor6-first=Matthew J.|editor7-last=Welch|editor7-first=Vivian A.}}&lt;/ref&gt; As evidence rating can be subjective, multiple people may be consulted to resolve any scoring differences between how evidence is rated.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://bestpractice.bmj.com/info/toolkit/learn-ebm/what-is-grade/|title=What is GRADE?|last=Siemieniuk|first=Reed|last2=Guyatt|first2=Gordon|date=|website=BMJ Best Practice|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCnOj4ZFyjkC&amp;newbks=0&amp;hl=en|title=Advising on Research Methods: A Consultant's Companion|last=Adèr|first=Hermanus Johannes|date=2008|publisher=Johannes van Kessel Publishing.|isbn=978-90-79418-01-5|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://training.cochrane.org/resource/grade-handbook|title=GRADE Handbook|last=|first=|publisher=|year=2013|isbn=|editor-last=Schünemann|editor-first=Holger|location=|pages=|language=en|access-date=2020-08-26|editor-last2=Brożek|editor-first2=Jan|editor-last3=Guyatt|editor-first3=Gordon|editor-last4=Oxman|editor-first4=Andrew}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[wikipedia:EPPI-Centre|EPPI-Centre]], [[wikipedia:Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] and the [[wikipedia:The Joanna Briggs Institute|Joanna Briggs Institute]] have all been influential in developing methods for combining both qualitative and quantitative research in systematic reviews.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Harden|first=Angela|last2=Thomas|first2=James|last3=Cargo|first3=Margaret|last4=Harris|first4=Janet|last5=Pantoja|first5=Tomas|last6=Flemming|first6=Kate|last7=Booth|first7=Andrew|last8=Garside|first8=Ruth|last9=Hannes|first9=Karin|date=2018-05-01|title=Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group guidance series—paper 5: methods for integrating qualitative and implementation evidence within intervention effectiveness reviews|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0895435617313549|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=97|pages=70–78|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.11.029|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/|title=EPPI-Centre Home|website=eppi.ioe.ac.uk|access-date=2020-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several reporting guidelines exist to standardise reporting about how systematic reviews are conducted. Such reporting guidelines are not quality assessment or appraisal tools. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; suggests a standardized way to ensure a transparent and complete reporting of systematic reviews, and is now required for this kind of research by more than 170 medical journals worldwide.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Several specialized PRISMA guideline extensions have been developed to support particular types of studies or aspects of the review process, including PRISMA-P for review protocols and PRISMA-ScR for scoping reviews.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; A list of PRISMA guideline extensions is hosted by the EQUATOR (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research) Network.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/prisma/|title=Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement|last=|first=|date=|website=www.equator-network.org|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-06-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For qualitative reviews, reporting guidelines include ENTREQ (Enhancing transparency in reporting the synthesis of qualitative research) for qualitative evidence syntheses; RAMESES (Realist And MEta-narrative Evidence Syntheses: Evolving Standards) for meta-narrative and realist reviews;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Geoff|last2=Greenhalgh|first2=Trish|last3=Westhorp|first3=Gill|last4=Buckingham|first4=Jeanette|last5=Pawson|first5=Ray|date=2013|title=RAMESES publication standards: meta‐narrative reviews|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jan.12092|journal=[[w:Journal of Advanced Nursing|Journal of Advanced Nursing]]|language=en|volume=97|pages=987–1004|doi=10.1111/jan.12092}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wong|first=Geoff|last2=Greenhalgh|first2=Trish|last3=Westhorp|first3=Gill|last4=Buckingham|first4=Jeanette|last5=Pawson|first5=Ray|date=2013|title=RAMESES publication standards: realist syntheses |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jan.12095|journal=[[w:Journal of Advanced Nursing|Journal of Advanced Nursing]]|language=en|volume=97|pages=987–1004|doi=10.1111/jan.12095}}&lt;/ref&gt; and eMERGe (Improving reporting of Meta-Ethnography) for meta-[[wikipedia:Ethnography|ethnograph]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Flemming|first=Kate|last2=Booth|first2=Andrew|last3=Hannes|first3=Karin|last4=Cargo|first4=Margaret|last5=Noyes|first5=Jane|date=2018-05|title=Cochrane Qualitative and Implementation Methods Group guidance series—paper 6: reporting guidelines for qualitative, implementation, and process evaluation evidence syntheses|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617313276|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=97|pages=79–85|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.10.022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Developments in systematic reviews during the 21st century included realist reviews and the meta-narrative approach, both of which addressed problems of variation in methods and heterogeneity existing on some subjects.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Types of systematic review==
There are over 30 types of systematic review and the '''Table 1''' below summarises some of these, but it is not exhaustive.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Grant|first=Maria J.|last2=Booth|first2=Andrew|date=2009|title=A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x|journal=Health Information &amp; Libraries Journal|language=en|volume=26|issue=2|pages=91–108|doi=10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x|issn=1471-1842}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/944453327|title=Guidance on choosing qualitative evidence synthesis methods for use in health technology assessments of complex interventions|last1=Booth|first1=A|last2=Noyes|first2=J|last3=Flemming|first3=K|last4=Gerhardus|first4=A|last5=Wahlster|first5=P |last6=Van der Wilt|first6=GJ|last7=Mozygemba|first7=K|last8=Refolo|first8=P|last9=Sacchini|first9=D|last10=Tummers|first10=M|last11=Rehfuess|first11=E
|date=2016|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|page=32|pages=|oclc=944453327}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is important to note that there is not always consensus on the boundaries and distinctions between the approaches described below. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1: A summary of some of the types of systematic review.
|-
! Review type !! Summary
|-
| Mapping review/systematic map || A mapping review maps existing literature and categorizes data. The method characterizes quantity and quality of literature, including by study design and other features. Mapping reviews can be used to identify the need for primary or secondary research.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
| Meta-analysis || A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple quantitative studies. Using statistical methods, results are combined to provide evidence from multiple studies. The two types of data generally used for meta-analysis in health research are individual participant data and aggregate data (such as odds ratios or relative risks).
|-
| Mixed studies review/mixed methods review || Refers to any combination of methods where one significant stage is a literature review (often systematic). It can also refer to a combination of review approaches such as combining quantitative with qualitative research.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
| Qualitative systematic review/qualitative evidence synthesis || This method for integrates or compares findings from qualitative studies. The method can include ‘coding’ the data and looking for ‘themes’ or ‘constructs’ across studies. Multiple authors may improve the ‘validity’ of the data by potentially reducing individual bias.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
| Rapid review || An assessment of what is already known about a policy or practice issue, which uses systematic review methods to search for and critically appraise existing research. Rapid reviews are still a systematic review, however parts of the process may be simplified or omitted in order to increase rapidity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|archive-date=2020-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916051435/https://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/c.php?g=849703&amp;p=6154326|url=https://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/c.php?g=849703&amp;p=6154326|title=What is a rapid review? Systematic Review Library Guides at CQ University|website=library.cqu.edu.au|access-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rapid reviews were used during the COVID-19 pandemic.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://covidrapidreviews.cochrane.org/welcome|title=Home|website=covidrapidreviews.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Systematic review || A systematic search for data, using a repeatable method. It includes appraising the data (for example the quality of the data) and a synthesis of research data.
|-
| Systematic search and review || Combines methods from a ‘critical review’ with a comprehensive search process. This review type is usually used to address broad questions to produce the most appropriate evidence synthesis. This method may or may not include quality assessment of data sources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
| Systematized review || Include elements of systematic review process, but searching is often not as comprehensive as a systematic review and may not include quality assessments of data sources. 
|}

===Scoping reviews===

Scoping reviews are distinct from systematic reviews in several important ways. A scoping review is an attempt to search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/1364557032000119616|title = Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework|journal = International Journal of Social Research Methodology|volume = 8|pages = 19–32|year = 2005|last1 = Arksey|first1 = Hilary|last2 = O'Malley|first2 = Lisa  }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.prisma-statement.org/Extensions/ScopingReviews|title=PRISMA|website=www.prisma-statement.org|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; This can mean that the concept search and method (including data extraction, organisation and analysis) are refined throughout the process, sometimes requiring deviations from any protocol or original research plan.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peters 141–146&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Micah D. J.|last2=Godfrey|first2=Christina M.|last3=Khalil|first3=Hanan|last4=McInerney|first4=Patricia|last5=Parker|first5=Deborah|last6=Soares|first6=Cassia Baldini|date=2015-09|title=Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews|url=https://journals.lww.com/ijebh/fulltext/2015/09000/Guidance_for_conducting_systematic_scoping_reviews.5.aspx|journal=JBI Evidence Implementation|language=en|volume=13|issue=3|pages=141–146|doi=10.1097/XEB.0000000000000050|issn=2691-3321}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levac|first=Danielle|last2=Colquhoun|first2=Heather|last3=O'Brien|first3=Kelly K|date=2010-12|title=Scoping studies: advancing the methodology|url=http://implementationscience.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69|journal=Implementation Science|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=69|doi=10.1186/1748-5908-5-69|issn=1748-5908}}&lt;/ref&gt; A [[w:scoping review|scoping review]] may often be a preliminary stage before a systematic review, which 'scopes' out an area of inquiry and maps the language and key concepts to determine if a systematic review is possible or appropriate, or to lay the groundwork for a full systematic review. The goal can be to assess how much data or evidence is available regarding a certain area of interest.&lt;ref name=&quot;Peters 141–146&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Colquhoun|first=Heather L.|last2=Levac|first2=Danielle|last3=O'Brien|first3=Kelly K.|last4=Straus|first4=Sharon|last5=Tricco|first5=Andrea C.|last6=Perrier|first6=Laure|last7=Kastner|first7=Monika|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2014-12|title=Scoping reviews: time for clarity in definition, methods, and reporting|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25034198/|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=67|issue=12|pages=1291–1294|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.03.013|issn=1878-5921|pmid=25034198}}&lt;/ref&gt; This process is further complicated if it is mapping concepts across multiple languages or cultures.

As a scoping review should be systematically conducted and reported (with a transparent and repeatable method), some academic publishers categorize them as a kind of 'systematic review', which may cause confusion. Scoping reviews are helpful when it is not possible to carry out a systematic synthesis of research findings, for example, when there are no published clinical trials in the area of inquiry. Scoping reviews are helpful when determining if it is possible or appropriate to carry out a systematic review, and are a useful method when an area of inquiry is very broad,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lacaze|first=Paul|last2=Fransquet|first2=Peter|last3=Tiller|first3=Jane|last4=Nunn|first4=Jack S.|date=2019|title=Public Involvement in Global Genomics Research: A Scoping Review|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00079/full|journal=Frontiers in Public Health|language=en|volume=7|doi=10.3389/fpubh.2019.00079|issn=2296-2565}}&lt;/ref&gt; for example, exploring how the public are involved in all stages systematic reviews.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Pollock A, Campbell P, Struthers C, Synnot A, Nunn J, Hill S, Goodare H, Watts C, Morley R | title = Stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews: a protocol for a systematic review of methods, outcomes and effects | journal = Research Involvement and Engagement | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 9 | date = 2017-04-21 | pmid = 29062534 | pmc = 5611627 | doi = 10.1186/s40900-017-0060-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

There is still a lack of clarity when defining the exact method of a scoping review as it is both an iterative process and is still relatively new.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Munn|first=Zachary|last2=Peters|first2=Micah D. J.|last3=Stern|first3=Cindy|last4=Tufanaru|first4=Catalin|last5=McArthur|first5=Alexa|last6=Aromataris|first6=Edoardo|date=2018-12|title=Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach|url=https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=143|doi=10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x|issn=1471-2288|pmc=PMC6245623|pmid=30453902}}&lt;/ref&gt; There have been several attempts to improve the standardisation of the method,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Levac D, Colquhoun H, O'Brien KK | title = Scoping studies: advancing the methodology | journal = Implementation Science | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 69 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20854677 | pmc = 2954944 | doi = 10.1186/1748-5908-5-69 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Peters MD, Godfrey CM, Khalil H, McInerney P, Parker D, Soares CB | title = Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews | journal = International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 141–6 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26134548 | doi = 10.1097/XEB.0000000000000050 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Colquhoun HL, Levac D, O'Brien KK, Straus S, Tricco AC, Perrier L, Kastner M, Moher D | title = Scoping reviews: time for clarity in definition, methods, and reporting | journal = Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume = 67 | issue = 12 | pages = 1291–4 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25034198 | doi = 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.03.013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Arksey|first=Hilary|last2=O'Malley|first2=Lisa |date=2005-02-01|title=Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework |journal=International Journal of Social Research Methodology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=19–32|doi=10.1080/1364557032000119616 }}&lt;/ref&gt; for example via a PRISMA guideline extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Tricco|first=Andrea C.|last2=Lillie|first2=Erin|last3=Zarin|first3=Wasifa|last4=O'Brien|first4=Kelly K.|last5=Colquhoun|first5=Heather|last6=Levac|first6=Danielle|last7=Moher|first7=David|last8=Peters|first8=Micah D.J.|last9=Horsley|first9=Tanya|date=2018-10-02|title=PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation|url=http://annals.org/article.aspx?doi=10.7326/M18-0850|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|language=en|volume=169|issue=7|pages=467|doi=10.7326/M18-0850|issn=0003-4819}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:PROSPERO|PROSPERO]] (the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews) does not permit the submission of protocols of scoping reviews,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#aboutregpage |title= PROSPERO| work = Centre for Reviews and Dissemination | publisher = University of York |access-date=2019-02-24}}&lt;/ref&gt; although some journals will publish protocols for scoping reviews.&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot; /&gt;

== Stages==
{{Fig
|number      = 1
|image       = Extraction machine.gif
|caption     = A visualisation of data being 'extracted' and 'combined' in a Cochrane intervention effect review where a meta-analysis is possible.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt;
|attribution = 
|align       = right
|size        = 440px
}}While there are multiple kinds of systematic review methods, the main stages of a review can be summarised into five stages:

=== 1. Defining the research question ===
Defining an answerable question and agreeing an objective method is required to design a useful systematic review.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt; Best practice recommends publishing the protocol of the review before initiating it to reduce the risk of unplanned research duplication and to enable consistency between methodology and protocol.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.prisma-statement.org/Protocols/Registration |title=PRISMA|work = Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) |access-date=2019-02-24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Clinical reviews of quantitative data are often structured using the acronym [[w:PICO process|PICO]], which stands for 'Population or Problem', 'Intervention or Exposure', 'Comparison' and 'Outcome', with other variations existing for other kinds of research. For qualitative reviews PICo is 'Population or Problem', 'Interest' and 'Context'.

=== 2. Searching for relevant data sources ===
Planning how the review will search for relevant data from research that matches certain criteria is a decisive stage in developing a rigorous systematic review. Relevant criteria can include only selecting research that is good quality and answers the defined question.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt; The search strategy should be designed to retrieve literature that matches the protocol's specified inclusion and exclusion criteria.

The methodology section of a systematic review should list all of the databases and citation indices that were searched. The titles and abstracts of identified articles can be checked against pre-determined criteria for eligibility and relevance. Each included study may be assigned an objective assessment of methodological quality, preferably by using methods conforming to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement,&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; or the high-quality standards of Cochrane.&lt;ref name=&quot;CochraneHandbook&quot; /&gt;

Common information sources used in searches include scholarly databases of peer-reviewed articles such as [[w:MEDLINE|MEDLINE]], [[w:Web of Science|Web of Science]], [[w:Embase|Embase]], and [[w:PubMed|PubMed]] as well as sources of unpublished literature such as clinical trial registries and [[w:Grey literature|grey literature]] collections. Key references can also be yielded through additional methods such as citation searching, reference list checking (related to a search method called '[[wikipedia:Pearl growing|pearl growing]]'), manually searching information sources not indexed in the major electronic databases (sometimes called 'hand-searching'),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://training.cochrane.org/resource/tsc-induction-mentoring-training-guide/5-handsearching|title=5. Handsearching|website=training.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-09-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; and directly contacting experts in the field.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Papaioannou|first=Diana|last2=Sutton|first2=Anthea|last3=Carroll|first3=Christopher|last4=Booth|first4=Andrew|last5=Wong|first5=Ruth|date=2010|title=Literature searching for social science systematic reviews: consideration of a range of search techniques|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00863.x|journal=Health Information &amp; Libraries Journal|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=114–122|doi=10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00863.x|issn=1471-1842}}&lt;/ref&gt;

To be systematic, searchers must use a combination of search skills and tools such as database subject headings, keyword searching, [[w:Logical connective|Boolean operators]], proximity searching, while attempting to balance the sensitivity (systematicity) and precision (accuracy). Inviting and involving an experienced information professional or librarian can notably improve the quality of systematic review search strategies and reporting.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Rethlefsen ML, Farrell AM, Osterhaus Trzasko LC, Brigham TJ | title = Librarian co-authors correlated with higher quality reported search strategies in general internal medicine systematic reviews | journal = Journal of Clinical Epidemiology | volume = 68 | issue = 6 | pages = 617–26 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 25766056 | doi = 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.11.025 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koffel|first=Jonathan B.|date=2015-05-04|title=Use of Recommended Search Strategies in Systematic Reviews and the Impact of Librarian Involvement: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Recent Authors|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0125931|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=10|issue=5|pages=e0125931|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125931|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC4418838|pmid=25938454}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Costella|first=John|last2=Torabi|first2=Nazi|last3=Meert|first3=Deborah|date=2016|title=Impact of librarians on reporting of the literature searching component of pediatric systematic reviews|url=http://jmla.pitt.edu/ojs/jmla/article/view/139|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association|language=en|volume=104|issue=4|pages=267–277|doi=10.5195/jmla.2016.139|issn=1558-9439|pmc=PMC5079487|pmid=27822147}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yang|first=Kehu|last2=Yao|first2=Liang|last3=Jiang|first3=Tongxiao|last4=Liang|first4=Fuxiang|last5=Moher|first5=David|last6=Tian|first6=Hongliang|last7=Tian|first7=Jinhui|last8=Li|first8=Lun|date=2014-09-01|title=Network meta-analyses could be improved by searching more sources and by involving a librarian|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(14)00116-4/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=67|issue=9|pages=1001–1007|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2014.04.003|issn=0895-4356|pmid=24841794}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rethlefsen|first=Melissa L.|last2=Murad|first2=M. Hassan|last3=Livingston|first3=Edward H.|date=2014-09-10|title=Engaging Medical Librarians to Improve the Quality of Review Articles|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.2014.9263|journal=JAMA|language=en|volume=312|issue=10|pages=999|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.9263|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 3. 'Extraction' of relevant data ===
Relevant data are 'extracted' from the data sources according to the review method. It is important to note that the data extraction method is specific to the kind of data, and data extracted on ‘outcomes’ is only relevant to certain types of reviews. For example, a systematic review of clinical trials might extract data about how the research was done (often called the method or 'intervention'), who participated in the research (including how many people), how it was paid for (for example funding sources) and what happened (the outcomes).&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt; '''Figure 1''' illustrates relevant data being extracted and 'combined' in a Cochrane intervention effect review, where a meta-analysis is possible.

=== 4. Assess the eligibility of the data ===
This stage involves assessing the eligibility of data for inclusion in the review, by judging it against criteria identified at the first stage.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt; This can include assessing if a data source meets the eligibility criteria, and recording why decisions about inclusion or exclusion in the review were made. Software can be used to support the selection process including text mining tools and machine learning, which can automate aspects of the process.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current|title=Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions|last=|first=|date=2019-09-20|website=training.cochrane.org|publisher=|year=|isbn=|editor-last=Higgins|editor-first=Julian P.T.|series=version 6.1|location=|pages=section 4.6|nopp=y|language=en|chapter=Chapter 4: Searching for and selecting studies|access-date=2020-09-14|editor2-last=Thomas|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Chandler|editor3-first=Jacqueline|editor4-last=Cumpston|editor4-first=Miranda|editor5-last=Li|editor5-first=Tianjing|editor6-last=Page|editor6-first=Matthew J.|editor7-last=Welch|editor7-first=Vivian A.|chapter-url=https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current/chapter-04#section-4-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; The ‘Systematic Review Toolbox’ is a community driven, web-based catalogue of tools, to help reviewers chose appropriate tools for reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Christopher|last2=Brereton|first2=Pearl|date=2015-04-27|title=Systematic review toolbox: a catalogue of tools to support systematic reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/2745802.2745824|journal=Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering|series=EASE '15|location=Nanjing, China|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–6|doi=10.1145/2745802.2745824|isbn=978-1-4503-3350-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 5. Analyse and combine the data ===
Analysing and combining data can provide an overall result from all the data. Because this combined result uses qualitative or quantitative data from all eligible sources of data, it is considered more reliable as it provides better evidence, as the more data included in reviews, the more confident we can be of conclusions. When appropriate, some systematic reviews include a meta-analysis, which uses statistical methods to combine data from multiple sources. A review might use quantitative data, or might employ a qualitative meta-synthesis, which synthesises data from qualitative studies. The combination of data from a meta-analysis can sometimes be visualised. One method uses a a [[w:forest plot|forest plot]] (also called a [[w:blobbogram|blobbogram]]).&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt; In an intervention effect review, the diamond in the 'forest plot' represents the combined results of all the data included.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot; /&gt;

An example of a 'forest plot' is the Cochrane Collaboration logo.&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://cccrg.cochrane.org/animated-storyboard-what-are-systematic-reviews|title=Animated Storyboard: What Are Systematic Reviews?|website=cccrg.cochrane.org|publisher=Cochrane Consumers and Communication|access-date=1 June 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; The logo is a forest plot of one of the first reviews which showed that corticosteroids given to women who are about to give birth prematurely can save the life of the newborn child.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochrane.org/about-us/difference-we-make|title=The difference we make|website=www.cochrane.org|access-date=2019-03-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Recent visualisation innovations include the albatross plot, which plots p-values against sample sizes, with approximate effect-size contours superimposed to facilitate analysis.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Higgins|first=Julian P. T.|last2=López-López|first2=José A.|last3=Becker|first3=Betsy J.|last4=Davies|first4=Sarah R.|last5=Dawson|first5=Sarah|last6=Grimshaw|first6=Jeremy M.|last7=McGuinness|first7=Luke A.|last8=Moore|first8=Theresa H. M.|last9=Rehfuess|first9=Eva A.|date=2019-01-01|title=Synthesising quantitative evidence in systematic reviews of complex health interventions|url=https://gh.bmj.com/content/4/Suppl_1/e000858|journal=BMJ Global Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=Suppl 1|pages=e000858|doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000858|issn=2059-7908}}&lt;/ref&gt; The contours can be used to infer effect sizes from studies that have been analysed and reported in diverse ways. Such visualisations may have advantages over other types when reviewing complex interventions.

Assessing the quality (or certainty) of evidence is an important part of some reviews. GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations) is a transparent framework for developing and presenting summaries of evidence and is used to grade the quality of evidence.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.gradeworkinggroup.org/|title=GRADE working group|website=www.gradeworkinggroup.org|access-date=2019-03-08}}&lt;/ref&gt; The GRADE-CERQual (Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative research) is used to provide a transparent method for assessing the confidence of evidence from reviews or qualitative research.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cerqual.org/|title=GRADE CERQual|website=www.cerqual.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; Once these stages are complete, the review may be published, disseminated and translated into practice after being adopted as evidence.

== Living systematic reviews ==
Living systematic reviews are a relatively new kind of high quality, semi-automated, up-to-date online summaries of research which are updated as new research becomes available.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsafnat G, Glasziou P, Choong MK, Dunn A, Galgani F, Coiera E | title = Systematic review automation technologies | journal = Systematic Reviews | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 74 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25005128 | pmc = 4100748 | doi = 10.1186/2046-4053-3-74 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The essential difference between a living systematic review and a conventional systematic review is the publication format. Living systematic reviews are 'dynamic, persistent, online-only evidence summaries, which are updated rapidly and frequently'.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Elliott JH, Turner T, Clavisi O, Thomas J, Higgins JP, Mavergames C, Gruen RL | title = Living systematic reviews: an emerging opportunity to narrow the evidence-practice gap | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = e1001603 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24558353 | pmc = 3928029 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001603 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Research fields==
===Medicine and human health===

==== History of systematic reviews in medicine====
A 1904 ''British Medical Journal'' paper by [[wikipedia:Karl Pearson|Karl Pearson]] collated data from several studies in the UK, India and South Africa of typhoid inoculation. He used a meta-analytic approach to aggregate the outcomes of multiple clinical studies.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Group|first=British Medical Journal Publishing|date=1904-11-05|title=Report on Certain Enteric Fever Inoculation Statistics|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/2/2288/1243|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=2|issue=2288|pages=1243–1246|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.2288.1243|issn=0007-1447|via=}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1972 Archie Cochrane wrote: 'It is surely a great criticism of our profession that we have not organised a critical summary, by specialty or subspecialty, adapted periodically, of all relevant randomised controlled trials'.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Critical appraisal and synthesis of research findings in a systematic way emerged in 1975 under the term 'meta analysis'.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/5363514|title=Meta-Analysis of Research on the Relationship of Class-Size and Achievement. The Class Size and Instruction Project|last=Glass|first=Gene V.|last2=Smith|first2=Mary Lee  |date=1978|publisher=Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse| collaboration = Far West Lab. for Educational Research and Development, San Francisco, CA|location=Washington, D.C.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/cms/Resources/EvidenceInformedPolicyandPractice/HistoryofSystematicReviews/tabid/68/Default.aspx |title=History of Systematic Reviews| work = Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) |access-date=2019-02-24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Early syntheses were conducted in broad areas of public policy and social interventions, with systematic research synthesis applied to medicine and health.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lau|first=J.|last2=Antman|first2=E. M.|last3=Jimenez-Silva|first3=J.|last4=Kupelnick|first4=B.|last5=Mosteller|first5=F.|last6=Chalmers|first6=T. C.|date=1992-07-23|title=Cumulative meta-analysis of therapeutic trials for myocardial infarction|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1614465/|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=327|issue=4|pages=248–254|doi=10.1056/NEJM199207233270406|issn=0028-4793|pmid=1614465}}&lt;/ref&gt; Inspired by his own personal experiences as a senior medical officer in prisoner of war camps, [[wikipedia:Archie Cochrane|Archie Cochrane]] worked to improve how the scientific method was used in medical evidence, writing in 1971: 'the general scientific problem with which we are primarily concerned is that of testing a hypothesis that a certain treatment alters the natural history of a disease for the better'.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/741462|title=Effectiveness and efficiency: random reflections on health services|last=Cochrane, A. L.|first=|date=1972|publisher=Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust|year=|isbn=0-900574-17-8|location=[London]|pages=|oclc=741462|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916053459/https://www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/files/2017-01/effectiveness-and-efficiency-web-final.pdf|archive-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; His call for the increased use of randomised controlled trials and systematic reviews led to the creation of The Cochrane Collaboration,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shah|first=Hriday M.|last2=Chung|first2=Kevin C.|date=2009-09|title=Archie Cochrane and his vision for evidence-based medicine|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2746659/|journal=Plastic and reconstructive surgery|language=en|volume=124|issue=3|pages=982|doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181b03928|pmid=19730323}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was founded in 1993 and named after him, building on the work by [[w:Iain Chalmers|Iain Chalmers]] and colleagues in the area of pregnancy and childbirth.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/778837501|title=Testing treatments : better research for better healthcare|last=Evans, Imogen.|date=2011|publisher=Pinter &amp; Martin|others=Thornton, Hazel, 1935-, Chalmers, Iain., Glasziou, Paul, 1954-|isbn=978-1-905177-48-6|edition=Second|location=London|oclc=778837501}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://community.cochrane.org/handbook-sri/chapter-1-introduction/11-cochrane/112-brief-history-cochrane|title=1.1.2 A brief history of Cochrane|last=|first=|date=|website=community.cochrane.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117070242/https://community.cochrane.org/handbook-sri/chapter-1-introduction/11-cochrane/112-brief-history-cochrane|archive-date=2019-01-17|access-date=2019-02-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Current use of systematic reviews in medicine ====
Many organisations around the world use systematic reviews, with the methodology depending on the guidelines being followed. Organisations which use systematic reviews in medicine and human health include the [[wikipedia:National Institute for Health and Care Excellence|National Institute for Health and Care Excellence]] (NICE, UK), the [[wikipedia:Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] (AHRQ, USA) and the [[wikipedia:World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]]. Most notable among international organisations is [[w:Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane]], a group of over 37,000 specialists in healthcare who systematically review randomised trials of the effects of prevention, treatments and rehabilitation as well as health systems interventions. When appropriate, they also include the results of other types of research. Cochrane Reviews are published in ''The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' section of the [[w:Cochrane Library|Cochrane Library]]. The 2015 [[w:impact factor|impact factor]] for ''The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews'' was 6.103, and it was ranked 12th in the Medicine, General &amp; Internal category.&lt;ref&gt;The Cochrane Library. [http://www.cochrane.org/news/2015-impact-factor-released-cochrane-database-systematic-reviews 2015 impact factor. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR)] Retrieved 2016-07-20.&lt;/ref&gt;

There are several types of Cochrane Review, including:&lt;ref&gt;[http://tech.cochrane.org/revman &lt;nowiki&gt;Review Manager (RevMan) [Computer program]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]. Version 5.2. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2012.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/|title=Main page|last=|first=|date=|website=Cochrane Library|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=|first=|date=|year=2015|title=Overview of systematic reviews - a new type of study. Part II|url=|journal=Revista Paulista de Medicina|volume=133|issue=3|pages=206–17|doi=10.1590/1516-3180.2013.8150015|pmid=25388685|via=|vauthors=Silva V, Grande AJ, Carvalho AP, Martimbianco AL, Riera R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=|first=|date=|year=2012|title=Overview of systematic reviews - a new type of study: part I: why and for whom?|url=|journal=Revista Paulista de Medicina|volume=130|issue=6|pages=398–404|doi=10.1590/S1516-31802012000600007|pmid=23338737|via=|vauthors=Silva V, Grande AJ, Martimbianco AL, Riera R, Carvalho AP}}&lt;/ref&gt;

# '''Intervention reviews''' assess the benefits and harms of interventions used in healthcare and health policy.
# '''Diagnostic test accuracy reviews''' assess how well a diagnostic test performs in diagnosing and detecting a particular disease.
# '''Methodology reviews''' address issues relevant to how systematic reviews and clinical trials are conducted and reported.
# '''Qualitative reviews''' synthesize qualitative evidence to address questions on aspects other than effectiveness.
# '''Prognosis reviews''' address the probable course or future outcome(s) of people with a health problem.
# '''Overviews of Systematic Reviews (OoRs)''' are a new type of study to compile multiple evidence from systematic reviews into a single document that is accessible and useful to serve as a friendly front end for the Cochrane Collaboration with regard to healthcare decision-making. These are sometimes referred to as 'umbrella reviews'.
# ''' Living Systematic reviews''' are continually updated, incorporating relevant new evidence as it becomes available.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://community.cochrane.org/review-production/production-resources/living-systematic-reviews|title=Living systematic reviews|website=community.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; They are a relatively new kind of review, with methods still being developed and evaluated. They can be high quality, semi-automated, up-to-date online summaries of research which are updated as new research becomes available.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Tsafnat|first=Guy|last2=Glasziou|first2=Paul|last3=Choong|first3=Miew Keen|last4=Dunn|first4=Adam|last5=Galgani|first5=Filippo|last6=Coiera|first6=Enrico|date=2014-12|title=Systematic review automation technologies|url=https://systematicreviewsjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-4053-3-74|journal=Systematic Reviews|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=74|doi=10.1186/2046-4053-3-74|issn=2046-4053|pmc=PMC4100748|pmid=25005128}}&lt;/ref&gt; The essential difference between a 'living systematic review' and a conventional systematic review is the publication format. Living systematic reviews are 'dynamic, persistent, online-only evidence summaries, which are updated rapidly and frequently'.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Turner|first2=Tari|last3=Clavisi|first3=Ornella|last4=Thomas|first4=James|last5=Higgins|first5=Julian P. T.|last6=Mavergames|first6=Chris|last7=Gruen|first7=Russell L.|date=2014-02-18|title=Living Systematic Reviews: An Emerging Opportunity to Narrow the Evidence-Practice Gap|url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001603|journal=PLoS Medicine|language=en|volume=11|issue=2|pages=e1001603|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001603|issn=1549-1676|pmc=PMC3928029|pmid=24558353}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# '''Rapid reviews''' are a form of knowledge synthesis that ‘accelerates the process of conducting a traditional systematic review through streamlining or omitting specific methods to produce evidence for stakeholders in a resource-efficient manner’.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochrane.org/cochranes-work-rapid-reviews-response-covid-19|title=Cochrane&amp;#039;s work on Rapid Reviews in response to COVID-19|website=www.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# '''Reviews of complex health interventions in complex systems''' review interventions and interventions delivered in complex systems to improve evidence synthesis and guideline development at a global, national or health systems level.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Norris|first=Susan L.|last2=Rehfuess|first2=Eva A.|last3=Smith|first3=Helen|last4=Tunçalp|first4=Özge|last5=Grimshaw|first5=Jeremy M.|last6=Ford|first6=Nathan P.|last7=Portela|first7=Anayda|date=2019-01-01|title=Complex health interventions in complex systems: improving the process and methods for evidence-informed health decisions|url=https://gh.bmj.com/content/4/Suppl_1/e000963|journal=BMJ Global Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=Suppl 1|pages=e000963|doi=10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000963|issn=2059-7908}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cochrane Collaboration provides a handbook for systematic reviewers of interventions which 'provides guidance to authors for the preparation of Cochrane Intervention reviews.'&lt;ref name=&quot;CochraneHandbook&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://handbook.cochrane.org|title=Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions, version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011)|publisher=The Cochrane Collaboration|access-date=2 June 2016|veditors=Higgins JP, Green S}}&lt;/ref&gt; The ''Cochrane Handbook'' also outlines the key steps for preparing a systematic review&lt;ref name=CochraneHandbook/&gt; and forms the basis of two sets of standards for the conduct and reporting of Cochrane Intervention Reviews (MECIR - Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Intervention Reviews).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.editorial-unit.cochrane.org/mecir |title= Methodological Expectations of Cochrane Intervention Reviews (MECIR) |publisher=Cochrane |access-date=6 October 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; It also contains guidance on how to undertake qualitative evidence synthesis, economic reviews and integrating patient-reported outcomes into reviews.

The Cochrane Library is a collection of databases that contains different types of independent evidence to inform healthcare decision-making. It contains a database of systematic review and meta-analyses which summarize and interpret the results of multi-disciplinary research. The library contains the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR), which is a journal and database for systematic reviews in health care. The Cochrane Library also contains the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) which is a database of reports of randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/central/about-central|title=Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials (CENTRAL)|last=|first=|date=|website=Cochrane Library|language=en|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Cochrane Library is also available in Spanish.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/es/home|title=Revisiones Cochrane|website=Cochrane Library|language=es|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Cochrane Library is owned by Cochrane. It was originally published by Update Software and now published by the share-holder owned publisher [[w:John Wiley &amp; Sons|John Wiley &amp; Sons]], Ltd. as part of Wiley Online Library. Royalties from sales of the Cochrane Library are the major source of funds for Cochrane (over £6 million in 2017). There are 3.66 billion people around the world who have access to the Library through national licences (national licences cost £1.5 billion&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;) or free provision for populations in low- and middle-income countries eligible under the WHO’s HINARI initiative.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochranes-future-publishing-and-open-access-arrangements|title=Cochrane’s Future Publishing and Open Access Arrangements|last=|first=|date=2019-07-02|website=Cochrane.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702111124/https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochranes-future-publishing-and-open-access-arrangements|archive-date=2019-07-02|access-date=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Authors must pay an additional fee for their review to be truly [[w:open access|open access]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cochranelibrary.com/about/open-access|title=Open access options for the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |work = Cochrane |access-date=2019-02-24}}&lt;/ref&gt; Cochrane has an annual income of $10m USD.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Newman M | title = Has Cochrane lost its way? | journal = BMJ | volume = 364 | pages = k5302 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30606713 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.k5302 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
==== Public involvement and citizen science in systematic reviews ====
Cochrane has several tasks that the public or other 'stakeholders' can be involved in doing, associated with producing systematic reviews and other outputs. Tasks can be organised as 'entry level' or higher. Tasks include:

* Joining a collaborative volunteer effort to help categorise and summarise healthcare evidence&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://crowd.cochrane.org/index.html|title=Cochrane crowd|website=crowd.cochrane.org|access-date=2019-02-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Data extraction and risk of bias assessment 
* Translation of reviews into other languages

A recent systematic review of how people were involved in systematic reviews aimed to document the evidence-base relating to stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews and to use this evidence to describe how stakeholders have been involved in systematic reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Pollock A, Campbell P, Struthers C, Synnot A, Nunn J, Hill S, Goodare H, Morris J, Watts C, Morley R | title = Stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews: a scoping review | journal = Systematic Reviews | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 208 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30474560 | pmc = 6260873 | doi = 10.1186/s13643-018-0852-0 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Thirty percent involved patients and/or carers. The ACTIVE framework provides a way to consistently describe how people are involved in systematic review, and may be used as a way to support the decision-making of systematic review authors in planning how to involve people in future reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pollock|first=Alex|last2=Campbell|first2=Pauline|last3=Struthers|first3=Caroline|last4=Synnot|first4=Anneliese|last5=Nunn|first5=Jack|last6=Hill|first6=Sophie|last7=Goodare|first7=Heather|last8=Morris|first8=Jacqui|last9=Watts|first9=Chris|date=2019-04-18|title=Development of the ACTIVE framework to describe stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1355819619841647|journal=Journal of Health Services Research &amp; Policy|language=en|pages=135581961984164|doi=10.1177/1355819619841647|issn=1355-8196}}&lt;/ref&gt; Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) is another proposed way of reporting who has been involved in which tasks during research, including systematic reviews.&lt;ref&gt;[Pre-print] {{Cite web|title=Standardised Data on Initiatives - STARDIT: Alpha Version|url=https://osf.io/5q47h/|website=osf.io|doi=10.31219/osf.io/5q47h|access-date=2020-08-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While there has been some criticism of how Cochrane prioritises systematic reviews,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Newman|first=Melanie|date=2019-01-03|title=Has Cochrane lost its way?|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/364/bmj.k5302|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=364|pages=k5302|doi=10.1136/bmj.k5302|issn=0959-8138|pmid=30606713}}&lt;/ref&gt; a recent project involved people in helping identify research priorities to inform future Cochrane Reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Synnot|first=Anneliese J.|last2=Tong|first2=Allison|last3=Bragge|first3=Peter|last4=Lowe|first4=Dianne|last5=Nunn|first5=Jack S.|last6=O’Sullivan|first6=Molly|last7=Horvat|first7=Lidia|last8=Kay|first8=Debra|last9=Ghersi|first9=Davina|date=2019-04-29|title=Selecting, refining and identifying priority Cochrane Reviews in health communication and participation in partnership with consumers and other stakeholders|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-019-0444-z|journal=Health Research Policy and Systems|volume=17|issue=1|pages=45|doi=10.1186/s12961-019-0444-z|issn=1478-4505|pmc=PMC6489310|pmid=31036016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Synnot A, Bragge P, Lowe D, Nunn JS, O'Sullivan M, Horvat L, Tong A, Kay D, Ghersi D, McDonald S, Poole N, Bourke N, Lannin N, Vadasz D, Oliver S, Carey K, Hill SJ | title = Research priorities in health communication and participation: international survey of consumers and other stakeholders | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = e019481 | date = May 2018 | pmid = 29739780 | pmc = 5942413 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019481 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2014, the Cochrane-Wikipedia partnership was formalised. This supports the inclusion of relevant evidence within all Wikipedia medical articles, as well as other processes to help ensure that medical information included in Wikipedia is of the highest quality and accuracy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= https://www.cochrane.org/news/cochrane-wikipedia-partnership-2016-0 |title= The Cochrane-Wikipedia partnership in 2016| work = Cochrane |access-date=2019-02-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Learning resources ====
Cochrane has produced many learning resources to help people understand what systematic reviews are, and how to do them. Most of the learning resources can be found at the 'Cochrane Training' webpage,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://training.cochrane.org/|title=Welcome|website=training.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2019-06-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; which also includes a link to the book ''Testing Treatments'', which has been translated into many languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://training.cochrane.org/online-learning/knowledge-translation/testing-treatments|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625002135/https://training.cochrane.org/online-learning/knowledge-translation/testing-treatments|archive-date=2019-06-25|title=Testing Treatments|date=2019-06-25|website= Cochrane Training|access-date=2019-06-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, Cochrane has created a short video ''What are Systematic Reviews'' which explains in plain English how they work and what they are used for.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=What are systematic reviews?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egJlW4vkb1Y&amp;feature=youtu.be|date=2016-01-27|accessdate=2019-06-25|last=Cochrane}}&lt;/ref&gt; The video has been translated into multiple languages,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2016-10-23|title=Successful multi-language free online animated learning resource|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD201602|journal=Abstracts of the 24th Cochrane Colloquium; 23–27 October 2016, Seoul, South Korea |publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD201602}}&lt;/ref&gt; and viewed over 192,282 times (as of August 2020). In addition, an animated storyboard version was produced and all the video resources were released in multiple versions under Creative Commons for others to use and adapt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://community.cochrane.org/news/creating-successful-online-animation-resource-what-are-systematic-reviews-video|archive-date=2019-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625001803/https://community.cochrane.org/news/creating-successful-online-animation-resource-what-are-systematic-reviews-video|title=Creating a successful online animation resource: the ‘what are systematic reviews?’ video |date=2019-06-25|website=Cochrane Community|access-date=2019-06-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Cochrane storyboard&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://cccrg.cochrane.org/animated-storyboard-what-are-systematic-reviews|title=Animated Storyboard: What Are Systematic Reviews?|website=cccrg.cochrane.org|publisher=Cochrane Consumers and Communication|access-date=1 June 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2016-06-01|last=Nunn|first=Jack|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Mcdonald|first3=Steve|last4=Allen|first4=Kelly|last5=Hill|first5=Sophie|date=2015|title=Building partnerships with the public by learning about Cochrane evidence|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/CochranePosterPrintV1717915|archive-date=2015-11-09|publisher=23rd Cochrane Colloquium 2015|language=en|url=https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2182.1922}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=What are systematic reviews?|last1=Nunn |first1=Jack|last2=Hill|first2=Sophie|url=https://archive.org/details/WhatAreSystematicReviews|accessdate=2020-08-20|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) provides free learning resources to support people to appraise research critically, including a checklist which contains 10 questions to 'help you make sense of a systematic review'.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://casp-uk.net/casp-tools-checklists/|title=CASP Checklists|website=Critical Appraisal Skills Programme|language=en|access-date=2020-08-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|archive-date=2020-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821063301/https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/CASP-Systematic-Review-Checklist-2018_fillable-form.pdf|url=https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/CASP-Systematic-Review-Checklist-2018_fillable-form.pdf|title=CASP Systematic Review Checklist|date=2020-08-21|website=casp-uk.net|access-date=2020-08-21}}&lt;/ref&gt;


=== Social, behavioural and educational ===

Several organisations use systematic reviews in social, behavioural, and educational areas of evidence-based policy, including the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE, UK), [[wikipedia:Social Care Institute for Excellence|Social Care Institute for Excellence]] (SCIE, UK), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ, USA), the World Health Organisation, the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie), the [[wikipedia:The Joanna Briggs Institute|Joanna Briggs Institute]] and the [[w:Campbell Collaboration|Campbell Collaboration]]. The quasi-standard for systematic review in the social sciences is based on the procedures proposed by the Campbell Collaboration, which is one of several groups promoting [[w:evidence-based policy|evidence-based policy]] in the [[w:social science|social science]]s. The Campbell Collaboration: 'helps people make well-informed decisions by preparing, maintaining and disseminating systematic reviews in education, crime and justice, social welfare and international development.'&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url = http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/about_us/index.php|title = About Us|publisher = The Campbell Collaboration|access-date = March 26, 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140203232624/http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/about_us/index.php|archive-date = February 3, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Campbell Collaboration is a sibling initiative of Cochrane, and was created in 2000 at the inaugural meeting in Philadelphia, USA, attracting 85 participants from 13 countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url= http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/history/explore/background | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160924070231/http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/history/explore/background | archive-date = 24 September 2016 |title=History - Campbell |website=www.campbellcollaboration.org |access-date=2016-09-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Business and economics ===

Due to the different nature of research fields outside of the natural sciences, the aforementioned methodological steps cannot easily be applied in all areas of business research. Some attempts to transfer the procedures from medicine to business research have been made,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Tranfield D, Denyer D, Smart P | year = 2003 | title = Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review | journal = British Journal of Management | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 207–222 | doi=10.1111/1467-8551.00375| citeseerx = 10.1.1.622.895 }}&lt;/ref&gt; including a step-by-step approach,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Durach CF, Kembro J, Wieland A | year = 2017 | title = A New Paradigm for Systematic Literature Reviews in Supply Chain Management | journal = Journal of Supply Chain Management | volume = 53 | issue = 4| pages = 67–85 | doi=10.1111/jscm.12145 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and developing a standard procedure for conducting systematic literature reviews in business and economics. The Campbell &amp; Cochrane Economics Methods Group (C-CEMG) works to improve the inclusion of economic evidence into Cochrane and Campbell systematic reviews of interventions, to enhance the usefulness of review findings as a component for decision-making.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://methods.cochrane.org/economics/about-us|title=About us|website=methods.cochrane.org|language=en|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such economic evidence is crucial for health technology assessment processes.

=== International development research ===
Systematic reviews are increasingly prevalent in other fields, such as international development research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hagen-Zanker2012&quot;&gt;{{cite web |first1=Jessica |last1=Hagen-Zanker |first2=Maren |last2=Duvendack |first3=Richard |last3=Mallett |first4=Rachel |last4=Slater |first5=Samuel |last5=Carpenter |first6=Mathieu |last6=Tromme  |date=January 2012 |title=Making systematic reviews work for international development research |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=6260&amp;title=systematic-review-slrc-international-development-research-methods |publisher=Overseas Development Institute}}&lt;/ref&gt; Subsequently, several donors (including the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and [[w:AusAid|AusAid]]) are focusing more attention and resources on testing the appropriateness of systematic reviews in assessing the impacts of development and humanitarian interventions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hagen-Zanker2012&quot; /&gt;

=== Environment ===
The Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE) works to achieve a sustainable global environment and the conservation of biodiversity. The CEE has a journal titled ''Environmental Evidence'' which publishes systematic reviews, review protocols and systematic maps on impacts of human activity and the effectiveness of management interventions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.environmentalevidence.org/|title=Environmental Evidence: Reliable evidence, informed decisions, better environment|website=www.environmentalevidence.org|access-date=2020-07-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Review tools ==
A 2019 publication identified 15 systematic review tools and ranked them according to the number of 'critical features' as required to perform a systematic review, including:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=van der Mierden|first=Stevie|date=2019|title=Software tools for literature screening in systematic reviews in biomedical research|url=https://www.altex.org/index.php/altex/article/view/1257|journal=ALTEX|volume=|pages=|doi=10.14573/altex.1902131|pmid=31113000|via=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* DistillerSR: a paid web application
* Swift Active Screener: a paid web application
* Covidence: a paid web application and Cochrane technology platform.
* Rayyan: a free web application
* Sysrev: a free web application

==Limitations==
=== Out-dated or risk of bias ===
While systematic reviews are regarded as the strongest form of evidence, a 2003 review of 300 studies found that not all systematic reviews were equally reliable, and that their reporting can be improved by a universally agreed upon set of standards and guidelines.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Moher D, Tetzlaff J, Tricco AC, Sampson M, Altman DG | title = Epidemiology and reporting characteristics of systematic reviews | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = e78 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17388659 | pmc = 1831728 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040078 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A further study by the same group found that of 100 systematic reviews monitored, 7% needed updating at the time of publication, another 4% within a year, and another 11% within 2 years; this figure was higher in rapidly changing fields of medicine, especially cardiovascular medicine.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid17638714&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Shojania KG, Sampson M, Ansari MT, Ji J, Doucette S, Moher D | title = How quickly do systematic reviews go out of date? A survival analysis | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 147 | issue = 4 | pages = 224–33 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17638714 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-147-4-200708210-00179 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2003 study suggested that extending searches beyond major databases, perhaps into [[w:grey literature|grey literature]], would increase the effectiveness of reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Savoie I, Helmer D, Green CJ, Kazanjian A | title = Beyond Medline: reducing bias through extended systematic review search | journal = International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 168–78 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12701949 | doi = 10.1017/S0266462303000163 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Some authors have highlighted problems with systematic reviews, particularly those conducted by [[w:Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]], noting that published reviews are often biased, out of date and excessively long.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Roberts I, Ker K, Edwards P, Beecher D, Manno D, Sydenham E | title = The knowledge system underpinning healthcare is not fit for purpose and must change | journal = BMJ | volume = 350 | pages = h2463 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26041754 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.h2463 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Cochrane reviews have been criticized as not being sufficiently critical in the selection of trials and including too many of low quality. They proposed several solutions, including limiting studies in meta-analyses and reviews to [[W:clinical trials registry|registered clinical trials]], requiring that original data be made available for statistical checking, paying greater attention to sample size estimates, and eliminating dependence on only published data.

Some of these difficulties were noted as early as 1994:

{{quote|much poor research arises because researchers feel compelled for career reasons to carry out research that they are ill equipped to perform, and nobody stops them.}}
''DG Altman, 1994''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Altman DG | title = The scandal of poor medical research | journal = BMJ | volume = 308 | issue = 6924 | pages = 283–4 | date = January 1994 | pmid = 8124111 | pmc = 2539276 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.308.6924.283 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Methodological limitations of meta-analysis have also been noted.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Shapiro S | title = Meta-analysis/Shmeta-analysis | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 140 | issue = 9 | pages = 771–8 | date = November 1994 | pmid = 7977286 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117324 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another concern is that the methods used to conduct a systematic review are sometimes changed once researchers see the available trials they are going to include.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Kirkham J, Dwan K, Kramer S, Green S, Forbes A | title = Bias due to selective inclusion and reporting of outcomes and analyses in systematic reviews of randomised trials of healthcare interventions | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 10 | pages = MR000035 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25271098 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.MR000035.pub2 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Some website have described retractions of systematic reviews and published reports of studies included in published systematic reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | first = Ian | last = Roberts |title= Retraction Of Scientific Papers For Fraud Or Bias Is Just The Tip Of The Iceberg |url=http://www.iflscience.com/editors-blog/retraction-scientific-papers-fraud-or-bias-just-tip-iceberg|website=IFL Science!|access-date=29 June 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | first = Cat | last = Ferguson  |title=Retraction and republication for Lancet Resp Med tracheostomy paper |url= http://retractionwatch.com/2015/04/02/retraction-and-republication-for-lancet-resp-med-tracheostomy-paper/| work = Retraction Watch |access-date=29 June 2015 |date=2015-04-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | first = Cat | last = Ferguson |title=BioMed Central retracting 43 papers for fake peer review |url= http://retractionwatch.com/2015/03/26/biomed-central-retracting-43-papers-for-fake-peer-review/ |work=Retraction Watch|date=2015-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Eligibility criteria must be justifiable and not arbitrary (for example, the date range searched) as this may affect the perceived quality of the review.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://flinders.libguides.com/c.php?g=220637&amp;p=1460288|title=Search Smart: Systematic Reviews: Methodology overview|last=Library|first=Flinders University|website=flinders.libguides.com|language=en|access-date=2020-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1182880684|title=How to Perform a Systematic Literature Review: A guide for healthcare researchers, practitioners and students|last=Pursell|first=Edward|last2=McCrae|first2=Niall|date=2020|publisher=Springer Nature|year=|isbn=978-3-030-49672-2|location=|pages=|oclc=1182880684|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-49672-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Limited reporting of clinical trials and data from human studies ===
The '[[w:AllTrials|AllTrials]]' campaign highlights that around half of clinical trials have never reported results and works to improve reporting.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.alltrials.net/news/half-of-all-trials-unreported/|title=Half of all clinical trials have never reported results|last=|first=|date=2015-08-20|website=AllTrials|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-03-08}}&lt;/ref&gt; This lack of reporting has extremely serious implications for research, including systematic reviews, as it is only possible to synthesize data of published studies. In addition, 'positive' trials were twice as likely to be published as those with 'negative' results.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Song|first=F.|last2=Parekh|first2=S.|last3=Hooper|first3=L.|last4=Loke|first4=Y. K.|last5=Ryder|first5=J.|last6=Sutton|first6=A. J.|last7=Hing|first7=C.|last8=Kwok|first8=C. S.|last9=Pang|first9=C.|date=February 2010|title=Dissemination and publication of research findings: an updated review of related biases|journal=Health Technology Assessment (Winchester, England)|volume=14|issue=8|pages=iii, ix–xi, 1–193|doi=10.3310/hta14080|issn=2046-4924|pmid=20181324}}&lt;/ref&gt; At present, it is legal for for-profit companies to conduct clinical trials and not publish the results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iacobucci i5955&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Iacobucci|first=Gareth|date=2016-11-04|title=Nearly half of all trials run by major sponsors in past decade are unpublished|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/355/bmj.i5955|journal=BMJ|volume=355|pages=i5955|doi=10.1136/bmj.i5955|issn=1756-1833|pmid=27815253}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, in the past 10 years 8.7 million patients have taken part in trials that have not published results.&lt;ref name=&quot;Iacobucci i5955&quot;/&gt; These factors mean that it is likely there is a significant publication bias, with only 'positive' or perceived favourable results being published. A recent systematic review of industry sponsorship and research outcomes concluded that 'sponsorship of drug and device studies by the manufacturing company leads to more favorable efficacy results and conclusions than sponsorship by other sources' and that the existence of an industry bias that cannot be explained by standard 'Risk of bias' assessments.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lundh|first=Andreas|last2=Lexchin|first2=Joel|last3=Mintzes|first3=Barbara|last4=Schroll|first4=Jeppe B|last5=Bero|first5=Lisa|date=2017-02-16|editor-last=Cochrane Methodology Review Group|title=Industry sponsorship and research outcome|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2|pages=MR000033|doi=10.1002/14651858.MR000033.pub3|pmid=28207928}}&lt;/ref&gt; Systematic reviews of such a bias may amplify the effect, although it is important to note that the flaw is in the reporting of research generally, not in the systematic review method.

=== Poor compliance with review reporting guidelines ===
The rapid growth of systematic reviews in recent years has been accompanied by the attendant issue of poor compliance with guidelines, particularly in areas such as declaration of registered study protocols, funding source declaration, risk of bias data, and description of clear study objectives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pidgeon|first=Thomas Edward|last2=Wellstead|first2=Georgina|last3=Sagoo|first3=Harkiran|last4=Jafree|first4=Daniyal J.|last5=Fowler|first5=Alexander J.|last6=Agha|first6=Riaz A.|date=2016-10|title=An assessment of the compliance of systematic review articles published in craniofacial surgery with the PRISMA statement guidelines: A systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1010518216301524|journal=Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery|language=en|volume=44|issue=10|pages=1522–1530|doi=10.1016/j.jcms.2016.07.018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Seon-Young|last2=Sagoo|first2=Harkiran|last3=Whitehurst|first3=Katharine|last4=Wellstead|first4=Georgina|last5=Fowler|first5=Alexander J.|last6=Agha|first6=Riaz A.|last7=Orgill|first7=Dennis|date=2016-03-01|title=Compliance of Systematic Reviews in Plastic Surgery With the PRISMA Statement|url=http://archfaci.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jamafacial.2015.1726|journal=JAMA Facial Plastic Surgery|language=en|volume=18|issue=2|pages=101|doi=10.1001/jamafacial.2015.1726|issn=2168-6076}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bulters|first=D.|last2=Zolnourian|first2=A.|last3=Akhigbe|first3=T.|date=2017-05-01|title=Compliance of systematic reviews articles in brain arteriovenous malformation with PRISMA statement guidelines: Review of literature|url=https://www.jocn-journal.com/article/S0967-5868(16)31237-1/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Neuroscience|language=en|volume=39|pages=45–48|doi=10.1016/j.jocn.2017.02.016|issn=0967-5868|pmid=28246008}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Seon-Young|last2=Sagoo|first2=Harkiran|last3=Farwana|first3=Reem|last4=Whitehurst|first4=Katharine|last5=Fowler|first5=Alex|last6=Agha|first6=Riaz|date=2017-12|title=Compliance of systematic reviews in ophthalmology with the PRISMA statement|url=https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12874-017-0450-1|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s12874-017-0450-1|issn=1471-2288|pmc=PMC5745614|pmid=29281981}}&lt;/ref&gt; A host of studies have identified weaknesses in the rigour and reproducibility of search strategies in systematic reviews.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koffel|first=Jonathan B.|last2=Rethlefsen|first2=Melissa L.|date=2016-09-26|editor-last=Thombs|editor-first=Brett D|title=Reproducibility of Search Strategies Is Poor in Systematic Reviews Published in High-Impact Pediatrics, Cardiology and Surgery Journals: A Cross-Sectional Study|url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163309|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=11|issue=9|pages=e0163309|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0163309|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMC5036875|pmid=27669416}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yoshii|first=Adriana|last2=Plaut|first2=Daphne A.|last3=McGraw|first3=Kathleen A.|last4=Anderson|first4=Margaret J.|last5=Wellik|first5=Kay E.|date=2009-1|title=Analysis of the reporting of search strategies in Cochrane systematic reviews|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2605027/|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA|volume=97|issue=1|pages=21–29|doi=10.3163/1536-5050.97.1.004|issn=1536-5050|pmc=PMCPMC2605027|pmid=19158999}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Toews|first=Lorraine C.|date=2017-07-07|title=Compliance of systematic reviews in veterinary journals with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) literature search reporting guidelines|url=http://jmla.mlanet.org/ojs/jmla/article/view/246|journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association|language=en|volume=105|issue=3|pages=233–239|doi=10.5195/jmla.2017.246|issn=1558-9439|pmc=PMC5490700|pmid=28670210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mullins|first=Mary M.|last2=DeLuca|first2=Julia B.|last3=Crepaz|first3=Nicole|last4=Lyles|first4=Cynthia M.|date=2014|title=Reporting quality of search methods in systematic reviews of HIV behavioral interventions (2000–2010): are the searches clearly explained, systematic and reproducible?|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jrsm.1098|journal=Research Synthesis Methods|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=116–130|doi=10.1002/jrsm.1098|issn=1759-2887|pmc=PMC5861495|pmid=26052651}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Briscoe|first=Simon|date=2018|title=A review of the reporting of web searching to identify studies for Cochrane systematic reviews|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jrsm.1275|journal=Research Synthesis Methods|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=89–99|doi=10.1002/jrsm.1275|issn=1759-2887}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McIntosh|first=Heather M.|last2=Loke|first2=Yoon|last3=Golder|first3=Su|date=2008-05-01|title=Poor reporting and inadequate searches were apparent in systematic reviews of adverse effects|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(07)00217-X/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=61|issue=5|pages=440–448|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2007.06.005|issn=0895-4356|pmid=18394536}}&lt;/ref&gt; To remedy this issue, a new PRISMA guideline extension called PRISMA-S is being developed to improve the quality, reporting, and reproducibility of systematic review search strategies.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Waffenschmidt|first=Siw|last2=Koffel|first2=Jonathan|last3=Kirtley|first3=Shona|last4=Ayala|first4=Ana Patricia|last5=Rethlefsen|first5=Melissa|date=2019-03-04|title=PRISMA-S PRISMA Search Reporting Extension|url=https://osf.io/ygn9w/|language=en|doi=10.17605/OSF.IO/YGN9W}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[Pre-print] {{Cite web|url=https://osf.io/sfc38/|title=Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis Search Extension (PRISMA-S) 2019: Explanation and Elaboration|website=osf.io|doi=10.31219/osf.io/sfc38|access-date=2019-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, tools and checklists for peer-reviewing search strategies have been created, such as the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) guidelines.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lefebvre|first=Carol|last2=Foerster|first2=Vicki|last3=Cogo|first3=Elise|last4=Salzwedel|first4=Douglas M.|last5=Sampson|first5=Margaret|last6=McGowan|first6=Jessie|date=2016-07-01|title=PRESS Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies: 2015 Guideline Statement|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(16)00058-5/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=75|pages=40–46|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.01.021|issn=0895-4356|pmid=27005575}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A key challenge for using systematic reviews in clinical practice and healthcare policy is assessing the quality of a given review. Consequently, a range of appraisal tools to evaluate systematic reviews have been designed. The two most popular measurement instruments and scoring tools for systematic review quality assessment are AMSTAR 2 (a measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shea|first=Beverley J.|last2=Reeves|first2=Barnaby C.|last3=Wells|first3=George|last4=Thuku|first4=Micere|last5=Hamel|first5=Candyce|last6=Moran|first6=Julian|last7=Moher|first7=David|last8=Tugwell|first8=Peter|last9=Welch|first9=Vivian|date=2017-09-21|title=AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/358/bmj.j4008|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=358|doi=10.1136/bmj.j4008|issn=0959-8138|pmid=28935701}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shea|first=Beverley J.|last2=Grimshaw|first2=Jeremy M.|last3=Wells|first3=George A.|last4=Boers|first4=Maarten|last5=Andersson|first5=Neil|last6=Hamel|first6=Candyce|last7=Porter|first7=Ashley C.|last8=Tugwell|first8=Peter|last9=Moher|first9=David|date=2007-02-15|title=Development of AMSTAR: a measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-7-10|journal=BMC Medical Research Methodology|volume=7|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.1186/1471-2288-7-10|issn=1471-2288|pmc=PMC1810543|pmid=17302989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Boers|first=Maarten|last2=Henry|first2=David A.|last3=Grimshaw|first3=Jeremy|last4=Kristjansson|first4=Elizabeth|last5=Bouter|first5=Lex M.|last6=Wells|first6=George A.|last7=Hamel|first7=Candyce|last8=Shea|first8=Beverley J.|date=2009-10-01|title=AMSTAR is a reliable and valid measurement tool to assess the methodological quality of systematic reviews|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(08)00325-9/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=62|issue=10|pages=1013–1020|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2008.10.009|issn=0895-4356|pmid=19230606}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Henry|first=David A.|last2=Kristjansson|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Welch|first3=Vivian|last4=Tugwell|first4=Peter|last5=Moher|first5=David|last6=Moran|first6=Julian|last7=Hamel|first7=Candyce|last8=Thuku|first8=Micere|last9=Wells|first9=George|date=2017-09-21|title=AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/358/bmj.j4008|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=358|pages=j4008|doi=10.1136/bmj.j4008|issn=0959-8138|pmc=PMC5833365|pmid=28935701}}&lt;/ref&gt; and ROBIS (Risk Of Bias In Systematic reviews); however, these are not appropriate for all systematic review types.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Churchill|first=Rachel|last2=Kleijnen|first2=Jos|last3=Davies|first3=Philippa|last4=Shea|first4=Beverley|last5=Reeves|first5=Barnaby C.|last6=Caldwell|first6=Deborah M.|last7=Higgins|first7=Julian P. T.|last8=Savović|first8=Jelena|last9=Whiting|first9=Penny|date=2016-01-01|title=ROBIS: A new tool to assess risk of bias in systematic reviews was developed|url=https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(15)00308-X/abstract|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|language=en|volume=69|pages=225–234|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2015.06.005|issn=0895-4356|pmc=PMC4687950|pmid=26092286}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Additional information==
===Acknowledgements===
The authors wish the thank the reviewers who contributed valuable corrections and additional information. The authors wish to state this should be viewed as the first of many improved versions of this article, and invite experts from the world to help improve this article.

===Competing interests===
The authors have no competing interests.

=== Author contributions ===
Jack Nunn lead the writing of this article, including updating information from the existing Wikipedia entry. Steven Chang checked the information for accuracy and added additional information and edits. The peer-reviewers added helpful additional information.

=== Ethics ===
None required

=== Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) report ===
A [[wikidata:Q98550843|STARDIT]] report about this article can be found here:

* Reviewed STARDIT report version at time of publishing: [https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q101116128&amp;oldid=1303112868 STARDIT Report: What are systematic reviews? (Q101116128)]
* 'Living' version: [[wikidata:Q101116128|STARDIT Report: What are systematic reviews? (Q101116128)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
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    <title>User talk:Faendalimas</title>
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        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
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      <comment>/* Activity Review */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="12290" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Faendalimas!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Marshallsumter|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOUI JS signature icon LTR.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

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You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 22:06, 9 June 2019 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== Suggestions == 
Links to your [https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1279-2722 ORCID page]
and to your list of publications. [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 21:13, 10 June 2019 (UTC)
:thank you, I have added the Orchid Page, Research Gate and the Author Page about me from Wikispecies. cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:25, 10 June 2019 (UTC)

== Custodian ==

Congratulations! You are now a Wikiversity custodian. I'm sure you're familiar with the tools. Please add yourself to [[Wikiversity:Staff]] and regularly monitor [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action]] and [[Wikiversity:Notices for custodians]]. Let us know whenever you have any questions. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:46, 2 November 2019 (UTC)
 
Thank you for moving the discussion of Location Hypotheses of Atlantis. When, where and how may I start with moving the Location Hypotheses of Atlantis out of Draft? thanks again!

[[User:RAYLEIGH22|RAYLEIGH22]] ([[User talk:RAYLEIGH22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RAYLEIGH22|contribs]]) 17:40, 5 November 2019 (UTC)


Faendalimas,

Congratulations on your achieving custodian status. I look forward to working with you!

[[User:RAYLEIGH22|RAYLEIGH22]] ([[User talk:RAYLEIGH22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RAYLEIGH22|contribs]]) 13:54, 6 November 2019 (UTC)

== thankless job ==

Helping to develop policy is often a tedious and underappreciated effot. I would like to thank you for your work on the CU policy and encourage you to continue these helpful contributions to our project. We greatly appreciate your efforts to improve our site and we want you to know that we value the thought and care that you have demonstrated in our community discussions. Congratulations on your recent custodianship! I'm confident that your participation will improve wikiversity. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:52, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
:Thankyou its all cool, it is pretty much the same everywhere. How long do you wish to leave this policy up? It seems to have been accepted. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:56, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
::Usually I would close a discussion like this as SNOW as it is obvious that there is very strong support and little chance of substantive objection. Given that CU is a more serious consideration than most routine proposals that we discuss I'd like to leave it open for a little longer than we typically would. This is merely to ensure that the process is not rushed and to provide time for infrequent contributors to participate, should they choose. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 07:24, 4 November 2019 (UTC)
:::Two weeks is generally a good amount of time for such proposals. This would be about 7 November to hit that point, it could go a little longer though. I would suggest that if you plan on seeing if we can get local checkusers it may be worth applying for those as soon as the policy is in place, while its fresh. Yourself and Dave are going to need to mass mail the members, carefully of course, however if Justin and I apply as some seem to want us to we cannot be involved in that as it would be seen as canvassing. Do not be surpised if some Stewards and Global Sysops cast votes in a vote like that. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 07:28, 4 November 2019 (UTC)


I must change this for ALL of you. A sincere thank you to everyone who is working to make Wikiversity possible. May this site provide a research home for all of those who need one and may the research create breakthroughs and advancement in many subjects that would not have been possible without Wikiversity.

Thank you all once again!

[[User:RAYLEIGH22|RAYLEIGH22]] ([[User talk:RAYLEIGH22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/RAYLEIGH22|contribs]]) 13:58, 6 November 2019 (UTC)

*I closed the CU discussion because the rate of new comments had slowed down considerably. It didn't look like we'd reached the criteria in a reasonable amount of time. Thank you again for working on the policy. That framework will be important as the community grows. Perhaps we'll reach a threshold where participation in these discussions is sufficient to reach the requirements. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:41, 29 January 2020 (UTC)
**Yes {{ping|Mu301}} perfectly reasonable to close at this point. I am not worried about it. You have a policy in place now thats the important thing. Local CU´s can wait for now. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:57, 1 February 2020 (UTC)

== Wikiversity:Requests for CheckUser ==

Please review: [[Wikiversity:Requests for CheckUser]]. Do you have any suggestions for adding instructions to this page? Not that we need to anytime soon, as it will likely take quite a bit of time before we need it. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:38, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
:{{ping|Mu301}} yeah there is quite a bit needed in that page, it works better if its a form. This is the Wikispecies one [[species:Wikispecies:Requests_for_checkuser|here]] it has to explain the various definitions etc we use for everyone. I will put it together if we end up needing it if you like. I figured it would be easier to determine if we will have local checkusers first. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 06:29, 27 November 2019 (UTC)
::Yes, I'd wait until there are about a dozen or so supports. Also, I archived the old page to the talk. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 21:17, 27 November 2019 (UTC)

== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
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== Activity Review ==

Wikiversity has adopted a [[Wikiversity:Request_custodian_action#Reviews_for_Inactivity|policy]] that expects users with administrative rights to be active participants and to regularly use those rights (at least five edits and five actions within the last 12 months). It appears that you are no longer active at Wikiversity and do not currently have a need for administrative rights.

If you would prefer to retain your administrative role, please rejoin us with your contributions and support. If your account remains inactive, we will need to request that stewards remove your administrative rights. Let me know if you have any questions, and thank you for your previous efforts on our behalf.

[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:53, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
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      <id>2409290</id>
      <parentid>2407952</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:27:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MediaWiki message delivery</username>
        <id>983498</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Tech News: 2022-30 */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="240470" xml:space="preserve">== First Message Posting ==

Update Talk on Wikiversity [[User:Bnhassin|Bnhassin]] ([[User talk:Bnhassin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bnhassin|contribs]]) 21:04, 29 June 2019 (UTC)

== Update Sandbox User ==

==  Posting to sandbox == 

Update Sandbox on Wikiversity [[User:Bnhassin/sandbox]] ([[User talk:Bnhassin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bnhassin|contribs]])[[User:Bnhassin|Bnhassin]] ([[User talk:Bnhassin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bnhassin|contribs]]) 11:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/50|Tech News: 2020-50]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2020-W50&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/50|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* You can now put pages on your watchlist for a limited period of time. Some wikis already had this function. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Tech/Watchlist_Expiry][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Watchlist_expiry]

'''Changes later this week'''
* Information from Wikidata that is used on a wiki page can be shown in recent changes and watchlists on a Wikimedia wiki. To see this you need to turn on showing Wikidata edits in your watchlist in the preferences. Changes to the Wikidata description in the language of a Wikimedia wiki will then be shown in recent changes and watchlists. This will not show edits to languages that are not relevant to your wiki. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikidata/2020-November/014402.html][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T191831]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* You can vote on proposals in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021|Community Wishlist Survey]] between 8 December and 21 December. The survey decides what the [[m:Community Tech|Community Tech team]] will work on.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/50|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2020-W50&quot;/&gt; 16:15, 7 December 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=20754641 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/51|Tech News: 2020-51]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2020-W51&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/51|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a [[mw:Wikipedia for KaiOS|Wikipedia app]] for [[:w:en:KaiOS|KaiOS]] phones. It was released in India in September. It can now be downloaded in other countries too. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2020/12/10/growing-wikipedias-reach-with-an-app-for-kaios-feature-phones/]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/51|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2020-W51&quot;/&gt; 21:34, 14 December 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=20803489 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/52|Tech News: 2020-52]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2020-W52&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/52|Translations]] are available.

'''Tech News'''
* Because of the [[w:en:Christmas and holiday season|holidays]] the next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 11 January 2021.

'''Recent changes'''
* The &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{citation needed}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template shows when a statement in a Wikipedia article needs a source. If you click on it when you edit with the visual editor there is a popup that explains this. Now it can also show the reason and when it was added. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T270107]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week or next week.

'''Future changes'''
* You can [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Geoinformation/Ideas|propose and discuss]] what technical improvements should be done for geographic information. This could be coordinates, maps or other related things.
* Some wikis use [[mw:Writing systems/LanguageConverter|LanguageConverter]] to switch between writing systems or variants of a language. This can only be done for the entire page. There will be a &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;langconvert&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag that can convert a piece of text on a page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263082]
*  Oversighters and stewards can hide entries in [[Special:AbuseLog|Special:AbuseLog]]. They can soon hide multiple entries at once using checkboxes. This works like hiding normal edits. It will happen in early January. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T260904]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/52|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2020-W52&quot;/&gt; 20:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=20833836 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/02|Tech News: 2021-02]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W02&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/02|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* You can choose to be reminded when you have not added an edit summary. This can be done in your preferences. This could conflict with the [[:w:en:CAPTCHA|CAPTCHA]]. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T12729]
* You can link to specific log entries. You can get these links for example by clicking the timestamps in the log. Until now, such links to private log entries showed no entry even if you had permission to view private log entries. The links now show the entry. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T269761]
* Admins can use the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|abuse filter tool]] to automatically prevent bad edits. Three changes happened last week:
** The filter editing interface now shows syntax errors while you type. This is similar to JavaScript pages. It also shows a warning for regular expressions that match the empty string. New warnings will be added later. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T187686]
** [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Meta:Oversighters|Oversighters]] can now hide multiple filter log entries at once using checkboxes on [[Special:AbuseLog]]. This is how the usual revision deletion works. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T260904]
** When a filter matches too many actions after it has been changed it is &quot;throttled&quot;. The most powerful actions are disabled. This is to avoid many editors getting blocked when an administrator made a mistake. The administrator will now get a notification about this &quot;throttle&quot;.
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] There is a new tool to [https://skins.wmflabs.org/?#/add build new skins]. You can also [https://skins.wmflabs.org/?#/ see] existing [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Skins|skins]]. You can [[mw:User talk:Jdlrobson|give feedback]]. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2020-December/094130.html]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Bots using the API no longer watch pages automatically based on account preferences. Setting the &lt;code&gt;watchlist&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;watch&lt;/code&gt; will still work. This is to reduce the size of the watchlist data in the database. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T258108]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto's]] [[:mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#File metadata|file metadata]] now includes length. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T209679]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:w:en:CSS|CSS]] and [[:w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] code pages now have link anchors to [https://patchdemo.wmflabs.org/wikis/40e4795d4448b55a6d8c46ff414bcf78/w/index.php/MediaWiki:En.js#L-125 line numbers]. You can use wikilinks like [[:w:en:MediaWiki:Common.js#L-50]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29531]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] There was a [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki last week. You can read [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.25/Changelog|a detailed log]] of all 763 changes. Most of them are very small and will not affect you.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/02|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W02&quot;/&gt; 15:42, 11 January 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=20950047 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/03|Tech News: 2021-03]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W03&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/03|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.27|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth|Growth team]] plans to add features to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Personalized first day/Newcomer tasks/Experiment analysis, November 2020|get more visitors to edit]] to more Wikipedias. You can help [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=ext-growthexperiments&amp;language=&amp;filter=&amp;action=translate translating the interface].
* You will be able to read but not to edit Wikimedia Commons for a short time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210126T07 {{#time:j xg|2021-01-26|en}} at 07:00 (UTC)]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271791]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|MassMessage]] posts could be automatically timestamped in the future. This is because MassMessage senders can now send pages using MassMessage. Pages are more difficult to sign. If there are times when a MassMessage post should not be timestamped you can [[phab:T270435|let the developers know]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/03|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W03&quot;/&gt; 16:10, 18 January 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=20974628 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/04|Tech News: 2021-04]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W04&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/04|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* You will be able to read but not to edit Wikimedia Commons for a short time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210126T07 {{#time:j xg|2021-01-26|en}} at 07:00 (UTC)]. You will not be able to read or edit [[:wikitech:Main Page|Wikitech]] for a short time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210128T09 {{#time:j xg|2021-01-28|en}} at 09:00 (UTC)]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271791][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272388]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Bracket Matching|Bracket matching]] will be added to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] syntax highlighter on the first wikis. The first wikis are German and Catalan Wikipedia and maybe other Wikimedia wikis. This will happen on 27 January. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T270238]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.28|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/04|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W04&quot;/&gt; 18:31, 25 January 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21007423 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/05|Tech News: 2021-05]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W05&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/05|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* [[:w:en:IPv6|IPv6 addresses]] were written in lowercase letters in diffs. This caused dead links since [[Special:Contributions|Special:Contributions]] only accepted uppercase letters for the IPs. This has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272225]

'''Changes later this week'''
* You can soon use Wikidata to link to pages on the multilingual Wikisource. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T138332]
* Often editors use a &quot;non-breaking space&quot; to make a gap between two items when reading but still show them together. This can be used to avoid a line break. You will now be able to add new ones via the special character tool in the 2010, 2017, and visual editors. The character will be shown in the visual editor as a space with a grey background. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T70429][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T96666]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=| Advanced item]] Wikis use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to stop bad edits being made. Filter maintainers can now use syntax like &lt;code&gt;1.2.3.4 - 1.2.3.55&lt;/code&gt; as well as the &lt;code&gt;1.2.3.4/27&lt;/code&gt; syntax for IP ranges. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T218074]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.29|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[mw:Skin:Minerva Neue|Minerva]] is the skin Wikimedia wikis use for mobile traffic. When a page is protected and you can't edit it you can normally read the source wikicode. This doesn't work on Minerva on mobile devices. This is being fixed. Some text might overlap. This is because your community needs to update [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext|MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to work on mobile. You can [[phab:T208827|read more]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Recommendations_for_mobile_friendly_articles_on_Wikimedia_wikis#Inline_styles_should_not_use_properties_that_impact_sizing_and_positioning][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Recommendations_for_mobile_friendly_articles_on_Wikimedia_wikis#Avoid_tables_for_anything_except_data]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:wikitech:Portal:Cloud VPS|Cloud VPS]] and [[:wikitech:Portal:Toolforge|Toolforge]] will change the IP address they use to contact the wikis. The new IP address will be &lt;code&gt;185.15.56.1&lt;/code&gt;. This will happen on February 8. You can [[:wikitech:News/CloudVPS NAT wikis|read more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/05|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W05&quot;/&gt; 22:38, 1 February 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21033195 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/06|Tech News: 2021-06]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W06&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/06|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps|Wikipedia app]] for Android now has watchlists and talk pages in the app. [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.wikipedia]

'''Changes later this week'''
* You can see edits to chosen pages on [[Special:Watchlist|Special:Watchlist]]. You can add pages to your watchlist on every wiki you like. The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|GlobalWatchlist]] extension will come to Meta on 11 February. There you can see entries on watched pages on different wikis on the same page. The new watchlist will be found on [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Special:GlobalWatchlist]] on Meta. You can choose which wikis to watch and other preferences on [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlistSettings|Special:GlobalWatchlistSettings]] on Meta. You can watch up to five wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T260862]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.30|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* When admins [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Protecting and unprotecting pages|protect]] pages the form will use the [[mw:UX standardization|OOUI look]]. [[Special:Import|Special:Import]] will also get the new look. This will make them easier to use on mobile phones. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T235424][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T108792]
* Some services will not work for a short period of time from 07:00 UTC on 17 February. There might be problems with new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|short links]], new translations, new notifications, adding new items to your [[mw:Reading/Reading Lists|reading lists]] or recording [[:w:en:Email#Tracking of sent mail|email bounces]]. This is because of database maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273758]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[m:Tech/News/2021/05|Last week]] Tech News reported that the IP address [[:wikitech:Portal:Cloud VPS|Cloud VPS]] and [[:wikitech:Portal:Toolforge|Toolforge]] use to contact the wikis will change on 8 February. This is delayed. It will happen later instead. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/CloudVPS_NAT_wikis]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/06|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W06&quot;/&gt; 17:42, 8 February 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21082948 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/07|Tech News: 2021-07]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W07&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/07|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* There were problems with recent versions of MediaWiki.  Because the updates caused problems the developers rolled back to an earlier version. Some updates and new functions will come later than planned. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2021-February/094255.html][https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2021-February/094271.html]
* Some services will not work for a short period of time from 07:00 UTC on 17 February. There might be problems with new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|short links]], new translations, new notifications, adding new items to your [[mw:Reading/Reading Lists|reading lists]] or recording [[:w:en:Email#Tracking of sent mail|email bounces]]. This is because of database maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273758]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.31|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/07|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W07&quot;/&gt; 17:56, 15 February 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21105437 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/08|Tech News: 2021-08]] ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/08|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The visual editor will now use [[:c:Commons:Structured data/Media search|MediaSearch]] to find images. You can search for images on Commons in the visual editor when you are looking for illustrations. This is to help editors find better images. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T259896]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlighter]] now works with more languages: [[:w:en:Futhark (programming language)|Futhark]], [[:w:en:Graphviz|Graphviz]]/[[:w:en:DOT (graph description language)|DOT]], CDDL and AMDGPU. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T274741]

'''Problems'''
* Editing a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:EasyTimeline|timeline]] might have removed all text from it. This was because of a bug and has been fixed. You might need to edit the timeline again for it to show properly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T274822]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.32|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] There is a [[:m:Wikimedia Rust developers user group|user group]] for developers and users interested in working on Wikimedia wikis with the [[:w:en:Rust (programming language)|Rust programming language]]. You can join or tell others who want to make your wiki better in the future.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/08|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;

----

00:17, 23 February 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21134058 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/09|Tech News: 2021-09]] ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/09|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
*  Wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth team tools]] can now show the name of a newcomer's mentor anywhere [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Mentorship/Integrating_mentorship|through a magic word]]. This can be used for welcome messages or userboxes.
* A new version of the [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:VideoCutTool|VideoCutTool]] is now available. It enables cropping, trimming, audio disabling, and rotating video content. It is being created as part of the developer outreach programs.

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Job queue|job queue]]. This meant some functions did not save changes and mass messages were delayed. This did not affect wiki edits. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275437]
* Some editors may not be logged in to their accounts automatically in the latest versions of Firefox and Safari. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T226797]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.33|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/09|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;

----

19:08, 1 March 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21161722 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/10|Tech News: 2021-10]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W10&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/10|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation/Section translation|Section translation]] now works on Bengali Wikipedia. It helps mobile editors translate sections of articles. It will come to more wikis later. The first focus is active wikis with a smaller number of articles. You can [https://sx.wmflabs.org/index.php/Main_Page test it] and [[mw:Talk:Content translation/Section translation|leave feedback]].
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:FlaggedRevs|Flagged revisions]] now give admins the review right. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275293]
* When someone links to a Wikipedia article on Twitter this will now show a preview of the article. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276185]

'''Problems'''
* Many graphs have [[:w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] errors. Graph editors can check their graphs in their browser's developer console after editing. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275833]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.34|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* The [[mw:Talk pages project/New discussion|New Discussion]] tool will soon be a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:DiscussionTools|discussion tools]] beta feature for on most Wikipedias. The goal is to make it easier to start new discussions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275257]

'''Future changes'''
* There will be a number of changes to make it easier to work with templates. Some will come to the first wikis in March. Other changes will come to the first wikis in June. This is both for those who use templates and those who create or maintain them. You can [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Templates|read more]].
* [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/ReferencePreviews|Reference Previews]] will become a default feature on some wikis on 17 March. They will share a setting with [[mw:Page Previews|Page Previews]]. If you prefer the Reference Tooltips or Navigation-Popups gadget you can keep using them. If so Reference Previews won't be shown. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271206][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/ReferencePreviews]
* New JavaScript-based functions will not work in [[:w:en:Internet Explorer 11|Internet Explorer 11]]. This is because Internet Explorer is an old browser that doesn't work with how JavaScript is written today. Everything that works in Internet Explorer 11 today will continue working in Internet Explorer for now. You can [[mw:Compatibility/IE11|read more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/10|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W10&quot;/&gt; 17:51, 8 March 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/11|Tech News: 2021-11]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W11&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/11|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Wikis that are part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|desktop improvements]] project can now use a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Search|search function]]. The desktop improvements and the new search will come to more wikis later. You can also [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements#Deployment plan and timeline|test it early]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Editors who put up banners or change site-wide [[:w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] code should use the [https://grafana.wikimedia.org/d/000000566/overview?viewPanel=16&amp;orgId=1 client error graph] to see that their changes has not caused problems. You can [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2021/03/08/sailing-steady%e2%80%8a-%e2%80%8ahow-you-can-help-keep-wikimedia-sites-error-free read more]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276296]

'''Problems'''
* Due to [[phab:T276968|database issues]] the [https://meta.wikimedia.beta.wmflabs.org Wikimedia Beta Cluster] was read-only for over a day.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.34|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* You can add a [[:w:en:Newline|newline]] or [[:w:en:Carriage return|carriage return]] character to a custom signature if you use a template. There is a proposal to not allow them in the future. This is because they can cause formatting problems. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/New_requirements_for_user_signatures#Additional_proposal_(2021)][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272322]
* You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T276899|12 wikis]] for a short period of time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210323T06 {{#time:j xg|2021-03-23|en}} at 06:00 (UTC)]. This could take 30 minutes but will probably be much faster.
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] You can use [https://quarry.wmflabs.org/ Quarry] for [[:w:en:SQL|SQL]] queries to the [[wikitech:Wiki replicas|Wiki Replicas]]. Cross-database &lt;code&gt;JOINS&lt;/code&gt; will no longer work from 23 March. There will be a new field to specify the database to connect to. If you think this affects you and you need help you can [[phab:T268498|post on Phabricator]] or on [[wikitech:Talk:News/Wiki Replicas 2020 Redesign|Wikitech]]. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/PAWS PAWS] and other ways to do [[:w:en:SQL|SQL]] queries to the Wiki Replicas will be affected later. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/Wiki_Replicas_2020_Redesign]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/11|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W11&quot;/&gt; 23:22, 15 March 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/12|Tech News: 2021-12]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W12&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/12|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a [[mw:Wikipedia for KaiOS|Wikipedia app]] for [[:w:en:KaiOS|KaiOS]] phones. They don't have a touch screen so readers navigate with the phone keys. There is now a [https://wikimedia.github.io/wikipedia-kaios/sim.html simulator] so you can see what it looks like.
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Replying|reply tool]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/New discussion|new discussion tool]] are now available as the &quot;{{int:discussiontools-preference-label}}&quot; [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] in almost all wikis except German Wikipedia.

'''Problems'''
* You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T276899|twelve wikis]] for a short period of time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210323T06 {{#time:j xg|2021-03-23|{{PAGELANGUAGE}}}} at 06:00 (UTC)]. This can also affect password changes, logging in to new wikis, global renames and changing or confirming emails. This could take 30 minutes but will probably be much faster.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.36|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[:w:en:Syntax highlighting|Syntax highlighting]] colours will change to be easier to read. This will soon come to the [[phab:T276346|first wikis]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Improved_Color_Scheme_of_Syntax_Highlighting]

'''Future changes'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|Flagged revisions]] will no longer have multiple tags like &quot;tone&quot; or &quot;depth&quot;. It will also only have one tier. This was changed because very few wikis used these features and they make the tool difficult to maintain. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T185664][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T277883]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets and user scripts can access variables about the current page in JavaScript. In 2015 this was moved from &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;wg*&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;mw.config&lt;/code&gt;. &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;wg*&lt;/code&gt; will soon no longer work. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T72470]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/12|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W12&quot;/&gt; 16:53, 22 March 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21244806 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/13|Tech News: 2021-13]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/13|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Some very old [[:w:en:Web browser|web browsers]] [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Compatibility|don’t work]] well with the Wikimedia wikis. Some old code for browsers that used to be supported is being removed. This could cause issues in those browsers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T277803]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:m:IRC/Channels#Raw_feeds|IRC recent changes feeds]] have been moved to a new server. Make sure all tools automatically reconnect to &lt;code&gt;irc.wikimedia.org&lt;/code&gt; and not to the name of any specific server. Users should also consider switching to the more modern [[:wikitech:Event Platform/EventStreams|EventStreams]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T224579]

'''Problems'''
* When you move a page that many editors have on their watchlist the history can be split. It might also not be possible to move it again for a while. This is because of a [[:w:en:Job queue|job queue]] problem. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278350]
* Some translatable pages on Meta could not be edited. This was because of a bug in the translation tool. The new MediaWiki version was delayed because of problems like this. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278429][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T274940]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.37|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-31|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/13|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

17:30, 29 March 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21267131 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|Tech News: 2021-14]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Editors can collapse part of an article so you have to click on it to see it. When you click a link to a section inside collapsed content it will now expand to show the section. The browser will scroll down to the section. Previously such links didn't work unless you manually expanded the content first. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276741]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid|citoid]] [[:w:en:API|API]] will use for example &lt;code&gt;2010-12-XX&lt;/code&gt; instead of &lt;code&gt;2010-12&lt;/code&gt; for dates with a month but no days. This is because &lt;code&gt;2010-12&lt;/code&gt; could be confused with &lt;code&gt;2010-2012&lt;/code&gt; instead of &lt;code&gt;December 2010&lt;/code&gt;. This is called level 1 instead of level 0 in the [https://www.loc.gov/standards/datetime/ Extended Date/Time Format]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T132308]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.38|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-06|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-07|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-08|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:wikitech:PAWS|PAWS]] can now connect to the new [[:wikitech:Wiki Replicas|Wiki Replicas]]. Cross-database &lt;code&gt;JOINS&lt;/code&gt; will no longer work from 28 April. There is [[:wikitech:News/Wiki Replicas 2020 Redesign#How should I connect to databases in PAWS?|a new way to connect]] to the databases. Until 28 April both ways to connect to the databases will work. If you think this affects you and you need help you can post [[phab:T268498|on Phabricator]] or on [[wikitech:Talk:News/Wiki Replicas 2020 Redesign|Wikitech]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

19:41, 5 April 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|Tech News: 2021-16]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Email to the Wikimedia wikis are handled by groups of Wikimedia editors. These volunteer response teams now use [https://github.com/znuny/Znuny Znuny] instead of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/OTRS|OTRS]]. The functions and interface remain the same. The volunteer administrators will give more details about the next steps soon. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T279303][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275294]
* If you use [[Mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|syntax highlighting]], you can see line numbers in the 2010 and 2017 wikitext editors when editing templates. This is to make it easier to see line breaks or talk about specific lines. Line numbers will soon come to all namespaces. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T267911][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Line_Numbering][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Line_Numbering]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Because of a technical change there could be problems with gadgets and scripts that have an edit summary area that looks [https://phab.wmfusercontent.org/file/data/llvdqqnb5zpsfzylbqcg/PHID-FILE-25vs4qowibmtysl7cbml/Screen_Shot_2021-04-06_at_2.34.04_PM.png similar to this one]. If they look strange they should use &lt;code&gt;mw.loader.using('mediawiki.action.edit.styles')&lt;/code&gt; to go back to how they looked before. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278898]
* The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.1|latest version]] of MediaWiki came to the Wikimedia wikis last week. There was no Tech News issue last week.

'''Changes later this week'''
*  There is no new MediaWiki version this week.

'''Future changes'''
* The user group &lt;code&gt;oversight&lt;/code&gt; will be renamed &lt;code&gt;suppress&lt;/code&gt;. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. This is the technical name. It doesn't affect what you call the editors with this user right on your wiki. This is planned to happen in two weeks. You can comment [[phab:T112147|in Phabricator]] if you have objections.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

16:48, 19 April 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/17|Tech News: 2021-17]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/17|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Templates have parameters that can have specific values. It is possible to suggest values for editors with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TemplateData|TemplateData]]. You can soon see them as a drop-down list in the visual editor. This is to help template users find the right values faster. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273857][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Suggested_values_for_template_parameters][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Suggested_values_for_template_parameters]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/17|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

21:24, 26 April 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/18|Tech News: 2021-18]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/18|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[w:en:Wikipedia:Twinkle|Twinkle]] is a gadget on English Wikipedia. It can help with maintenance and patrolling. It can [[m:Grants:Project/Rapid/SD0001/Twinkle localisation/Report|now be used on other wikis]]. You can get Twinkle on your wiki using the [https://github.com/wikimedia-gadgets/twinkle-starter twinkle-starter] GitHub repository.

'''Problems'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation|content translation tool]] did not work for many articles for a little while. This was because of a bug. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281346]
* Some things will not work for about a minute on 5 May. This will happen [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210505T0600 around 06:00 UTC]. This will affect the content translation tool and notifications among other things. This is because of an upgrade to avoid crashes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281212]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Reference Previews|Reference Previews]] will become a default feature on a number of wikis on 5 May. This is later than planned because of some changes. You can use it without using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Page Previews|Page Previews]] if you want to. The earlier plan was to have the preference to use both or none. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271206][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/ReferencePreviews]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-04|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-05|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-06|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[:w:en:CSS|CSS]] classes &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;.error&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;.warning&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;.success&lt;/code&gt; do not work for mobile readers if they have not been specifically defined on your wiki. From June they will not work for desktop readers. This can affect gadgets and templates. The classes can be defined in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] or template styles instead. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280766]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/18|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

15:43, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/19|Tech News: 2021-19]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/19|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* You can see what participants plan to work on at the online [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon 2021|Wikimedia hackathon]] 22–23 May.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/19|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

15:10, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/20|Tech News: 2021-20]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/20|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a new toolbar in [[mw:Talk pages project/Replying|the Reply tool]]. It works in the wikitext source mode. You can enable it in [[Special:Preferences#mw-htmlform-discussion|your preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276608] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Replying#13_May_2021] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion#13_May_2021]
* Wikimedia [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo mailing lists] are being moved to [[:w:en:GNU Mailman|Mailman 3]]. This is a newer version. For the [[:w:en:Character encoding|character encoding]] to work it will change from &lt;code&gt;[[:w:en:UTF-8|UTF-8]]&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;utf8mb3&lt;/code&gt;. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IEYQ2HS3LZF2P3DAYMNZYQDGHWPVMTPY/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T282621]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] An [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|earlier issue]] of Tech News said that the  [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid|citoid]] [[:w:en:API|API]] would handle dates with a month but no days in a new way. This has been reverted for now. There needs to be more discussion of how it affects different wikis first. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T132308]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] &lt;code&gt;MediaWiki:Pageimages-blacklist&lt;/code&gt; will be renamed &lt;code&gt;MediaWiki:Pageimages-denylist&lt;/code&gt;. The list can be copied to the new name. It will happen on 19 May for some wikis and 20 May for some wikis. Most wikis don't use it. It lists images that should never be used as thumbnails for articles. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T282626]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/20|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

13:49, 17 May 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/21|Tech News: 2021-21]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/21|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The Wikimedia movement has been using [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/IRC|IRC]] on a network called [[:w:en:Freenode|Freenode]]. There have been changes around who is in control of the network. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IRC/Group_Contacts|Wikimedia IRC Group Contacts]] have [[m:Special:Diff/21476411|decided]] to move to the new [[:w:en:Libera Chat|Libera Chat]] network instead. This is not a formal decision for the movement to move all channels but most Wikimedia IRC channels will probably leave Freenode. There is a [[:m:IRC/Migrating_to_Libera_Chat|migration guide]] and ongoing Wikimedia [[m:Wikimedia Forum#Freenode (IRC)|discussions about this]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/21|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

17:07, 24 May 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/22|Tech News: 2021-22]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/22|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* There was an issue on the Vector skin with the text size of categories and notices under the page title. It was fixed last Monday. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T283206]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/22|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

17:05, 31 May 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/23|Tech News: 2021-23]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/23|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The Wikimedia movement uses [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Phabricator|Phabricator]] for technical tasks. This is where we collect technical suggestions, bugs and what developers are working on. The company behind Phabricator will stop working on it. This will not change anything for the Wikimedia movement now. It could lead to changes in the future. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/YAXOD46INJLAODYYIJUVQWOZFIV54VUI/][https://admin.phacility.com/phame/post/view/11/phacility_is_winding_down_operations/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T283980]
* Searching on Wikipedia will find more results in some languages. This is mainly true for when those who search do not use the correct [[:w:en:Diacritic|diacritics]] because they are not seen as necessary in that language. For example searching for &lt;code&gt;Bedusz&lt;/code&gt; doesn't find &lt;code&gt;Będusz&lt;/code&gt; on German Wikipedia. The character &lt;code&gt;ę&lt;/code&gt; isn't used in German so many would write &lt;code&gt;e&lt;/code&gt; instead. This will work better in the future in some languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T219550]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[:w:en:Cross-site request forgery|CSRF token parameters]] in the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:Main page|action API]] were changed in 2014. The old parameters from before 2014 will stop working soon. This can affect bots, gadgets and user scripts that still use the old parameters. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IMP43BNCI32C524O5YCUWMQYP4WVBQ2B/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280806]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/23|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

20:02, 7 June 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21551759 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/24|Tech News: 2021-24]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/24|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Logged-in users on the mobile web can choose to use the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Advanced mobile contributions|advanced mobile mode]]. They now see categories in a similar way as users on desktop do. This means that some gadgets that have just been for desktop users could work for users of the mobile site too. If your wiki has such gadgets you could decide to turn them on for the mobile site too. Some gadgets probably need to be fixed to look good on mobile. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284763]
* Language links on Wikidata now works for [[:oldwikisource:Main Page|multilingual Wikisource]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275958]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.

'''Future changes'''
* In the future we [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|can't show the IP]] of unregistered editors to everyone. This is because privacy regulations and norms have changed. There is now a rough draft of how [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#Updates|showing the IP to those who need to see it]] could work.
* German Wikipedia, English Wikivoyage and 29 smaller wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on 22 June. This is planned between 5:00 and 5:30 UTC. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284530]
* All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes in the week of 28 June. More information will be published in Tech News later. It will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281515][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281209]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/24|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

20:26, 14 June 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21587625 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/25|Tech News: 2021-25]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/25|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The &lt;code&gt;otrs-member&lt;/code&gt; group name is now &lt;code&gt;vrt-permissions&lt;/code&gt;. This could affect abuse filters. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280615]

'''Problems'''
* You will be able to read but not edit German Wikipedia, English Wikivoyage and 29 smaller wikis for a few minutes on 22 June. This is planned between [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210623T0500 5:00 and 5:30 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284530]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.11|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-22|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-23|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-24|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/25|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

15:49, 21 June 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21593987 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/26|Tech News: 2021-26]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/26|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Wikis with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth|Growth features]] now can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure Growth features directly on their wiki]]. This uses the new special page &lt;code&gt;Special:EditGrowthConfig&lt;/code&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285423]
* Wikisources have a new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Tech/OCR Improvements|OCR tool]]. If you don't want to see the &quot;extract text&quot; button on Wikisource you can add &lt;code&gt;.ext-wikisource-ExtractTextWidget { display: none; }&lt;/code&gt; to your [[Special:MyPage/common.css|common.css page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285311]

'''Problems'''
*You will be able to read but not edit the Wikimedia wikis for a few minutes on 29 June. This is planned at [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210629T1400 14:00 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281515][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281209]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* &lt;code&gt;Threshold for stub link formatting&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;thumbnail size&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;auto-number headings&lt;/code&gt; can be set in preferences. They are expensive to maintain and few editors use them. The developers are planning to remove them. Removing them will make pages load faster. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/User:SKim (WMF)/Performance Dependent User Preferences|read more and give feedback]].
* A toolbar will be added to the [[mw:Talk pages project/Replying|Reply tool]]'s wikitext source mode. This will make it easier to link to pages and to ping other users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276609][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Replying#Status_updates]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/26|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

16:32, 28 June 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/27|Tech News: 2021-27]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/27|Translations]] are available.

'''Tech News'''
* The next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 19 July.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[:wikidata:Q4063270|AutoWikiBrowser]] is a tool to make repetitive tasks easier. It now uses [[:w:en:JSON|JSON]]. &lt;code&gt;Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPage&lt;/code&gt; has moved to &lt;code&gt;Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/Config&lt;/code&gt;. &lt;code&gt;Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPage/Version&lt;/code&gt; has moved to &lt;code&gt;Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPage/VersionJSON&lt;/code&gt;. The tool will eventually be configured on the wiki so that you don't have to wait until the new version to add templates or regular expression fixes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T241196]

'''Problems'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] helps saving online sources on some wikis. It adds them to [[:w:en:Wayback Machine|Wayback Machine]] and links to them there. This is so they don't disappear if the page that was linked to is removed. It currently has a problem with linking to the wrong date when it moves pages from &lt;code&gt;archive.is&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;web.archive.org&lt;/code&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T283432]

'''Changes later this week'''
* The tool to [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Finding and inserting templates|find, add and remove templates]] will be updated. This is to make it easier to find and use the right templates. It will come to the first wikis on 7 July. It will come to more wikis later this year. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Removing_a_template_from_a_page_using_the_VisualEditor][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284553]
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.

'''Future changes'''
* Some Wikimedia wikis use [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Flagged Revisions|Flagged Revisions]] or pending changes. It hides edits from new and unregistered accounts for readers until they have been patrolled. The auto review action in Flagged Revisions will no longer be logged. All old logs of auto-review will be removed. This is because it creates a lot of logs that are not very useful. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285608]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/27|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

17:33, 5 July 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21694636 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/29|Tech News: 2021-29]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/29|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The tool to [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Finding and inserting templates|find, add and remove templates]] was updated. This is to make it easier to find and use the right templates. It was supposed to come to the first wikis on 7 July. It was delayed to 12 July instead. It will come to more wikis later this year. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Removing_a_template_from_a_page_using_the_VisualEditor][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284553]
* [[Special:UnconnectedPages|Special:UnconnectedPages]] lists pages that are not connected to Wikidata. This helps you find pages that can be connected to Wikidata items. Some pages should not be connected to Wikidata. You can use the magic word &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;__EXPECTED_UNCONNECTED_PAGE__&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; on pages that should not be listed on the special page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T97577]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-20|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-21|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-22|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] How media is structured in the [[:w:en:Parsing|parser's]] HTML output will soon change. This can affect bots, gadgets, user scripts and extensions. You can [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/L2UQJRHTFK5YG3IOZEC7JSLH2ZQNZRVU/ read more]. You can test it on [[:testwiki:Main Page|Testwiki]] or [[:test2wiki:Main Page|Testwiki 2]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The parameters for how you obtain [[mw:API:Tokens|tokens]] in the MediaWiki API were changed in 2014. The old way will no longer work from 1 September. Scripts, bots and tools that use the parameters from before the 2014 change need to be updated. You can [[phab:T280806#7215377|read more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/29|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

15:31, 19 July 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/30|Tech News: 2021-30]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/30|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* A [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki came to the Wikimedia wikis the week before last week. This was not in Tech News because there was no newsletter that week. 

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* If you use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:MonoBook|Monobook skin]] you can choose to switch off [[:w:en:Responsive web design|responsive design]] on mobile. This will now work for more skins. If &lt;code&gt;{{int:monobook-responsive-label}}&lt;/code&gt; is unticked you need to also untick the new [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|preference]] &lt;code&gt;{{int:prefs-skin-responsive}}&lt;/code&gt;. Otherwise it will stop working. Interface admins can automate this process on your wiki. You can [[phab:T285991|read more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/30|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

21:11, 26 July 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/31|Tech News: 2021-31]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/31|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] If your wiki uses markup like &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; or &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-rtl&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; without the required &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;dir&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; attribute, then these will no longer work in 2 weeks. There is a short-term fix that can be added to your local wiki's Common.css page, which is explained at [[phab:T287701|T287701]]. From now on, all usages should include the full attributes, for example: &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; or &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-rtl&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot; lang=&quot;he&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. This also applies to some other HTML tags, such as &lt;code&gt;span&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;code&lt;/code&gt;. You can find existing examples on your wiki that need to be updated, using the instructions at [[phab:T287701|T287701]].
* Reminder: Wikimedia has [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IRC/Migrating to Libera Chat|migrated to the Libera Chat IRC network]], from the old Freenode network. Local documentation should be updated.

'''Problems'''
* Last week, all wikis had slow access or no access for 30 minutes. There was a problem with generating dynamic lists of articles on the Russian Wikinews, due to the bulk import of 200,000+ new articles over 3 days, which led to database problems. The problematic feature has been disabled on that wiki and developers are discussing if it can be fixed properly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287380][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2021-07-26_ruwikinews_DynamicPageList]

'''Changes later this week'''
* When adding links to a page using [[mw:VisualEditor|VisualEditor]] or the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2017 wikitext editor|2017 wikitext editor]], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Disambiguator|disambiguation pages]] will now only appear at the bottom of search results. This is because users do not often want to link to disambiguation pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285510]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-03|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-04|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-05|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|team of the Wikipedia app for Android]] is working on communication in the app. The developers are working on how to talk to other editors and get notifications. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|read more]]. They are looking for users who want to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication/UsertestingJuly2021|test the plans]]. Any editor who has an Android phone and is willing to download the app can do this.
* The [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature]] for {{int:discussiontools-preference-label}} will be updated in the coming weeks.  You will be able to [[mw:Talk pages project/Notifications|subscribe to individual sections]] on a talk page at more wikis.  You can test this now by adding &lt;code&gt;?dtenable=1&lt;/code&gt; to the end of the talk page's URL ([https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Meta_talk:Sandbox?dtenable=1 example]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/31|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

20:47, 2 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21818289 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/32|Tech News: 2021-32]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/32|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* You can read but not edit 17 wikis for a few minutes on 10 August. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1628571650 05:00 UTC]. This is because of work on the database. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287449]

'''Changes later this week'''
* The [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2021:Hackathon|Wikimania Hackathon]] will take place remotely on 13 August, starting at 5:00 UTC, for 24 hours. You can participate in many ways. You can still propose projects and sessions.
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-10|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-11|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-12|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The old CSS &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;visualClear&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will not be supported after 12 August. Instead, templates and pages should use &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. Please help to replace any existing uses on your wiki. There are global-search links available at [[phab:T287962|T287962]].

'''Future changes'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library]] is a place for Wikipedia editors to get access to sources. There is an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TheWikipediaLibrary|extension]] which has a new function to tell users when they can take part in it. It will use notifications. It will start pinging the first users in September. It will ping more users later. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288070]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[w:en:Vue.js|Vue.js]] will be the [[w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] framework for MediaWiki in the future. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/SOZREBYR36PUNFZXMIUBVAIOQI4N7PDU/]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/32|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

16:21, 9 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21856726 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/33|Tech News: 2021-33]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/33|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* You can add language links in the sidebar in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|new Vector skin]] again. You do this by connecting the page to a Wikidata item. The new Vector skin has moved the language links but the new language selector cannot add language links yet. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287206]

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem on wikis which use the Translate extension. Translations were not updated or were replaced with the English text. The problems have been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288700][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288683][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288719]

'''Changes later this week'''
* A [[mw:Help:Tags|revision tag]] will soon be added to edits that add links to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Disambiguator|disambiguation pages]]. This is because these links are usually added by accident. The tag will allow editors to easily find the broken links and fix them. If your wiki does not like this feature, it can be [[mw:Help:Tags#Deleting a tag added by the software|hidden]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287549]
*Would you like to help improve the information about tools? Would you like to attend or help organize a small virtual meetup for your community to discuss the list of tools? Please get in touch on the [[m:Toolhub/The Quality Signal Sessions|Toolhub Quality Signal Sessions]] talk page. We are also looking for feedback [[m:Talk:Toolhub/The Quality Signal Sessions#Discussion topic for &quot;Quality Signal Sessions: The Tool Maintainers edition&quot;|from tool maintainers]] on some specific questions.
* In the past, edits to any page in your user talk space ignored your [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Notifications#mute|mute list]], e.g. sub-pages. Starting this week, this is only true for edits to your talk page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288112]
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/33|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

19:27, 16 August 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/34|Tech News: 2021-34]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/34|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score|Score]] extension (&lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;score&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; notation) has been re-enabled on public wikis and upgraded to a newer version. Some musical score functionality may no longer work because the extension is only enabled in &quot;safe mode&quot;. The security issue has been fixed and an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score/2021 security advisory|advisory published]].

'''Problems'''
* You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T289130|some wikis]] for a few minutes on {{#time:j xg|2021-08-25|en}}. This will happen around [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1629871217 06:00 UTC]. This is for database maintenance. During this time, operations on the CentralAuth will also not be possible.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/34|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

21:58, 23 August 2021 (UTC)
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== Read-only reminder ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;MassMessage&quot;/&gt;
A maintenance operation will be performed on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1629871231 {{#time: l F d H:i e|2021-08-25T06:00|en}}]. It should only last for a few minutes.

This will affect your wiki as well as 11 other wikis. During this time, publishing edits will not be possible. 

Also during this time, operations on the CentralAuth will not be possible (GlobalRenames, changing/confirming e-mail addresses, logging into new wikis, password changes).

For more details about the operation and on all impacted services, please check [[phab:T289130|on Phabricator]].

A banner will be displayed 30 minutes before the operation.

Please help your community to be aware of this maintenance operation. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}&lt;section end=&quot;MassMessage&quot;/&gt;

20:35, 24 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21927201 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/35|Tech News: 2021-35]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/35|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Some musical score syntax no longer works and may needed to be updated, you can check [[:Category:{{MediaWiki:score-error-category}}]] on your wiki for a list of pages with errors.

'''Problems'''
* Musical scores were unable to render lyrics in some languages because of missing fonts. This has been fixed now. If your language would prefer a different font, please file a request in Phabricator. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289554]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The parameters for how you obtain [[mw:API:Tokens|tokens]] in the MediaWiki API were changed in 2014. The old way will no longer work from 1 September. Scripts, bots and tools that use the parameters from before the 2014 change need to be updated. You can [[phab:T280806#7215377|read more]] about this.
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T289660|Commons]] for a few minutes on {{#time:j xg|2021-09-06|en}}. This will happen around [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1630818058 05:00 UTC]. This is for database maintenance.
* All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes in the week of 13 September. More information will be published in Tech News later. It will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287539]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/35|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

16:01, 30 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=21954810 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/36|Tech News: 2021-36]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/36|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The wikis that have [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] deployed have been part of A/B testing since deployment, in which some newcomers did not receive the new features. Now, all of the newcomers on 21 of the smallest of those wikis will be receiving the features. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289786]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] In 2017, the provided jQuery library was upgraded from version 1 to 3, with a compatibility layer. The migration will soon finish, to make the site load faster for everyone. If you maintain a gadget or user script, check if you have any JQMIGRATE errors and fix them, or they will break. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280944][https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/6Z2BVLOBBEC2QP4VV4KOOVQVE52P3HOP/]
* Last year, the Portuguese Wikipedia community embarked on an experiment to make log-in compulsory for editing.  The [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Impact report for Login Required Experiment on Portuguese Wikipedia|impact report of this trial]] is ready. Moving forward, the Anti-Harassment Tools team is looking for projects that are willing to experiment with restricting IP editing on their wiki for a short-term experiment. [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Login Required Experiment|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/36|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

15:20, 6 September 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/37|Tech News: 2021-37]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/37|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* 45 new Wikipedias now have access to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth features]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289680]
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Deployment table|A majority of Wikipedias]] now have access to the Growth features. The Growth team [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/FAQ|has published an FAQ page]] about the features. This translatable FAQ covers the description of the features, how to use them, how to change the configuration, and more.

'''Problems'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on 14 September. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1631628002 14:00 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287539]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Starting this week, Wikipedia in Italian will receive weekly software updates on Wednesdays. It used to receive the updates on Thursdays. Due to this change, bugs will be noticed and fixed sooner. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T286664]
* You can add language links in the sidebar in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|the new Vector skin]] again. You do this by connecting the page to a Wikidata item. The new Vector skin has moved the language links but the new language selector cannot add language links yet. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287206]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlight]] tool marks up code with different colours. It now can highlight 23 new code languages. Additionally, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;golang&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; can now be used as an alias for the [[d:Q37227|Go programming language]], and a special &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;output&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; mode has been added to show a program's output. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280117][https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/mediawiki/extensions/SyntaxHighlight_GeSHi/+/715277/]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/37|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

15:35, 13 September 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22009517 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/38|Tech News: 2021-38]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/38|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Growth features are now deployed to almost all Wikipedias. [[phab:T290582|For the majority of small Wikipedias]], the features are only available for experienced users, to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/FAQ#enable|test the features]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/FAQ#config|configure them]]. Features will be available for newcomers starting on 20 September 2021.
* MediaWiki had a feature that would highlight local links to short articles in a different style. Each user could pick the size at which &quot;stubs&quot; would be highlighted. This feature was very bad for performance, and following a consultation, has been removed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284917]
* A technical change was made to the MonoBook skin to allow for easier maintenance and upkeep. This has resulted in some minor changes to HTML that make MonoBook's HTML consistent with other skins. Efforts have been made to minimize the impact on editors, but please ping [[m:User:Jon (WMF)|Jon (WMF)]] on wiki or in [[phab:T290888|phabricator]] if any problems are reported.

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem with search last week. Many search requests did not work for 2 hours because of an accidental restart of the search servers. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2021-09-13_cirrussearch_restart]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.1|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[s:Special:ApiHelp/query+proofreadinfo|meta=proofreadpage API]] has changed. The &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;piprop&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; parameter has been renamed to &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;prpiprop&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. API users should update their code to avoid unrecognized parameter warnings. Pywikibot users should upgrade to 6.6.0. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T290585]

'''Future changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Replying|Reply tool]] will be deployed to the remaining wikis in the coming weeks.  It is currently part of &quot;{{int:discussiontools-preference-label}}&quot; in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta features]] at most wikis. You will be able to turn it off in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Editing Preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T262331]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki_1.37/Deprecation_of_legacy_API_token_parameters|previously announced]] change to how you obtain tokens from the API has been delayed to September 21 because of an incompatibility with Pywikibot. Bot operators using Pywikibot can follow [[phab:T291202|T291202]] for progress on a fix, and should plan to upgrade to 6.6.1 when it is released.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/38|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

18:32, 20 September 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/39|Tech News: 2021-39]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W39&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/39|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[w:en:IOS|iOS 15]] has a new function called [https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT212614 Private Relay] (Apple website). This can hide the user's IP when they use [[w:en:Safari (software)|Safari]] browser. This is like using a [[w:en:Virtual private network|VPN]] in that we see another IP address instead. It is opt-in and only for those who pay extra for [[w:en:ICloud|iCloud]]. It will come to Safari users on [[:w:en:OSX|OSX]] later. There is a [[phab:T289795|technical discussion]] about what this means for the Wikimedia wikis.

'''Problems'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Some gadgets and user-scripts add items to the [[m:Customization:Explaining_skins#Portlets|portlets]] (article tools) part of the skin. A recent change to the HTML may have made those links a different font-size. This can be fixed by adding the CSS class &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;.vector-menu-dropdown-noicon&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291438]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.2|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Onboarding_new_Wikipedians#New_experience|GettingStarted extension]] was built in 2013, and provides an onboarding process for new account holders in a few versions of Wikipedia. However, the recently developed [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] provide a better onboarding experience. Since the vast majority of Wikipedias now have access to the Growth features, GettingStarted will be deactivated starting on 4 October. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T235752]
* A small number of users will not be able to connect to the Wikimedia wikis after 30 September. This is because an old [[:w:en:root certificate|root certificate]] will no longer work. They will also have problems with many other websites. Users who have updated their software in the last five years are unlikely to have problems. Users in Europe, Africa and Asia are less likely to have immediate problems even if their software is too old. You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/HTTPS/2021 Let's Encrypt root expiry|read more]].
* You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Notifications|receive notifications]] when someone leaves a comment on user talk page or mentions you in a talk page comment. Clicking the notification link will now bring you to the comment and highlight it. Previously, doing so brought you to the top of the section that contained the comment. You can find [[phab:T282029|more information in T282029.]]

'''Future changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Replying|Reply tool]] will be deployed to the remaining wikis in the coming weeks. It is currently part of &quot;{{int:discussiontools-preference-label}}&quot; in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta features]] at most wikis. You will be able to turn it off in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Editing Preferences]]. [[phab:T288485|See the list of wikis.]] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T262331]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/39|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W39&quot;/&gt;

22:23, 27 September 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22077885 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/40|Tech News: 2021-40]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/40|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* A more efficient way of sending changes from Wikidata to Wikimedia wikis that show them has been enabled for the following 10 wikis: mediawiki.org, the Italian, Catalan, Hebrew and Vietnamese Wikipedias, French Wikisource, and English Wikivoygage, Wikibooks, Wiktionary and Wikinews. If you notice anything strange about how changes from Wikidata appear in recent changes or your watchlist on those wikis you can [[phab:T48643|let the developers know]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Some gadgets and bots that use the API to read the AbuseFilter log might break. The &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;hidden&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; property will no longer say an entry is &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;implicit&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; for unsuppressed log entries about suppressed edits. If your bot needs to know this, do a separate revision query. Additionally, the property will have the value &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;false&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; for visible entries; previously, it wasn't included in the response. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291718]
* A more efficient way of sending changes from Wikidata to Wikimedia wikis that show them will be enabled for ''all production wikis''. If you notice anything strange about how changes from Wikidata appear in recent changes or your watchlist you can [[phab:T48643|let the developers know]].

'''Future changes'''
* You can soon get cross-wiki notifications in the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS|iOS Wikipedia app]]. You can also get notifications as push notifications. More notification updates will follow in later versions. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/iOS/Notifications#September_2021_update]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The JavaScript variables &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgExtraSignatureNamespaces&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgLegalTitleChars&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, and &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgIllegalFileChars&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will soon be removed from &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Interface/JavaScript#mw.config|mw.config]]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. These are not part of the &quot;stable&quot; variables available for use in wiki JavaScript. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T292011] 
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The JavaScript variables &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgCookiePrefix&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgCookieDomain&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgCookiePath&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, and &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;wgCookieExpiration&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will soon be removed from mw.config. Scripts should instead use &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw.cookie&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; from the &quot;&lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[mw:ResourceLoader/Core_modules#mediawiki.cookie|mediawiki.cookie]]&lt;/bdi&gt;&quot; module. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291760]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/40|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;tech-newsletter-content&quot;/&gt;

16:32, 4 October 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/41|Tech News: 2021-41]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W41&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/41|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

* The [[mw:Manual:Table_of_contents#Auto-numbering|&quot;auto-number headings&quot; preference]] is being removed. You can read [[phab:T284921]] for the reasons and discussion. This change was [[m:Tech/News/2021/26|previously]] announced. [[mw:Snippets/Auto-number_headings|A JavaScript snippet]] is available which can be used to create a Gadget on wikis that still want to support auto-numbering.

'''Meetings'''
* You can join a meeting about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]. A demonstration version of the [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Sticky Header|newest feature]] will be shown. The event will take place on Tuesday, 12 October at 16:00 UTC. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web/12-10-2021|See how to join]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/41|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W41&quot;/&gt;

15:30, 11 October 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/42|Tech News: 2021-42]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W42&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/42|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
*[[m:Toolhub|Toolhub]] is a catalogue to make it easier to find software tools that can be used for working on the Wikimedia projects. You can [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/LF4SSR4QRCKV6NPRFGUAQWUFQISVIPTS/ read more].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The developers of the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia Android app]] are working on [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|communication in the app]]. You can now answer questions in [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication/UsertestingOctober2021|survey]] to help the development.
* 3–5% of editors may be blocked in the next few months. This is because of a new service in Safari, which is similar to a [[w:en:Proxy server|proxy]] or a [[w:en:VPN|VPN]]. It is called iCloud Private Relay. There is a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Apple iCloud Private Relay|discussion about this]] on Meta. The goal is to learn what iCloud Private Relay could mean for the communities.
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] is a new [[w:en:API|API]] for those who use a lot of information from the Wikimedia projects on other sites. It is a way to get big commercial users to pay for the data. There will soon be a copy of the Wikimedia Enterprise dataset. You can [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-ambassadors@lists.wikimedia.org/message/B2AX6PWH5MBKB4L63NFZY3ADBQG7MSBA/ read more]. You can also ask the team questions [https://wikimedia.zoom.us/j/88994018553 on Zoom] on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?hour=15&amp;min=00&amp;sec=0&amp;day=22&amp;month=10&amp;year=2021 22 October 15:00 UTC].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/42|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W42&quot;/&gt;

20:53, 18 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22176877 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/43|Tech News: 2021-43]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W43&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/43|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest_Tool_Award|Coolest Tool Award 2021]] is looking for nominations. You can recommend tools until 27 October.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
*[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Diff|Diff pages]] will have an improved copy and pasting experience. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Copy paste diffs|The changes]] will allow the text in the diff for before and after to be treated as separate columns and will remove any unwanted syntax. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T192526]
* The version of the [[w:en:Liberation fonts|Liberation fonts]] used in SVG files will be upgraded. Only new thumbnails will be affected. Liberation Sans Narrow will not change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T253600]

'''Meetings'''
* You can join a meeting about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey|Community Wishlist Survey]]. News about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Warn when linking to disambiguation pages|disambiguation]] and the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Real Time Preview for Wikitext|real-time preview]] wishes will be shown. The event will take place on Wednesday, 27 October at 14:30 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Updates/Talk to Us|See how to join]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/43|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W43&quot;/&gt;

20:08, 25 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22232718 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/44|Tech News: 2021-44]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W44&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/44|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a limit on the amount of emails a user can send each day. This limit is now global instead of per-wiki. This change is to prevent abuse. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T293866]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/44|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W44&quot;/&gt;

20:28, 1 November 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22269406 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/45|Tech News: 2021-45]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W45&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/45|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Mobile IP editors are now able to receive warning notices indicating they have a talk page message on the mobile website (similar to the orange banners available on desktop). These notices will be displayed on every page outside of the main namespace and every time the user attempts to edit. The notice on desktop now has a slightly different colour. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284642][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278105]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[phab:T294321|Wikidata will be read-only]] for a few minutes on 11 November. This will happen around [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1636610400 06:00 UTC]. This is for database maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T294321]
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.

'''Future changes'''
* In the future, unregistered editors will be given an identity that is not their [[:w:en:IP address|IP address]]. This is for legal reasons. A new user right will let editors who need to know the IPs of unregistered accounts to fight vandalism, spam, and harassment, see the IP. You can read the [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|suggestions for how that identity could work]] and [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|discuss on the talk page]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/45|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W45&quot;/&gt;

20:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/46|Tech News: 2021-46]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W46&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/46|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Most [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Maximum_file_size#MAXTHUMB|large file uploads]] errors that had messages like &quot;&lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;stashfailed&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;&quot; or &quot;&lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;DBQueryError&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;&quot; have now been fixed. An [[wikitech:Incident documentation/2021-11-04 large file upload timeouts|incident report]] is available.

'''Problems'''
* Sometimes, edits made on iOS using the visual editor save groups of numbers as telephone number links, because of a feature in the operating system. This problem is under investigation. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T116525]
* There was a problem with search last week. Many search requests did not work for 2 hours because of a configuration error. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2021-11-10_cirrussearch_commonsfile_outage]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/46|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W46&quot;/&gt;

22:06, 15 November 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22338097 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/47|Tech News: 2021-47]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W47&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/47|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.
*The template dialog in VisualEditor and in the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|new wikitext mode]] Beta feature will be [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/VisualEditor template dialog improvements|heavily improved]] on [[phab:T286992|a few wikis]]. Your [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/VisualEditor template dialog improvements|feedback is welcome]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/47|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W47&quot;/&gt;

20:02, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=22366010 --&gt;

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/48|Tech News: 2021-48]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W48&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/48|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.11|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/48|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W48&quot;/&gt;

21:15, 29 November 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/49|Tech News: 2021-49]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W49&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/49|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* MediaWiki 1.38-wmf.11 was scheduled to be deployed on some wikis last week. The deployment was delayed because of unexpected problems.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* At all Wikipedias, a Mentor Dashboard is now available at &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Special:MentorDashboard&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. It allows registered mentors, who take care of newcomers' first steps, to monitor their assigned newcomers' activity. It is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth features]]. You can learn more about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How_to_configure_the_mentors%27_list|activating the mentor list]] on your wiki and about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor dashboard|the mentor dashboard project]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The predecessor to the current [[mw:API|MediaWiki Action API]] (which was created in 2008), &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;action=ajax&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, will be removed this week. Any scripts or bots using it will need to switch to the corresponding API module. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T42786]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] An old ResourceLoader module, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;jquery.jStorage&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, which was deprecated in 2016, will be removed this week. Any scripts or bots using it will need to switch to &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;mediawiki.storage&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; instead. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T143034]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/49|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W49&quot;/&gt;

21:59, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/50|Tech News: 2021-50]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W50&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/50|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There are now default [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Namespace#Other_namespace_aliases|short aliases]] for the &quot;Project:&quot; namespace on most wikis. E.g. On Wikibooks wikis, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[WB:]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will go to the local language default for the &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Project:]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; namespace. This change is intended to help the smaller communities have easy access to this feature. Additional local aliases can still be requested via [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting wiki configuration changes|the usual process]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T293839]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/50|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W50&quot;/&gt;

22:27, 13 December 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/51|Tech News: 2021-51]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2021-W51&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/51|Translations]] are available.

'''Tech News'''
* Because of the [[w:en:Christmas and holiday season|holidays]] the next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 10 January 2022.

'''Recent changes'''
* Queries made by the DynamicPageList extension (&lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;DynamicPageList&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;) are now only allowed to run for 10 seconds and error if they take longer. This is in response to multiple outages where long-running queries caused an outage on all wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287380#7575719]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week or next week.

'''Future changes'''
* The developers of the Wikipedia iOS app are looking for testers who edit in multiple languages. You can [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/202112 testing|read more and let them know if you are interested]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The Wikimedia [[wikitech:Portal:Cloud VPS|Cloud VPS]] hosts technical projects for the Wikimedia movement. Developers need to [[wikitech:News/Cloud VPS 2021 Purge|claim projects]] they use. This is because old and unused projects are removed once a year. Unclaimed projects can be shut down from February. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/2B7KYL5VLQNHGQQHMYLW7KTUKXKAYY3T/]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/51|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2021-W51&quot;/&gt;

22:05, 20 December 2021 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Tech News: 2022-02]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W02&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] A &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;oauth_consumer&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; variable has been added to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] to enable identifying changes made by specific tools. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298281]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ResourceLoader/Migration_guide_(users)#Package_Gadgets|now able to directly include JSON pages]]. This means some gadgets can now be configured by administrators without needing the interface administrator permission, such as with the Geonotice gadget. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T198758]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets [[mw:Extension:Gadgets#Options|can now specify page actions]] on which they are available. For example, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;|actions=edit,history&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will load a gadget only while editing and on history pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T63007]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets can now be loaded on demand with the &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;withgadget&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; URL parameter. This can be used to replace [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Snippets/Load JS and CSS by URL|an earlier snippet]] that typically looks like &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;withJS&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; or &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;withCSS&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29766]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] At wikis where [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How to configure the mentors' list|the Mentorship system is configured]], you can now use the Action API to get a list of a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor_dashboard|mentor's]] mentees. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291966]
* The heading on the main page can now be configured using &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]]&lt;/span&gt; for logged-in users and &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]]&lt;/span&gt; for logged-out users. Any CSS that was previously used to hide the heading should be removed. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Small_wiki_toolkits/Starter_kit/Main_page_customization#hide-heading] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298715]
* Four special pages (and their API counterparts) now have a maximum database query execution time of 30 seconds. These special pages are: RecentChanges, Watchlist, Contributions, and Log. This change will help with site performance and stability. You can read [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IPJNO75HYAQWIGTHI5LJHTDVLVOC4LJP/ more details about this change] including some possible solutions if this affects your workflows. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T297708]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Sticky Header|sticky header]] has been deployed for 50% of logged-in users on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Frequently asked questions#pilot-wikis|more than 10 wikis]]. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Participate|how to take part in the project]]. 

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Events'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]] begins. All contributors to the Wikimedia projects can propose for tools and platform improvements. The proposal phase takes place from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-10|en}} 18:00 UTC to {{#time:j xg|2022-01-23|en}} 18:00 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/FAQ|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W02&quot;/&gt;

01:23, 11 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Tech News: 2022-03]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W03&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* When using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:WikiEditor|WikiEditor]] (also known as the 2010 wikitext editor), people will now see a warning if they link to disambiguation pages.  If you click &quot;{{int:Disambiguator-review-link}}&quot; in the warning, it will ask you to correct the link to a more specific term. You can [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Warn when linking to disambiguation pages#Jan 12, 2021: Turning on the changes for all Wikis|read more information]] about this completed 2021 Community Wishlist item.
* You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#subscribe|automatically subscribe to all of the talk page discussions]] that you start or comment in using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary|DiscussionTools]].  You will receive [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Notifications|notifications]] when another editor replies.  This is available at most wikis.  Go to your [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]] and turn on &quot;{{int:discussiontools-preference-autotopicsub}}&quot;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263819]
* When asked to create a new page or talk page section, input fields can be [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Creating_pages_with_preloaded_text|&quot;preloaded&quot; with some text]]. This feature is now limited to wikitext pages. This is so users can't be tricked into making malicious edits. There is a discussion about [[phab:T297725|if this feature should be re-enabled]] for some content types.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Events'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]] continues. All contributors to the Wikimedia projects can propose for tools and platform improvements. The proposal phase takes place from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-10|en}} 18:00 UTC to {{#time:j xg|2022-01-23|en}} 18:00 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/FAQ|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W03&quot;/&gt;

19:55, 17 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Tech News: 2022-04]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W04&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* The following languages can now be used with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlighting]]: BDD, Elpi, LilyPond, Maxima, Rita, Savi, Sed, Sophia, Spice, .SRCINFO.
* You can now access your watchlist from outside of the user menu in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|new Vector skin]]. The watchlist link appears next to the notification icons if you are at the top of the page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289619]

'''Events'''
* You can see the results of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award|Coolest Tool Award 2021]] and learn more about 14 tools which were selected this year.
* You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/Help_us|translate, promote]], or comment on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Proposals|the proposals]] in the Community Wishlist Survey. Voting will begin on {{#time:j xg|2022-01-28|en}}.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W04&quot;/&gt;

21:38, 24 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Tech News: 2022-05]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W05&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] If a gadget should support the new &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;?withgadget&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; URL parameter that was [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|announced]] 3 weeks ago, then it must now also specify &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;supportsUrlLoad&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; in the gadget definition ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#supportsUrlLoad|documentation]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29766]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* A change that was [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|announced]] last year was delayed. It is now ready to move ahead:
** The user group &lt;code&gt;oversight&lt;/code&gt; will be renamed &lt;code&gt;suppress&lt;/code&gt;. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. This is the technical name. It doesn't affect what you call the editors with this user right on your wiki. This is planned to happen in three weeks. You can comment [[phab:T112147|in Phabricator]] if you have objections. As usual, these labels can be translated on translatewiki ([[phab:T112147|direct links are available]]) or by administrators on your wiki.

'''Events'''
* You can vote on proposals in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey]] between 28 January and 11 February. The survey decides what the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Tech|Community Tech team]] will work on.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W05&quot;/&gt;

17:42, 31 January 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Tech News: 2022-06]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W06&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* English Wikipedia recently set up a gadget for dark mode. You can enable it there, or request help from an [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Interface administrators|interface administrator]] to set it up on your wiki ([[w:en:Wikipedia:Dark mode (gadget)|instructions and screenshot]]).
* Category counts are sometimes wrong. They will now be completely recounted at the beginning of every month. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T299823]

'''Problems'''
* A code-change last week to fix a bug with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Live preview|Live Preview]] may have caused problems with some local gadgets and user-scripts. Any code with skin-specific behaviour for &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;vector&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; should be updated to also check for &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;vector-2022&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [[phab:T300987|A code-snippet, global search, and example are available]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W06&quot;/&gt;

21:15, 7 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Tech News: 2022-07]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W07&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Purge|Purging]] a category page with fewer than 5,000 members will now recount it completely. This will allow editors to fix incorrect counts when it is wrong. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T85696]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] extension, the &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;rmspecials()&lt;/code&gt; function has been updated so that it does not remove the &quot;space&quot; character. Wikis are advised to wrap all the uses of &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;rmspecials()&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;rmwhitespace()&lt;/code&gt; wherever necessary to keep filters' behavior unchanged. You can use the search function on [[Special:AbuseFilter]] to locate its usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263024]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W07&quot;/&gt;

19:18, 14 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Tech News: 2022-08]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W08&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[Special:Nuke|Special:Nuke]] will now provide the standard deletion reasons (editable at &lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[MediaWiki:Deletereason-dropdown]]&lt;/bdi&gt;) to use when mass-deleting pages. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Admins and patrollers/Mass-delete to offer drop-down of standard reasons, or templated reasons.|a request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T25020]
* At Wikipedias, all new accounts now get the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] by default when creating an account. Communities are encouraged to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Account_creation|update their help resources]]. Previously, only 80% of new accounts would get the Growth features. A few Wikipedias remain unaffected by this change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301820]
* You can now prevent specific images that are used in a page from appearing in other locations, such as within PagePreviews or Search results. This is done with the markup &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;class=notpageimage&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. For example, &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[File:Example.png|class=notpageimage]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301588]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] There has been a change to the HTML of Special:Contributions, Special:MergeHistory, and History pages, to support the grouping of changes by date in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Minerva_Neue|the mobile skin]]. While unlikely, this may affect gadgets and user scripts. A [[phab:T298638|list of all the HTML changes]] is on Phabricator.

'''Events'''
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Results|Community Wishlist Survey results]] have been published. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Updates/2022 results#leaderboard|ranking of prioritized proposals]] is also available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-22|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-23|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-24|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The software to play videos and audio files on pages will change soon on all wikis. The old player will be removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Toolforge's underlying operating system is being updated. If you maintain any tools there, there are two options for migrating your tools into the new system.  There are [[wikitech:News/Toolforge Stretch deprecation|details, deadlines, and instructions]] on Wikitech. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/cloud-announce@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EPJFISC52T7OOEFH5YYMZNL57O4VGSPR/]
* Administrators will soon have [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/(Un)delete associated talk page|the option to delete/undelete]] the associated &quot;talk&quot; page when they are deleting a given page. An API endpoint with this option will also be available. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Admins and patrollers/(Un)delete associated talk page|a request from the 2021 Wishlist Survey]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W08&quot;/&gt;

19:12, 21 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Tech News: 2022-09]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W09&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* When searching for edits by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tags|change tags]], e.g. in page history or user contributions, there is now a dropdown list of possible tags. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Miscellaneous/Improve plain-text change tag selector|a request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T27909]
* Mentors using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor_dashboard|Growth Mentor dashboard]] will now see newcomers assigned to them who have made at least one edit, up to 200 edits. Previously, all newcomers assigned to the mentor were visible on the dashboard, even ones without any edit or ones who made hundred of edits. Mentors can still change these values using the filters on their dashboard. Also, the last choice of filters will now be saved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301268][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T294460]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The user group &lt;code&gt;oversight&lt;/code&gt; was renamed &lt;code&gt;suppress&lt;/code&gt;. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. You may need to update any local references to the old name, e.g. gadgets, links to Special:Listusers, or uses of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic_words|NUMBERINGROUP]].

'''Problems'''
* The recent change to the HTML of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tracking changes|tracking changes]] pages caused some problems for screenreaders. This is being fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298638]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.24|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* Working with templates will become easier. [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Templates|Several improvements]] are planned for March 9 on most wikis and on March 16 on English Wikipedia. The improvements include: Bracket matching, syntax highlighting colors, finding and inserting templates, and related visual editor features.
* If you are a template developer or an interface administrator, and you are intentionally overriding or using the default CSS styles of user feedback boxes (the classes: &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;successbox, messagebox, errorbox, warningbox&lt;/code&gt;), please note that these classes and associated CSS will soon be removed from MediaWiki core. This is to prevent problems when the same class-names are also used on a wiki. Please let us know by commenting at [[phab:T300314]] if you think you might be affected.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W09&quot;/&gt;

22:59, 28 February 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Tech News: 2022-10]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W10&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem with some interface labels last week. It will be fixed this week. This change was part of ongoing work to simplify the support for skins which do not have active maintainers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301203]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W10&quot;/&gt;

21:16, 7 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Tech News: 2022-11]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W11&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* In the Wikipedia Android app [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/Android/Communication#Updates|it is now possible]] to change the toolbar at the bottom so the tools you use more often are easier to click on. The app now also has a focused reading mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T296753][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T254771]

'''Problems'''
* There was a problem with the collection of some page-view data from June 2021 to January 2022 on all wikis. This means the statistics are incomplete. To help calculate which projects and regions were most affected, relevant datasets are being retained for 30 extra days. You can [[m:Talk:Data_retention_guidelines#Added_exception_for_page_views_investigation|read more on Meta-wiki]].
* There was a problem with the databases on March 10. All wikis were unreachable for logged-in users for 12 minutes. Logged-out users could read pages but could not edit or access uncached content then. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2022-03-10_MediaWiki_availability]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* When [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:System_message#Finding_messages_and_documentation|using &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;uselang=qqx&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; to find localisation messages]], it will now show all possible message keys for navigation tabs such as &quot;{{int:vector-view-history}}&quot;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300069]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Access to [[{{#special:RevisionDelete}}]] has been expanded to include users who have &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;deletelogentry&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;deletedhistory&lt;/code&gt; rights through their group memberships. Before, only those with the &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;deleterevision&lt;/code&gt; right could access this special page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301928]
* On the [[{{#special:Undelete}}]] pages for diffs and revisions, there will be a link back to the main Undelete page with the list of revisions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284114]

'''Future changes'''
*  The Wikimedia Foundation has announced the IP Masking implementation strategy and next steps. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#feb25|announcement can be read here]].
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Android FAQ|Wikipedia Android app]] developers are working on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|new functions]] for user talk pages and article talk pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T297617]

'''Events'''
* The [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon 2022|Wikimedia Hackathon 2022]] will take place as a hybrid event on 20-22 May 2022. The Hackathon will be held online and there are grants available to support local in-person meetups around the world. Grants can be requested until 20 March.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W11&quot;/&gt;

22:07, 14 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Tech News: 2022-12]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W12&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Translations]] are available.

'''New code release schedule for this week'''
* There will be four MediaWiki releases this week, instead of just one. This is an experiment which should lead to fewer problems and to faster feature updates. The releases will be on all wikis, at different times, on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Release Engineering Team/Trainsperiment week|read more about this project]].

'''Recent changes'''
* You can now set how many search results to show by default in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-searchoptions|your Preferences]]. This was the 12th most popular wish in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Results|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T215716]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Jupyter notebooks tool [[wikitech:PAWS|PAWS]] has been updated to a new interface. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T295043]

'''Future changes'''
* Interactive maps via [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] will soon work on wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevisions]] extension. [https://wikimedia.sslsurvey.de/Kartographer-Workflows-EN/ Please tell us] which improvements you want to see in Kartographer. You can take this survey in simple English. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W12&quot;/&gt;

16:01, 21 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Tech News: 2022-13]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W13&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a simple new Wikimedia Commons upload tool available for macOS users, [[c:Commons:Sunflower|Sunflower]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-31|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of regular database maintenance. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-03-29|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-03-31|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301850][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303798]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W13&quot;/&gt;

19:54, 28 March 2022 (UTC)
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== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Tech News: 2022-14]] ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W14&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* For a few days last week, edits that were suggested to newcomers were not tagged in the [[{{#special:recentchanges}}]] feed. This bug has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304747]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-07|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]).

'''Future changes'''
* Starting next week, Tech News' title will be translatable. When the newsletter is distributed, its title may not be &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;Tech News: 2022-14&lt;/code&gt; anymore. It may affect some filters that have been set up by some communities. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T302920]
* Over the next few months, the &quot;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]&quot; Growth feature [[phab:T304110|will become available to more Wikipedias]]. Each week, a few wikis will get the feature. You can test this tool at [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth#deploymentstable|a few wikis where &quot;Link recommendation&quot; is already available]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W14&quot;/&gt;

21:01, 4 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-15 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W15&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/15|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* There is a new public status page at &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wikimediastatus.net/ www.wikimediastatus.net]&lt;/span&gt;. This site shows five automated high-level metrics where you can see the overall health and performance of our wikis' technical environment. It also contains manually-written updates for widespread incidents, which are written as quickly as the engineers are able to do so while also fixing the actual problem. The site is separated from our production infrastructure and hosted by an external service, so that it can be accessed even if the wikis are briefly unavailable. You can [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2022/03/31/announcing-www-wikimediastatus-net/ read more about this project].
* On Wiktionary wikis, the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/15|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W15&quot;/&gt;

19:44, 11 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-16 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W16&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/16|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.8|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-19|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-21|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s8.dblist targeted wikis]).
* Administrators will now have [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/(Un)delete associated talk page|the option to delete/undelete the associated &quot;Talk&quot; page]] when they are deleting a given page. An API endpoint with this option is also available. This concludes the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Admins and patrollers/(Un)delete associated talk page|11th wish of the 2021 Community Wishlist Survey]].
* On [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements#test-wikis|selected wikis]], 50% of logged-in users will see the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Table of contents|table of contents]]. When scrolling up and down the page, the table of contents will stay in the same place on the screen. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]] project. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304169]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Message boxes produced by MediaWiki code will no longer have these CSS classes: &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;successbox&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;errorbox&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;warningbox&lt;/code&gt;. The styles for those classes and &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;messagebox&lt;/code&gt; will be removed from MediaWiki core. This only affects wikis that use these classes in wikitext, or change their appearance within site-wide CSS. Please review any local usage and definitions for these classes you may have. This was previously announced in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|28 February issue of Tech News]].

'''Future changes'''
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] will become compatible with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevisions page stabilization]]. Kartographer maps will also work on pages with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Project_descriptions] The Kartographer documentation has been thoroughly updated. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer/Getting_started] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/Maps] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/16|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W16&quot;/&gt;

23:11, 18 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-17 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W17&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/17|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
*  On [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/dblists/group1.dblist many wikis] (group 1), the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-26|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s2.dblist targeted wikis]).
* Some very old browsers and operating systems are no longer supported. Some things on the wikis might look weird or not work in very old browsers like Internet Explorer 9 or 10, Android 4, or Firefox 38 or older. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306486]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/17|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W17&quot;/&gt;

22:56, 25 April 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-18 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W18&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/18|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* On [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/dblists/group2.dblist all remaining wikis] (group 2), the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-03|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-04|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-05|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The developers are working on talk pages in the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS|Wikipedia app for iOS]]. You can [https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_9GBcHczQGLbQWTY give feedback]. You can take the survey in English, German, Hebrew or Chinese.
* [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/VisualEditor_template_dialog_improvements#Status_and_next_steps|Most wikis]] will receive an [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/VisualEditor_template_dialog_improvements|improved template dialog]] in VisualEditor and New Wikitext mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T296759] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306967]
* If you use syntax highlighting while editing wikitext, you can soon activate a [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Improved_Color_Scheme_of_Syntax_Highlighting#Color-blind_mode|colorblind-friendly color scheme]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306867]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Several CSS IDs related to MediaWiki interface messages will be removed. Technical editors should please [[phab:T304363|review the list of IDs and links to their existing uses]]. These include &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;#mw-anon-edit-warning&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;#mw-undelete-revision&lt;/code&gt; and 3 others.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/18|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W18&quot;/&gt;

19:33, 2 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-19 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W19&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/19|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* You can now see categories in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia app for Android]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T73966]

'''Problems'''
* Last week, there was a problem with Wikidata's search autocomplete. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307586]
* Last week, all wikis had slow access or no access for 20 minutes, for logged-in users and non-cached pages. This was caused by a problem with a database change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307647]

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T305217#7894966]
*  [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Geoinformation#Current issues|Incompatibility issues]] with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] and the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] will be fixed: Deployment is planned for May 10 on all wikis. Kartographer will then be enabled on the [[phab:T307348|five wikis which have not yet enabled the extension]] on May 24.
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector (2022)]] skin will be set as the default on several more wikis, including Arabic and Catalan Wikipedias. Logged-in users will be able to switch back to the old Vector (2010). See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2022-04 for the largest wikis|latest update]] about Vector (2022).

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place on 17 May. The following meetings are currently planned for: 7 June, 21 June, 5 July, 19 July.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/19|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W19&quot;/&gt;

15:22, 9 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-20 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W20&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/20|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* Some wikis can soon use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|add a link]] feature. This will start on Wednesday. The wikis are {{int:project-localized-name-cawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ptwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-simplewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-svwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ukwiki/en}}. This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304542]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2022|Wikimedia Hackathon 2022]] will take place online on May 20–22. It will be in English. There are also local [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2022/Meetups|hackathon meetups]] in Germany, Ghana, Greece, India, Nigeria and the United States. Technically interested Wikimedians can work on software projects and learn new skills. You can also host a session or post a project you want to work on.
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* You can soon edit translatable pages in the visual editor. Translatable pages exist on for examples Meta and Commons. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2022/05/12/mediawiki-1-38-brings-support-for-editing-translatable-pages-with-the-visual-editor/]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/20|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W20&quot;/&gt;

18:58, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-21 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W21&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/21|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* Administrators using the mobile web interface can now access Special:Block directly from user pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307341]
* The &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wiktionary.org/ www.wiktionary.org]&lt;/span&gt; portal page now uses an automated update system. Other [[m:Project_portals|project portals]] will be updated over the next few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304629]

'''Problems'''
* The Growth team maintains a mentorship program for newcomers. Previously, newcomers weren't able to opt out from the program. Starting May 19, 2022, newcomers are able to fully opt out from Growth mentorship, in case they do not wish to have any mentor at all. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287915]
* Some editors cannot access the content translation tool if they load it by clicking from the contributions menu. This problem is being worked on. It should still work properly if accessed directly via Special:ContentTranslation. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308802]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadget and user scripts developers are invited to give feedback on a [[mw:User:Jdlrobson/Extension:Gadget/Policy|proposed technical policy]] aiming to improve support from MediaWiki developers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308686]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/21|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W21&quot;/&gt;

00:21, 24 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-22 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W22&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/22|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]]  In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] extension, an &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;ip_in_ranges()&lt;/code&gt; function has been introduced to check if an IP is in any of the ranges. Wikis are advised to combine multiple &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;ip_in_range()&lt;/code&gt; expressions joined by &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; into a single expression for better performance. You can use the search function on [[Special:AbuseFilter|Special:AbuseFilter]] to locate its usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T305017]
* The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature|IP Info feature]] which helps abuse fighters access information about IPs, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#May 24, 2022|has been deployed]] to all wikis as a beta feature. This comes after weeks of beta testing on test.wikipedia.org.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-05-31|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]).
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#New topic tool|New Topic Tool]] will be deployed for all editors at most wikis soon. You will be able to opt out from within the tool and in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287804]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]]  The [[:mw:Special:ApiHelp/query+usercontribs|list=usercontribs API]] will support fetching contributions from an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Range blocks#Non-technical explanation|IP range]] soon. API users can set the &lt;code&gt;uciprange&lt;/code&gt; parameter to get contributions from any IP range within [[:mw:Manual:$wgRangeContributionsCIDRLimit|the limit]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T177150]
* A new parser function will be introduced: &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{=}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. It will replace existing templates named &quot;=&quot;. It will insert an [[w:en:Equals sign|equal sign]]. This can be used to escape the equal sign in the parameter values of templates. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T91154]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/22|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W22&quot;/&gt;

20:28, 30 May 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-23 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W23&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/23|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;str_replace_regexp()&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; function can be used in [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to replace parts of text using a [[w:en:Regular expression|regular expression]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285468]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/23|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W23&quot;/&gt;

02:46, 7 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-24 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W24&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/24|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* All wikis can now use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps. Kartographer maps now also work on pages with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Project_descriptions][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307348]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-14|en}} at 06:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300471]
* Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get &quot;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]&quot; ({{int:project-localized-name-abwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-acewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-adywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-afwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-akwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-alswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-amwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-anwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-angwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-arcwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-arzwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-astwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-atjwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-avwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-aywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-azwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-azbwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304548]
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#New topic tool|New Topic Tool]] will be deployed for all editors at Commons, Wikidata, and some other wikis soon. You will be able to opt out from within the tool and in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287804]

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place today (13 June). The following meetings will take place on: 28 June, 12 July, 26 July.

'''Future changes'''
* By the end of July, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022]] skin should be ready to become the default across all wikis. Discussions on how to adjust it to the communities' needs will begin in the next weeks. It will always be possible to revert to the previous version on an individual basis. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2022-04 for the largest wikis|Learn more]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/24|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W24&quot;/&gt;

16:58, 13 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-25 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W25&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/25|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia App for Android]] now has an option for editing the whole page at once, located in the overflow menu (three-dots menu [[File:Ic more vert 36px.svg|15px|link=|alt=]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T103622]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Some recent database changes may affect queries using the [[m:Research:Quarry|Quarry tool]]. Queries for &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;site_stats&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; at English Wikipedia, Commons, and Wikidata will need to be updated. [[phab:T306589|Read more]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;user_global_editcount&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; variable can be used in [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to avoid affecting globally active users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T130439]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* Users of non-responsive skins (e.g. MonoBook or Vector) on mobile devices may notice a slight change in the default zoom level. This is intended to optimize zooming and ensure all interface elements are present on the page (for example the table of contents on Vector 2022). In the unlikely event this causes any problems with how you use the site, we'd love to understand better, please ping &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[m:User:Jon (WMF)|Jon (WMF)]]&lt;/span&gt; to any on-wiki conversations. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306910]

'''Future changes'''
* The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July.  Discussions will look different.  You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Parsoid's HTML output will soon stop annotating file links with different &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;typeof&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; attribute values, and instead use &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:File&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; for all types. Tool authors should adjust any code that expects: &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:Image&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:Audio&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;, or &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;mw:Video&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273505]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/25|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W25&quot;/&gt;

20:18, 20 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-26 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W26&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/26|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] API service now has self-service accounts with free on-demand requests and monthly snapshots ([https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/docs/ API documentation]). Community access [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise/FAQ#community-access|via database dumps &amp; Wikimedia Cloud Services]] continues.
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Wiktionary#lua|All Wikimedia wikis can now use Wikidata Lexemes in Lua]] after creating local modules and templates. Discussions are welcome [[d:Wikidata_talk:Lexicographical_data#You_can_now_reuse_Wikidata_Lexemes_on_all_wikis|on the project talk page]].

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-28|en}} at 06:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T311033]
*  Some global and cross-wiki services will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-30|en}} at 06:00 UTC. This will impact ContentTranslation, Echo, StructuredDiscussions, Growth experiments and a few more services. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300472]
* Users will be able to sort columns within sortable tables in the mobile skin. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T233340]

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place tomorrow (28 June). The following meetings will take place on 12 July and 26 July.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/26|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W26&quot;/&gt;

20:02, 27 June 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-27 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W27&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/27|Translations]] are available.

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-05|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-07|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]).
* The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July.  Discussions will look different.  You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]].
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=| Advanced item]] This change only affects pages in the main namespace in Wikisource. The Javascript config variable &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;proofreadpage_source_href&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; will be removed from &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Interface/JavaScript#mw.config|mw.config]]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt; and be replaced with the variable &lt;bdi lang=&quot;zxx&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;code&gt;prpSourceIndexPage&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/bdi&gt;.  [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T309490]

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/27|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W27&quot;/&gt;

19:32, 4 July 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-28 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W28&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/28|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022 skin]], the page title is now displayed above the tabs such as Discussion, Read, Edit, View history, or More. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates#Page title/tabs switch|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303549]
* [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] It is now possible to easily view most of the configuration settings that apply to just one wiki, and to compare settings between two wikis if those settings are different. For example: [https://noc.wikimedia.org/wiki.php?wiki=jawiktionary Japanese Wiktionary settings], or [https://noc.wikimedia.org/wiki.php?wiki=eswiki&amp;compare=eowiki settings that are different between the Spanish and Esperanto Wikipedias]. Local communities may want to [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting_wiki_configuration_changes|discuss and propose changes]] to their local settings. Details about each of the named settings can be found by [[mw:Special:Search|searching MediaWiki.org]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308932]
*The Anti-Harassment Tools team [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#May|recently deployed]] the IP Info Feature as a [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature at all wikis]]. This feature allows abuse fighters to access information about IP addresses. Please check our update on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#April|how to find and use the tool]]. Please share your feedback using a link you will be given within the tool itself.

'''Changes later this week'''
* There is no new MediaWiki version this week.
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-12|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]).

'''Future changes'''
* The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July.  Discussions will look different.  You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]].

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/28|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W28&quot;/&gt;

19:24, 11 July 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-29 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W29&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/29|Translations]] are available.

'''Problems'''
* The feature on mobile web for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:NearbyPages|Nearby Pages]] was missing last week. It will be fixed this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T312864]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).

'''Future changes'''
* The [[mw:Technical_decision_making/Forum|Technical Decision Forum]] is seeking [[mw:Technical_decision_making/Community_representation|community representatives]]. You can apply on wiki or by emailing &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;TDFSupport@wikimedia.org&lt;/span&gt; before 12 August.

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/29|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W29&quot;/&gt;

22:59, 18 July 2022 (UTC)
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== Tech News: 2022-30 ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;technews-2022-W30&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/30|Translations]] are available.

'''Recent changes'''
* The &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wikibooks.org/ www.wikibooks.org]&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[https://www.wikiquote.org/ www.wikiquote.org]&lt;/span&gt; portal pages now use an automated update system. Other [[m:Project_portals|project portals]] will be updated over the next few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273179]

'''Problems'''
*  Last week, some wikis were in read-only mode for a few minutes because of an emergency switch of their main database ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T313383]

'''Changes later this week'''
* [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]).
* The external link icon will change slightly in the skins Vector legacy and Vector 2022. The new icon uses simpler shapes to be more recognizable on low-fidelity screens. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T261391]
* Administrators will now see buttons on user pages for &quot;{{int:changeblockip}}&quot; and &quot;{{int:unblockip}}&quot; instead of just &quot;{{int:blockip}}&quot; if the user is already blocked. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308570]

'''Future meetings'''
* The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place tomorrow (26 July).

'''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/30|Translate]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&amp;nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;technews-2022-W30&quot;/&gt;

19:27, 25 July 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&amp;oldid=23545370 --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>okvjaktyayex0zm5qhz55a38arqnekb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:VeronicaJeanAnderson</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>257428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409354</id>
      <parentid>2409170</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15512" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>qcphd1behanncv0c0stkcouwmsc50la</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409355</id>
      <parentid>2409354</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:15:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15622" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|-
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|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|-
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|-
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|-
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>aspkprngdshuopfbkfi3vzg5mpa0vvq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409356</id>
      <parentid>2409355</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15626" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 ^] ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|-
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|-
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|-
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>2hyw0r8x14brfn86hondv4b9dfu1klu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409358</id>
      <parentid>2409356</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:17:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15664" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt;[https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 twitch]&lt;/span&gt; ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>01gihtomp4n5y14ulqhn31kpb8plg58</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409360</id>
      <parentid>2409358</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:18:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15629" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>d3k6unswzoapxezrkfy94db4ewi4a38</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409362</id>
      <parentid>2409360</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:35:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16054" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
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|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/
=== pre-2030 ===
 2022 &quot;booked&quot; by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing &quot;Christian Hate&quot; and &quot;Spiritual War&quot; along with &quot;exorcisms&quot; and Halloween hostilities.

 2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with details about my vagina: Terrance Loeber

 2012 &quot;unliked&quot; by peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>h300syb3kqt6s9luzjyftc5orjuegn0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409363</id>
      <parentid>2409362</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* pre-2030 */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16191" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
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|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|-
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/
=== pre-2030 ===
2022 &quot;booked&quot; by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing &quot;Christian Hate&quot; and &quot;Spiritual War&quot; along with &quot;exorcisms&quot; and Halloween Hysteria in Marion County, OR where Salem Police Department abdicated from protecting children in Salem from 2016-2021.

2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with intimate details about my vagina: terrence.j.loeber@kp.org

2012 &quot;unliked&quot; by some Nazarene peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen.

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>nzn96hynlf9hccad7uoh38nj31kypdo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409369</id>
      <parentid>2409363</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:59:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archie97305</username>
        <id>2915204</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* pre-2030 */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16194" xml:space="preserve">
 w 11am &quot;Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters&quot; from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl

{{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( A B E ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; index.html&lt;/span&gt;
|| notepad/atom (atom is deprecated)
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; vue &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer]
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; css &lt;/span&gt;
|| global css @ 
|| gg css @ 
|| NPC css @
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; pug &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|}

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox

 trying to create a 1 -&gt; 2 -&gt; 3 -&gt; 4 -&gt; 5 -&gt; 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy.

 sun; natural light; breathe; BGs
 carbs; hygiene; laundry away
 bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out
 kitchen/nutritional/study
 social/outreach/linking worlds
 back porch 


0 -- Computer Science, information and general works


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . .   .
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( T O P ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ ℳ ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; { ¢ } &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; ( ৳ ) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:teal;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; ᐪ l i p s c h i t z &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ]
|-
|| Primary
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; physical&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; emotional&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; social&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFE6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; ^ torikomu &lt;/span&gt;
||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^]
|-
|| Secondary
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; occupational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; intellectual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; environmental&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color: teal&quot;&gt; | kaizen | &lt;/span&gt;
|| |
|-
|| Tertiary
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; spiritual&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#BFBFBF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; factual &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2F2F2;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; nutritional&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects healthy mindful every habits
|  style=&quot;background:#E6EAFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:teal&quot;&gt; . genkiness . .&lt;/span&gt;
|| .
|-
|| Quaternary
| style=&quot;background:#FFE6FB;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; generational&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFFF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; miscellaneal&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#F2E0CE;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; punctuational&lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays
| style=&quot;background:#FFF2E6;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; # goblin &lt;/span&gt;
|| #
|-
|| Quinary
| style=&quot;background:#F9F9F9;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; (direct object) &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt; {verb} &lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [noun] &lt;/span&gt;
|| This reflects deliberate professional progress
| style=&quot;background:#F2E6FF;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; / tsugu /&lt;/span&gt;
|| /
|-
|| Senary
|| b
|| 〇
|| x
|| This reflects influencing others
| style=&quot;background:#E6FFEA;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:lime&quot;&gt; @ g @ g @ &lt;/span&gt;
|| [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] 
|}


== 100 -- Philosophy and psychology ==
 How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication?

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:white&quot;&gt; [ white { on black ( #fff on #000 )  }  ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:pink&quot;&gt; [ pink { on 50% grey ( #ffc0cb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#191970&quot;&gt; [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ( #191970 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#4b0082&quot;&gt; [ indigo { on 50% grey ( #4b0082 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#fff9c4&quot;&gt; [ gg_yellow { on 50% grey ( #fff9c4 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffe0b2&quot;&gt; [ gg_orange { on 50% grey ( #ffe0b2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffcdd2&quot;&gt; [ gg_red { on 50% grey ( #ffcdd2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#e1bee7&quot;&gt; [ gg_purple { on 50% grey ( #e1bee7 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#bbdefb&quot;&gt; [ gg_blue { on 50% grey ( #bbdefb on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#c8e6c9&quot;&gt; [ gg_green { on 50% grey ( #c8e6c9 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#efefef&quot;&gt; [ gg_white { on 50% grey ( #efefef on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#111&quot;&gt; [ gg_black { on 50% grey ( #111 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#9e9e9e&quot;&gt; [ gg_grey { on 50% grey ( #9e9e9e on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#f8bbd0&quot;&gt; [ gg_pink { on 50% grey ( #f8bbd0 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#b2ebf2&quot;&gt; [ gg_cyan { on 50% grey ( #b2ebf2 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#808080;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;color:#d7ccc8&quot;&gt; [ gg_brown { on 50% grey ( #d7ccc8 on #808080 ) } ] &lt;/span&gt;
|}

=== TrumPutin-ism ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

== 200 -- Religion ==
 Royal We

 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade
{|
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|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|| ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ
|}

== 300 -- Social sciences ==
 https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/
 https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en

== 400 -- Language ==
== 500 -- Pure Science ==
== 600 -- Technology ==
=== local hosts===
 [http://localhost:8080/ 8080]
 file:///D:/index.html

=== Roland SP 404MKII ===
 https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/
 https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/

 @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html

=== VIM ===

 https://vim-adventures.com/

== 700 -- Arts and recreation ==
== 800 -- Literature ==
== 900 -- History and geography ==
 https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/
=== pre-2030 ===
2022 &quot;booked&quot; by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing &quot;Christian Hate&quot; and &quot;Spiritual War&quot; along with &quot;exorcisms&quot; and Halloween Hysteria in Marion County, OR where Salem Police Department abdicated from protecting children in Salem from 2016-2021.

2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with intimate details about my vagina: terrence .j . loeber@kp.org

2012 &quot;unliked&quot; by some Nazarene peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen.

=== TrumPutish War Against Humanity ===

 Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about.

=== Ring of Fire ===
=== Post &quot;Roe v Wade&quot; ===
 Who did Roe v Wade protect?

 Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an &quot;underground&quot; network post Roe v Wade?

=== A Contemporary &quot;Underground Railroad&quot; ===
 Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently?

 Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on &quot;forever&quot;. How do we align an &quot;underground railroad&quot; with contemporary supports?

== 10 -- A &amp; + ==
== 11 -- B * x ==
== 12 -- C f(◯) ==
== 13 -- D  Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 ==
== 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 ==
== 15 -- F ==
== 16 -- G ==
== 17 -- H ==
== 18 -- I ==
== 19 -- J ==
== 20 -- K ==
== 21 -- L ==
== 22 -- M ==
== 23 -- N ==
== 24 -- O ==
== 25 -- P ==
== 26 -- Q ==
== 27 -- R ==
== 28 -- S ==
== 29 -- T ==
== 30 -- U ==
== 31 -- V ==
== 32 -- W == 
== 33 -- X ==
== 34 -- Y ==
== 35 -- Z ==</text>
      <sha1>5ki63oxxkeop0g3nwtnesszh922e8b9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal of Medicine/Emotional and Psychological Impact of Interpreting for Clients with Traumatic Histories on interpreters: a review of qualitative articles</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>258858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409331</id>
      <parentid>2224406</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T23:59:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>tidying refs, +dois where available</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="83198" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Aasia
| last1 = Rajpoot
| orcid1 = 
| correspondence1 = A.Rajpoot@sheffield.ac.uk
| affiliation1 = Health Sciences School, University of Sheffield, Faculty of Health Sciences
| first2 = Salma 
| last2 = Rehman{{affiliation|name=Rajpoot}}
| orcid2 = 0000-0001-9623-305X
| first3 = Parveen 
| last3 = Ali{{affiliation|name=Rajpoot}}
| orcid3 = 0000-0002-7839-8130
| first4 = 
| last4 = 
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| submitted = 20-06-2020
| accepted = 29 September 2020
| doi = 10.15347/WJM/2020.003
| correspondence = parveen.ali@sheffield.ac.uk
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| abstract = Interpreters play an important role in the health and social care system. The aim of this review is to synthesize available qualitative studies exploring experiences of interpreters when working with individuals and groups who have experienced domestic violence and abuse or other traumatic situations. A comprehensive literature search of databases helped identify 18 studies including 3 quantitative and 15 qualitative studies published between 2003-2017. The studies were conducted in various countries and data analysis resulted in the development of 5 themes which included: ‘role and impact of interpreter’; ‘psychological and emotional impact of interpreting’; ‘workplace challenges faced by interpreters’; ‘coping strategies used by interpreters’; and ‘interpreters’ support needs’. Themes are discussed in relation to the available literature and gaps in the literature are identified.
| keywords = Interpreter, translator, interpreting, trauma, psychological impact, emotional impact
}}

== Introduction ==
Language plays a central role in making people understand and consequently meet each other’s needs. When it comes to provision of health and social care services, practitioners and services users need to have appropriate communication channels; however, this requires practitioners and the service user to speak the same language.&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=Language barriers in health: Lessons from the experiences of trained interpreters working in public sector hospitals in the Western Cape|last=Benjamin|first=Ereshia|last2=Swartz|first2=Leslie|date=2016|volume=2016|issue=1|journal=South African Health Review|last3=Chiliza|first3=Bonginkosi|last4=Hering|first4=Linda|issn=1025-1715|url=https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC189317|pages=73–81}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is not always possible in the present age where migration and immigration, within and outside countries is historically high and where people speak varied languages. A Google search reveals that there are presently 7117 living languages in the world&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/how-many-languages|title=How many languages are there in the world?|date=2016-05-03|website=Ethnologue|language=en|access-date=2020-05-03}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the number of spoken languages exceeds 200 in some countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt; The population in many countries is becoming increasingly diverse and there is no single country with only one spoken language. While a country may have only one official language, several languages may be spoken.

The United Kingdom (UK) census of 2011 suggests the use of more than 80 languages in England and Wales.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/2011census/2011ukcensuses|title=2011 UK censuses - Office for National Statistics|website=www.ons.gov.uk|access-date=2020-01-01}}&lt;/ref&gt; While English is the official language of  the UK, the other top ten languages include Polish, Panjabi, Urdu, Bengali (with Sylheti and Chatgaya), Gujarati, Arabic, French, Chinese, Portuguese and Spanish.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; The results of the census also revealed that 4.2 million people (aged &gt; 3 years) in England and Wales spoke a main language other than English. Among this group, approximately 20% indicated an inability or difficulty in speaking English.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Such individuals or groups are identified as those who have limited English proficiency (LEP) which means that they: “… are not able to speak, read, write or understand the English language at a level that permits them to interact effectively with health care providers” (p.&amp;nbsp;728).&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Karliner|first=Leah S.|last2=Jacobs|first2=Elizabeth A.|last3=Chen|first3=Alice Hm|last4=Mutha|first4=Sunita|date=2007|title=Do Professional Interpreters Improve Clinical Care for Patients with Limited English Proficiency? A Systematic Review of the Literature|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00629.x|journal=Health Services Research|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=727–754|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00629.x|issn=1475-6773|pmc=PMC1955368|pmid=17362215}}&lt;/ref&gt; Individuals who are unable to speak the predominant language of a country require health and social care services and, therefore, they need either a practitioner who can speak the same language or a person who could help bridge this gap and help them communicate; for example, an interpreter. Interpreters, are individuals who intervene in such situations and help practitioners and service users to understand each other and communicate effectively. The issue of language barriers and use of interpreters is not limited to the UK or English speaking countries. Increasing immigration and the use of multiple languages in most countries makes the use of interpreters an international concern.

=== Interpreter and the need for an interpreter ===
The word ‘interpreter’ is derived from the Latin ‘interpres’ which means ‘expounder’, or ‘person explaining what is obscure’. Some scholars believe that the second part of the word is derived from ''partes'' or ''pretium'' (meaning ‘price’, which fits the meaning of a ‘middleman’, ‘intermediary’ or ‘commercial go-between’), but others believe the word is from the Sanskrit language.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56550732|title=Introducing interpreting studies|last=Pöchhacker, Franz|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-203-50480-1|location=London|oclc=56550732|doi=10.4324/9780203504802}}&lt;/ref&gt; Interpretation is identified as a translational activity, but one that is done immediately, on the spot. Interpretation is not a new concept and has existed for centuries as humans have travelled and needed to communicate with individuals who may not understand their language. Interpretation is different from translation as it means interpreting the spoken words of someone and presenting it in another language, whereas translation often refers to translation of written documents from one language to another.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

The need for interpretation services in the UK was first identified in the 1980s and 1990s, when a series of serious court cases were conducted using untrained interpreters with limited proficiency in the language they were interpreting.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Townsley|first=Brooke|date=2007-05-15|title=Interpreting in the UK Community: Some Reflections on Public Service Interpreting in the UK|url=https://nca.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/laic272.0|journal=Language and Intercultural Communication|volume=7|issue=2|pages=163–170|doi=10.2167/laic272.0|issn=1470-8477}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, the case of Iqbal Begum, a woman from Pakistan who was tried for the murder of her husband and was sentenced to life imprisonment. Mrs Begum suffered years of domestic violence and abuse (DVA) from her husband. Following sentencing, four years into her imprisonment, serious problems with the interpretation provided for Mrs Begum during the trial process were identified. Specifically, the  interpreter provided was not trained and although he spoke a similar language to Mrs. Begum, he did not speak the same dialect. Consequently, he failed to provide clear instructions to Mrs Begum who did not understand the difference between the charges of a murder and manslaughter and could not clarify her position. Her case review resulted in nullifying the charges and she was subsequently released in 1985 though she committed suicide a few years later.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

Another high profile case was that of Victoria Climbie, a 7 year old girl from the Ivory Coast who came to the UK in 1999 with her aunt and legal guardian. Her Aunt began a relationship with Carl Manning and moved to Manning’s home in London in July 1999. Manning abused Victoria resulting in her visit to hospitals for injuries. Victoria died soon and her [[wikipedia:Autopsy|post-mortem]] revealed a total of 128 injuries and scars.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; The case review highlighted a failure of health and social care and police services to provide Victoria and her family with appropriate professional interpreters  on at least two occasions before her death. A family member (her aunt) was used as an interpreter. She herself struggled to communicate in English and was later found jointly responsible for Victoria’s death.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/6086/2/climbiereport.pdf|title=The Victoria Climbié Inquiry|last=Laming|first=Herbert|date=2003|website=dera.ioe.ac.uk|access-date=2020-01-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An interpreter ensures that a message is understood by a service user and a service provider. Evidence suggests that services use informal interpreters (family and friends of service users) and formal or professional interpreters, although it is always better to use professional interpreters to avoid bias, provide appropriate interpretation, and minimise the risk of misunderstanding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;/&gt; An interpreter may use three processes: simultaneous interpretations where the speaker and the interpreter speak at the same time and the interpreter has less time to work; consecutive interpretation, where the speaker says something and pauses for the interpreter to interpret; and whispered interpretation where the speaker whispers the message to the interpreter who then interprets it and shares with the audience. In the health and social care setting, consecutive interpretation is often used.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Interpretation can be done in various ways, including: face to face; telephone; and video interpretation. Face to face interpreting requires the person and the interpreter to be available at the same place, whereas, for telephone and video interpreting, the interpreter does not need to be physically present in the same place as the service user. In the UK's health care system, the use of telephone interpreting is common.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

While interpretation is clearly an important task, it has not really developed as a profession; therefore, the qualifications and preparation of interpreters vary. In the UK, there is a voluntary [[w:National Register of Public Service Interpreters|National Register of Public Service Interpreters]] (NRPSI). It is a public register of professional, qualified and accountable interpreters accessible online and free of charge. According to the NRPSI, by the end of 2018, there were 1730 registered interpreters who could offer interpretation for 104 languages (54 of which are registered as Rare Language status) in the UK.&lt;ref&gt;National Register of Public Service Interpreters (2019). NRPSI Annual Review of Public Service Interpreting in the [http://www.nrpsi.org.uk/downloads/1240_NRPSI_Annual_Review_6th_Edition.pdf UK]&lt;/ref&gt; Interpreters appear in a wide variety of settings and are unlikely to be employed by a single organisation. They may be employed by public sector organisations, privately funded, self-employed and/or registered with a telephone interpreting agency. As most public service interpreters work across settings, mostly on a freelance basis, there appears to be a lack of professional regulation for interpreters. The NRPSI is a voluntary register and it is not necessary for interpreters to register with NRPSI or complete a specific course in interpreting. Interpreters work in a range of settings, including courts, police stations, health care settings, conferences, and with international delegations. In addition, there are sign language interpreters who interpret for people with hearing disabilities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.nrcpd.org.uk/|title=NRCPD {{!}} Home|website=www.nrcpd.org.uk|access-date=2020-10-05}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the UK, interpreters are known as public service interpreters as they work with professionals in the public services. In that context, an interpreter is one who possess a nationally accredited qualification, is registered as a public service interpreter, complies with the code of professional conduct for interpreters and is associated with a recognised and identifiable profession.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

== Interpreters and Vicarious Trauma ==
Interpreters may have to interpret regularly for individuals with traumatic experiences such as those who have experienced sexual abuse,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Becher|first=Emily H.|last2=Wieling|first2=Elizabeth|date=2015|title=The intersections of culture and power in clinician and interpreter relationships: A qualitative study.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037535|journal=Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology|volume=21|issue=3|pages=450–457|doi=10.1037/a0037535|issn=1939-0106}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ullman|first=Sarah E.|last2=Townsend|first2=Stephanie M.|date=2007-04|title=Barriers to Working With Sexual Assault Survivors|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801207299191|journal=Violence Against Women|volume=13|issue=4|pages=412–443|doi=10.1177/1077801207299191|issn=1077-8012}}&lt;/ref&gt; torture, DVA&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bauer|first=Heidi M.|last2=Rodriguez|first2=Michael A.|last3=Quiroga|first3=Seline Szkupinski|last4=Flores-Ortiz|first4=Yvette G.|date=2000|title=Barriers to Health Care for Abused Latina and Asian Immigrant Women|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2010.0590|journal=Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved|volume=11|issue=1|pages=33–44|doi=10.1353/hpu.2010.0590|issn=1548-6869}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Powell|first=Martine B.|last2=Manger|first2=Bronwen|last3=Dion|first3=Jacinthe|last4=Sharman|first4=Stefanie J.|date=2016-07-13|title=Professionals’ Perspectives about the Challenges of Using Interpreters in Child Sexual Abuse Interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2016.1197815|journal=Psychiatry, Psychology and Law|volume=24|issue=1|pages=90–101|doi=10.1080/13218719.2016.1197815|issn=1321-8719}}&lt;/ref&gt; or  similar traumatic experiences.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gould|first=Rachel|date=2019-07-03|title=Working psychodynamically and psychosocially with women who have been raped|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14753634.2019.1639541|journal=Psychodynamic Practice|volume=25|issue=3|pages=208–222|doi=10.1080/14753634.2019.1639541|issn=1475-3634}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means that interpreters are exposed to emotionally demanding and burdensome situations that may make them prone to vicarious trauma which refers to the situation where: “the [practitioner] is vulnerable through his or her empathetic openness to the emotional and spiritual effects of vicarious traumatization. These effects are cumulative and permanent, and evident in both...professional and personal life” (p.&amp;nbsp;151).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Figley|first=Charles R.|date=2013-06-17|title=Compassion Fatigue: Coping With Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder In Those Who Treat The Traumatized|publisher=Routledge|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203777381|doi=10.4324/9780203777381}}&lt;/ref&gt; Experiencing vicarious trauma can have psychological consequences such as [[w:Posttraumatic stress disorder|posttraumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) whereby the practitioner may experience concentration difficulties, nightmares, anxiety, depression, and self-doubt. Practitioners may also experience secondary traumatic disorders, compassion fatigue, and burnout symptoms. Most of these conditions are similar and result from being exposed to traumatic situations either to self or by indirect exposure, such as through listening to or supporting those affected by such issues. Dealing with such situations and prevention of vicarious trauma requires appropriate opportunities to express feelings and clinical supervision.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Darroch|first=Emma|last2=Dempsey|first2=Raymond|date=2016-08-18|title=Interpreters’ experiences of transferential dynamics, vicarious traumatisation, and their need for support and supervision: A systematic literature review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5964/ejcop.v4i2.76|journal=The European Journal of Counselling Psychology|volume=4|issue=2|pages=166–190|doi=10.5964/ejcop.v4i2.76|issn=2195-7614}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, interpreters are generally self-employed and do not have appropriate organisational support. While there is a growing interest in this topic, we still do not understand the related issues around the interpretation and interpreters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Paone|first=Tina R.|last2=Malott|first2=Krista M.|date=2008-07|title=Using Interpreters in Mental Health Counseling: A Literature Review and Recommendations|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2008.tb00077.x|journal=Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development|volume=36|issue=3|pages=130–142|doi=10.1002/j.2161-1912.2008.tb00077.x|issn=0883-8534}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yick|first=Alice G|last2=Daines|first2=Andrea M|date=2017-04-28|title=Data in–data out? A metasynthesis of interpreter’s experiences in health and mental health|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473325017707027|journal=Qualitative Social Work|volume=18|issue=1|pages=98–115|doi=10.1177/1473325017707027|issn=1473-3250}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is limited understanding about how interpreters see their role in supporting individuals with traumatic histories, the impact of such exposure on the health and well-being of interpreters and ways whereby they cope with such situations. There is also a need to understand the positive and negative impact of interpreters on service users' ability to share their views and how interpreters share their stories with the practitioners.

While some research is conducted to determine the effectiveness or the importance of provision of language concordant care through interpreters,&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bischoff|first=Alexander|last2=Hudelson|first2=Patricia|date=2010-01-01|title=Communicating With Foreign Language–Speaking Patients: Is Access to Professional Interpreters Enough?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1708-8305.2009.00314.x|journal=Journal of Travel Medicine|volume=17|issue=1|pages=15–20|doi=10.1111/j.1708-8305.2009.00314.x|issn=1195-1982}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hudelson|first=Patricia|last2=Dominicé Dao|first2=Melissa|last3=Junod Perron|first3=Noelle|last4=Bischoff|first4=Alexander|date=2013-10-24|title=Interpreter-mediated diabetes consultations: a qualitative analysis of physician communication practices|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2296-14-163|journal=BMC Family Practice|volume=14|issue=1|doi=10.1186/1471-2296-14-163|issn=1471-2296}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hudelson|first=Patricia|last2=Vilpert|first2=Sarah|date=2009-10-15|title=Overcoming language barriers with foreign-language speaking patients: a survey to investigate intra-hospital variation in attitudes and practices|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-9-187|journal=BMC Health Services Research|volume=9|issue=1|doi=10.1186/1472-6963-9-187|issn=1472-6963}}&lt;/ref&gt; research exploring the use of interpreters in the context of DVA or the experiences of interpreters when providing interpretation services to clients with difficult and traumatic histories is scarce. We do not know much about how interpreters cope with the difficult situations they often encounter and what coping strategies they use to protect themselves from trauma. The initial aim of this review was to explore the role of interpreters with regards to service provision of victims of gender based violence. However, research on this specific aspect does not exist. Most of the research exploring interpreters’ experiences or perspectives is qualitative; however, no serious attempt has been made to aggregate studies to generate conclusions to then develop future research questions. An extensive search of common databases including MEDLINE, CINAHL, Cochrane and Joanna Briggs Library of Systematic Reviews, did not identify any review conducted to explore interpreters’ experiences of providing services to individuals and communities with traumatic histories. No review exploring coping mechanisms of interpreters providing services to vulnerable groups such as those experiencing violence and abuse could be identified. It was considered important to explore this area to aggregate available literature, to identify gaps in the literature and to improve our understanding of the role of interpreters. Findings from this review may also help identify research questions to be explored through future research.

=== Aims of Review ===
The aim of this review is to synthesise available qualitative studies exploring experiences of interpreters when working with individuals and groups who have experienced DVA or other traumatic situations. The aims and review question were developed using the PICO (Patient, intervention, Comparison and Outcome) framework and the specific review questions were:

· What are the interpreters’ experiences of dealing with individuals and groups with traumatic histories?

· What impact do such encounters have on health and well-being of interpreters?

· What coping strategies do interpreters use to protect themselves from negative experiences?

== Methods ==

=== Eligible Studies ===
Empirical studies on the interpreter's experience of working with clients with traumatic situations/histories and studies exploring the emotional and psychological impact on interpreters were considered for inclusion. For studies to be included, they had to: explore the experiences of spoken language interpreters; empirical (quantitative; qualitative; literature review/systematic review); written in English and published in peer reviewed journals during 2000-2019). Studies that explored experiences of bilingual workers, sign language interpreters, and informal interpreters were excluded. Studies that did not explore the emotional or psychological impact of interpreting, case reports, case studies, scholarly or theoretical papers, opinion pieces and commentaries were also excluded. The initial focus of the review was interpreters and their experiences of working with victims of gender based violence; however, no studies were available on this particular issue, therefore, the scope was broadened to include participants with traumatic histories and sensitive issues.

=== Search Process ===
A comprehensive literature search using search engines including engines [[w:MEDLINE|MEDLINE]], Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature ([[w:CINAHL|CINAHL]]), [[w:PsycINFO|PsychINFO]], Excerpta Medica Database ([[w:Embase|Embase]]), [[w:Scopus|Scopus]], [[w:Web of Science|Web of Science]], the [[w:Cochrane Library|Cochrane Library]], and [[w:The Joanna Briggs Institute|The Joanna Briggs Institute]] was performed. Keywords including: ‘interpreter’; ‘vicarious trauma’; ‘secondary trauma’; emotional impact’; and ‘psychological impact’ were used. Various combinations of search terms and Boolean operators (‘AND’, ‘OR’, and ‘*’) were used to help specify the search. A search was also conducted using [[w:Google|Google]] and [[w:Google Scholar|Google Scholar]] to identify studies not published in indexed journals. In addition, the reference list of each article was reviewed to identify studies not listed in the searched databases.

=== Study selection ===
The initial search identified 3018 potentially relevant studies. Following removal of duplicates, 2452 studies remained. A scan of titles helped reduce this to 193 potentially relevant articles. A careful review of abstracts and a scan of papers resulted in excluding a further 151 articles which did not meet the inclusion criteria resulting in 42 articles. The full texts of all 42 articles were printed for further reading and assessment. However, only 18 studies that met full inclusion criteria were finally included in the review. Figure 1 provides a flowchart of the literature search strategy.
{{fig|1
|Emotional_and_Psychological_Impact_of_Interpreting_for_Clients_with_Traumatic_Histories_on_interpreters_-_Flow_diagram.svg
|Flowchart of the literature search strategy
}}

=== Quality Examination ===
To explore the quality of qualitative studies and to perform a robust analysis, the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme ([[w:CASP|CASP]]) checklist for qualitative study was used. For quantitative studies, the CASP checklist for cohort studies was used.

=== Data Extraction ===
A data extraction form was developed and used. Appropriate information including, author details, country of study, purpose, research design related information such as sampling, sample characteristics, data collection and data analysis, study findings, limitations and recommendations were recorded. Appropriate information is summarised and presented in relevant tables and figures in the following sections. Findings from the qualitative studies are synthesised and analysed using Noblit and Hare's method of meta-ethnography.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412985000|title=Meta-Ethnography|last=Noblit|first=George|last2=Hare|first2=R.|date=1988|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|isbn=978-0-8039-3023-0|location=California, United States of America|doi=10.4135/9781412985000}}&lt;/ref&gt; Table 1 shows this process and how these papers contributed to the synthesis.

{{cot|'''Table 1 {{!}}''' Noblit and Hare's methods and its application [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
!'''Noblit and Hare’s Steps'''
!'''Application to this review'''
|-
| Identify a research question and develop inclusion criteria
| Impact of interpreting on interpreters
|-
| Perform a comprehensive literature search and identify appropriate studies
| Search conducted using relevant databases and by reviewing reference list of each study
|-
| Review the selected studies
| Review identified studies meeting the eligibility criteria
|-
| Assess studies as to how these are related with regards to themes and arguments
| Identified codes from each article and develop themes
|-
| Compare and contrast concepts from different studies
| Analysed themes coming from each article and compare and contrast with themes coming from other studies
|-
| Synthesize results and develop overarching themes and to identify underlying message
| Developed overarching themes
|-
| Report the results of the meta-synthesis
| Reported findings from metasynthesis
|}
{{cob}}

== Findings ==
Eighteen studies were finally included in the review. These included three quantitative and 15 qualitative studies published between 2003 and 2017. Various aspects of studies are explored below.

=== Purpose of the studies ===
Five studies explored the role and experiences of interpreters working in different settings.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McDowell|first=Liz|last2=Messias|first2=DeAnne K. Hilfinger|last3=Estrada|first3=Robin Dawson|date=2011-02-11|title=The Work of Language Interpretation in Health Care: Complex, Challenging, Exhausting, and Often Invisible|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043659610395773|journal=Journal of Transcultural Nursing|volume=22|issue=2|pages=137–147|doi=10.1177/1043659610395773|issn=1043-6596}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Butow|first=Phyllis N.|last2=Lobb|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Jefford|first3=Michael|last4=Goldstein|first4=David|last5=Eisenbruch|first5=Maurice|last6=Girgis|first6=Afaf|last7=King|first7=Madeleine|last8=Sze|first8=Ming|last9=Aldridge|first9=Lynley|date=2010-11-26|title=A bridge between cultures: interpreters’ perspectives of consultations with migrant oncology patients|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00520-010-1046-z|journal=Supportive Care in Cancer|volume=20|issue=2|pages=235–244|doi=10.1007/s00520-010-1046-z|issn=0941-4355}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Hannah|last2=Sperlinger|first2=David|last3=Carswell|first3=Kenneth|date=2012-02-08|title=Too close to home? Experiences of Kurdish refugee interpreters working in UK mental health services|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2011.651659|journal=Journal of Mental Health|volume=21|issue=3|pages=227–235|doi=10.3109/09638237.2011.651659|issn=0963-8237}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Kenneth E.|last2=Martell|first2=Zoe L.|last3=Pazdirek|first3=Linda|last4=Caruth|first4=Melissa|last5=Lopez|first5=Diana|date=2005|title=The Role of Interpreters in Psychotherapy With Refugees: An Exploratory Study.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.75.1.27|journal=American Journal of Orthopsychiatry|volume=75|issue=1|pages=27–39|doi=10.1037/0002-9432.75.1.27|issn=1939-0025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prentice|first=Joanna|last2=Nelson|first2=Annmarie|last3=Baillie|first3=Jessica|last4=Osborn|first4=Hannah|last5=Noble|first5=Simon|date=2014-03-18|title=‘Don’t blame the middle man’: an exploratory qualitative study to explore the experiences of translators breaking bad news|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0141076814527275|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=107|issue=7|pages=271–276|doi=10.1177/0141076814527275|issn=0141-0768}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some studies explored professionals' experiences of working with interpreters&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mirdal|first=Gretty M.|last2=Ryding|first2=Else|last3=Essendrop Sondej|first3=Mette|date=2011-09-22|title=Traumatized refugees, their therapists, and their interpreters: Three perspectives on psychological treatment|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02036.x|journal=Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice|volume=85|issue=4|pages=436–455|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02036.x|issn=1476-0835}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pugh|first=Matthew A.|last2=Vetere|first2=Arlene|date=2009-09|title=Lost in translation: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of mental health professionals' experiences of empathy in clinical work with an interpreter|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/147608308x397059|journal=Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice|volume=82|issue=3|pages=305–321|doi=10.1348/147608308x397059|issn=1476-0835}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Tipton|first=Rebecca|date=2017-03|title=Contracts and capabilities: public service interpreting and third sector domestic violence services|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2017.1280875|journal=The Translator|volume=23|issue=2|pages=237–254|doi=10.1080/13556509.2017.1280875|issn=1355-6509}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Yakushko|first=Oksana|date=2010|title=Clinical work with limited English proficiency clients: A phenomenological exploration.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020996|journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice|volume=41|issue=5|pages=449–455|doi=10.1037/a0020996|issn=1939-1323}}&lt;/ref&gt; and interpreters’ impact on the process of psychotherapy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Engstrom|first=David W.|last2=Roth|first2=Tova|last3=Hollis|first3=Jennie|date=2010-02-11|title=The Use of Interpreters by Torture Treatment Providers|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15313200903547749|journal=Journal of Ethnic And Cultural Diversity in Social Work|volume=19|issue=1|pages=54–72|doi=10.1080/15313200903547749|issn=1531-3204}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=O'Hara|first=Maile|last2=Akinsulure‐Smith|first2=Adeyinka M.|date=2011-02-21|title=Working with interpreters: tools for clinicians conducting psychotherapy with forced immigrants|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17479891111176287|journal=International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care|volume=7|issue=1|pages=33–43|doi=10.1108/17479891111176287|issn=1747-9894}}&lt;/ref&gt; Other studies explored the psychological and emotional impact of interpreting.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Doherty|first=Sharon|last2=MacIntyre|first2=Anna|last3=Wyne|first3=Tara|date=2010-11-17|title=How does it feel for you? The emotional impact and specific challenges of mental health interpreting|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5042/mhrj.2010.0657|journal=Mental Health Review Journal|volume=15|issue=3|pages=31–44|doi=10.5042/mhrj.2010.0657|issn=1361-9322}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mehus|first=Christopher J.|last2=Becher|first2=Emily H.|date=2016|title=Secondary traumatic stress, burnout, and compassion satisfaction in a sample of spoken-language interpreters.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000023|journal=Traumatology|volume=22|issue=4|pages=249–254|doi=10.1037/trm0000023|issn=1085-9373}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Splevins|first=Katie A.|last2=Cohen|first2=Keren|last3=Joseph|first3=Stephen|last4=Murray|first4=Craig|last5=Bowley|first5=Jake|date=2010-07-27|title=Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth Among Interpreters|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732310377457|journal=Qualitative Health Research|volume=20|issue=12|pages=1705–1716|doi=10.1177/1049732310377457|issn=1049-7323}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Holmgren|first1= H.|last2=Søndergaard|first2= H.|last3=  Elklit|first3= A.|date=2003|title=Stress and coping in traumatised interpreters: A pilot study of refugee interpreters working for a humanitarian organisation|journal=Intervention|volume=1|issue=3|pages=22–27|issn=1391-7994}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Geographical location ===
Most studies originated from western and developed countries, including Australia,&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Denmark,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; UK,&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Resera|first=Elena|last2=Tribe|first2=Rachel|last3=Lane|first3=Pauline|date=2015-01-29|title=Interpreting in mental health, roles and dynamics in practice|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2014.921207|journal=International Journal of Culture and Mental Health|volume=8|issue=2|pages=192–206|doi=10.1080/17542863.2014.921207|issn=1754-2863}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Butler|first1= CA |date=2008|title=Speaking the unspeakable: Female interpreters' response to working with women who have been raped in war|journal=Clinical Psychology Forum|volume= 192|pages= 22–26|issn=1747-5732}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the USA.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;

=== Study designs===
Most studies used a qualitative approach with only few studies using a quantitative approach.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; In addition to qualitative exploratory approaches,&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; other commonly used methodologies included [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theory grounded theory],&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography ethnography],&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology phenomenology],&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretative_phenomenological_analysis interpretative phenomenological analysis] (IPA)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; narrative methods,&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; and practice based evidence methodology.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

=== Study settings ===
Studies were conducted in community settings,&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|doi=10.1007/978-1-137-05834-8_5|title=Working with Unaccompanied Asylum Seeking Children: Issues for Policy and Practice |last=Raval|first=Hitesh|date=2007|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|isbn=978-1-4039-9754-8|location=London|pages=61–76|chapter=Therapeutic Encounters between Young People, Bilingual Co-workers and Practitioners|editor1-first=Ravi K. S.|editor1-last= Kohli|editor2-first=Fiona|editor2-last=Mitchell }}&lt;/ref&gt; health centres,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; torture treatment centres,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; rehabilitation centres,&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; mental health clinics,&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; sexual health clinics,&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; translating and interpreting services,&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137443199.0011|title=Interpreter-mediated Police Interviews|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-44319-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; or other therapeutic&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; and criminal justice system related settings.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

=== Sampling approaches ===
Most studies used a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling purposive sampling] approach, with only few studies using [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenience_sampling convenience],&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowball_sampling snowball]&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics) random sampling] approaches.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315368719|title=Ethics for Police Translators and Interpreters|last=Mulayim|first=Sedat|last2=Lai|first2=Miranda|date=2016-11-18|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-36871-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Participants ===
The focus of all studies was interpreters, therefore, most of them included professional interpreters in their sample; however, some studies also included psychotherapists,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; mental health professionals&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; or other professionals such as police officers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; In most studies, the main focus was to explore the role or impact of interpreters on the therapeutic process, although the interpreters were specifically questioned about the impact of interpreting on their mental and emotional well-being. The sample size of the studies ranged from 3-30 in qualitative studies and 119-271 in quantitative studies. In total, the number of participants contributing to the studies was 618 which included 534 interpreters, 68 other professionals and 16 refugees. This sample included 188 male and 455 females and 2 other participants where gender was unspecified. Some studies did not provide information about the gender composition of the sample.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; The participants had different ethnic backgrounds and spoke various languages.

=== Data collection ===
Most studies used a qualitative approach, therefore, face to face interview was a common data collection method. Only a few studies used [[w:Focus group|focus group]] discussion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; One study used telephone interviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; as a sole data collection method and another used it in combination with face to face interviews.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; A semi structured interview guide was reported to be used in all qualitative studies and the quantitative studies used questionnaires.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; Only one quantitative study&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; reported the use of a validated instrument to assess the degree of secondary traumatic stress, burnout and compassion satisfaction. The study also looked at the impact of other factors, including gender, history of trauma and refugee status of the participants. The remaining quantitative studies did not report using validated measures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;

=== Data analysis used in studies ===
Most studies (n=16) used a qualitative approach, the specific data analysis approaches included interpretive phenomenological analysis,&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; grounded theory,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; thematic analysis&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; and narrative analysis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; In quantitative studies, data were analysed using [[w:Descriptive statistics|descriptive]] and [[w:Statistical inference inferential|statistics]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; Table 2 presents detailed information about the data collection and analysis methods used in each study.

 
{{cot|'''Table 2 {{!}}''' '''Characteristics of the included studies''' [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
! '''Author'''  !! '''Country''' !!'''Design''' !! '''Setting''' !! '''Sampling''' !! '''Data Collection''' !! '''Data Analysis'''
|-
| Holmgren et al (2003) || Denmark || Qualitative; Grounded theory || Danish Red Cross (DRC) asylum reception centre (Health Centres) || Purposive || Semi structured interviews || Grounded theory
|-
| Miller et al (2005) || USA || Qualitative narrative research method || 10 Torture Treatment centres and four refugee mental health clinics ||Purposive || Semi structured interviews || Qualitative analysis
|-
| Butler (2008) ||UK || Qualitative; IPA || NHS sexual health services || Purposive || Semi structured interviews || IPA
|-
| Pugh &amp; Vetere (2009) || UK || Qualitative; IPA || Two adult mental health services || Purposive || Face to face interviews || IPA/ Thematic analysis
|-
| Doherty et al (2010) || UK || Quantitative: cross sectional survey ||Translating and Interpreting Service || Convenience || Online survey ||          
|-
| Engstrom et al (2010) || USA || Qualitative; Ethnography || Torture treatment centre ||Purposive || Face to face interviews ||Qualitative analysis
|-
| Splevins et al (2010) || UK || Qualitative; Phenomenology || Therapeutic setting (Hospital, GP surgeries, prison and courts)|| Purposive || Face to face interviews|| IPA
|-
| Yakushko, (2010) || USA || Qualitative: Phenomenology || Diverse settings || Purposive|| Telephone interview || Thematic analysis
|-
| McDowell et al (2011) || USA|| Feminist narrative approach || Community settings || Purposive/snowball || Face to face interviews||  Thematic and constant comparison
|-
| O'Hara &amp; Akinsulure-Smith, || USA || Qualitative: Practice-based evidence methodology || Program for Survivors of Torture (PSOT) ||    || Focus group|| Thematic analysis
|-
|Butow et al (2008) || Australia || Qualitative: IPA || Health care interpreter services || Purposive|| Semi structured interviews|| IPA/ Thematic analysis
|-
| Green et al (2012) || UK || Qualitative: IPA|| Mental health services UK|| Purposive || Face to face interview || Qualitative analysis
|-
| Mirdal et al (2005) || Denmark || Qualitative; Phenomenology || Rehabilitation centre for traumatized refugees || Purposive || Face to face interview || Qualitative analysis
|-
| Prentice et al (2014), || UK || Qualitative || Outpatient setting of a regional cancer centre|| Purposive || Face to face interviews || Thematic analysis
|-
| Resera et al (2015) || UK || Qualitative || Community settings || Convenience || Focus group ||Constant comparison
|-
| Lai, et al (2015) || Australia || Online Survey; Quantitative ||  Interpreting and translating agencies || Random || Survey || Descriptive Statistics
|-
| Mehus &amp; Becher, (2016) || USA || Online Survey; Quantitative ||  Online || Snowball || Questionnaire || t-test
|-
| Powell et al (2017) || Australia || Qualitative || Criminal justice assistance setting || Purposive || Face to face interviews; telephone interview; group interviews || Thematic analysis
|}
{{cob}}

== Key themes emerging from the study ==

Five themes emerged including: ‘role and impact of interpreter’; ‘psychological and emotional impact of interpreting’; ‘workplace challenges faced by interpreters’; ‘coping strategies used by interpreters’; and ‘interpreters’ support needs’. These themes are presented in the following section and appropriate quotes are used to illustrate the points. Table 3 presents the process of developing these themes and the contribution of included papers to each theme.

{{cot|'''Table 3 {{!}}''' Process of developing themes [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
|-
! '''Themes''' !! '''Concepts from studies'''  !! '''Contributing Studies'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;11&quot;| '''Role and impact of interpreter''' || Complex and invisible work || rowspan=&quot;11&quot;| Butow et al (2012); McDowell et al (2011); Green et al (2012); Splevins et al (2010); Butler (2008)
|-
| Requiring to concentrate on more than one party (vocabulary meaning and intent of the language) juggling multiple tasks, skills and knowledge required
|-
| Multitasking
|-
| Work involves much more than knowing two languages
|-
|Being the voice
|-
|Paying attention to nonverbal cues
|-
|Empathetic understanding of others’ needs
|-
|Cultural broker
|-
|Neutral conduit
|-
|Unrealistic expectations
|-
|Providers judge them unfairly
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| '''Psychological and emotional impact of interpreting''' || Emotional stress || rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| Holmgren et al (2003); McDowell et al (2011) Butow et al (2012); Green et al (2012); Butler (2008); Splevins et al (2010); Doherty et al (2010); Mehus &amp; Becher (2015); Miller et al., (2005)
|-
|Feelings of exhaustion and burnout
|-
|Pressure from colleagues
|-
|Low recognition and respect
|-
|No right to break, restricted access to patients' notes, low wages, no incentives to work on weekends, spoken in degrading tone, lack of respect for refusal
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| '''Workplace challenges faced by interpreters''' || Not regarded equal || rowspan= &quot;4”| Holmgren et al (2003); McDowell et al (2011); Butow et al (2012); Green et al (2012); Butler (2008); Splevins et al (2010)
|-
| Seen only as a technical tool/ black box/ translation machine
|-
| Not invited to staff meetings or informed about current events and decisions
|-
|Expected to be invisible
|-
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot;| '''Coping strategies used by interpreters'''|| Detachment (Cognitive withdrawal from the situation)|| rowspan=&quot;6&quot;| Holmgren et al (2003); McDowell et al (2011); Butow et al (2012); Green et al (2012); Butler (2008); Splevins et al (2010); Doherty, et al (2010); Mehus &amp; Becher (2015)
|-
| Self-control (regulation of feelings and actions)
|-
|Flight avoidance
|-
| Wishful thinking
|-
| Social support
|-
| Self-medication
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| '''Interpreters’ support needs''' || Lack of appropriate support ||rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| Butow et al (2012); McDowell et al (2011); Prentice et al (2014); Doherty et al (2010); Miller et al (2005)
|-
| No briefing or debriefing sessions
|-
| Lack of clinical supervision
|-
| Lack of appropriate training opportunities
|-
|rowspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Suggestions '''|| Peer support ||rowspan=&quot;7&quot;|
|-
|Clinical supervision
|-
| Training about coping strategies
|-
| Shorter working hours
|-
| Improve wages
|-
|Taking breaks
|-
| Working with same professionals
|-
|}
{{cob}}

=== Role of the Interpreter  ===
This theme describes how interpreters and other professionals perceived and understood the role of interpreters. It explores the concepts related to ‘self-perception of the interpreter’s role’, ‘professional’s perception of role of interpreters’ and the impact of interpreter on the therapeutic process. As all of these concepts are interrelated, the analysis is presented as one.

Most studies explored interpreters' self-perceptions about their role. Interpreters considered their broader role or job was to facilitate and enhance communication between the service user and practitioner, who did not speak the same language, by conveying their messages/information to each other. They considered they were a voice of their service user and practitioners and tried to convey their message as accurately as possible. This is illustrated in the following quote from Resera et al:&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; 'You are just an interpreter there and you are… we say ‘tongue’ of that person because you’re going to speak on behalf of that person, cause you’re going to translate everything from that language to the counsellor’s language. … In a way, you’re just a language between two people, because you are the communicator, you are the one who passes one information from one to another. We are messengers… '(p.&amp;nbsp;198).

While it may seem a simple act of translating messages from one language to another, in reality, it is not easy and the role is quite complex. They considered that to become a ‘voice’, they may also have to act as a service user’s advocate to ensure that the practitioner and services meet their service related support needs as effectively as possible.

Interpreters considered that they also play the role of a ‘cultural broker’ as languages and the process of communication are affected by the culture and norms of the speaker. Simultaneously, understanding or interpretation of a message is also affected by culture and orientation of the listener. Therefore, the interpreter not only must make sense of the message and associated verbal and nonverbal cues and expressions (which can also have very different meaning in different cultures) but to convey it to the practitioner in a way that they get a comprehensive understanding of the issue&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; as illustrated in the following quote:&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; '...to make sure both sides understand each other... for the patient to understand everything and of course for the healthcare provider to understand what the patient is suffering and to make the right decision to help this patient' …(p.&amp;nbsp;8). Another example is where the interpreter has to take a role of cultural broker for the service user as well as a practitioner:&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; ‘I mean to the patients (it) is... critical because in our culture it is really cruel to tell the patient that he is or she is diagnosed with cancer...maybe it can cause him to be depressed or maybe diminish his ability or willingness to survive. So we ... can find some code word, like instead of saying you have cancer, we can use the word tumour... and we’re going to ... treat you for that tumour, but knowing that a tumour will be treated the same way as cancer would be treated. So we can get around that and use code words just to, you know, just to make it easier...just to alleviate the situation and make it acceptable, more acceptable’ (p.&amp;nbsp;10)

Interpreters considered that their work, while seen as  ‘invisible’, requires a wide range of complex linguistic, critical thinking and processing skills;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; The findings stress that the interpreter’s role is demanding as it requires concentration on the message provided by both service users and service provider.  They essentially have to share the message, and the ‘intent of the message’ &lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; which requires more from the interpreters than simply understanding the two languages. This is explained by the following quote:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; ‘In translating, it’s not just saying the literal [equivalent of] what they’re saying. Interpreting is making some sense of it. . . . Those are two different things’ (p.&amp;nbsp;140).

Interpreters and professionals considered that interpreters need to be able to multitask as, unlike conference interpreting (which requires only one-way interpretation), they need to be attentive to both service user and practitioner and should have the skills to be able to switch between both languages promptly and accurately. They have to balance between conveying accurate translation or interpretation and accurate translation of the meaning of the message. It is possible that interpreters may be unaware of many technical terms that they encounter and therefore have to ascertain, quickly, ways of communicating and capturing the underlying meaning of the words&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; as indicated in the following quote:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;

‘… You’ve got to have your resources as available as possible. There have been times I have said, “All right. I am just really stuck on this one. Hang on just one second, I will go ask somebody or try to look it up.&quot; It used to be that without a computer, you would have to sit there and have a glossary... and actually leaf through it to find [a word]... I would have two copies of the glossary— one sorted by Spanish, the other sorted by English...But with the computer...you can find it within about five seconds...And also, of course, being in a medical facility, [to] be on top of all the medical terminology, all the patient rights, all the protections that you [and] the provider needs and the patient needs' (p.&amp;nbsp;140).

Interpreters considered that, at times, they had to play the role of neutral conduit and had to engage actively in the discussion as one interpreter mentioned:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; ‘asking questions that are difficult or too open-ended makes it difficult for the client to answer. And also by being open-ended, then I’ve got to sit there and write a lot of things on paper and then hope I remember them all. What I often do when open-ended questions are asked is to say, “Could we just go with that one at a time?” For example, if it is a dietician saying, “How many portions of starches are you serving?” and that sort of thing, I’ll suggest: “Let’s go over the specific kind one by one’ (p.&amp;nbsp;41).

This work, while important, can cause tension between the interpreter and the practitioner who may see this as an interference or inappropriate interjection of opinion on the interpreter’s part. While practitioners generally valued the role of interpreters, there were occasions when they felt angry and frustrated due to interpreter’s inappropriate interference as exemplified by Miller et al:&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; ‘there [were] a few times when I was working with an interpreter and I was asking about a particularly sensitive topic, and the interpreter stopped me and said, “Please don’t ask her about that, that is going too far, you are going too deep, she is not ready for that,” and I said essentially, “well you are going to have to trust me as the therapist here that I will handle this in a delicate way, but I think it is important that we take this to the next level.” And I had to convince the interpreter to actually do what I thought was therapeutically indicated’ (p.&amp;nbsp;33).

Practitioners also considered that interpreters do not always interpret accurately and, at times, in a desire to help the service user they either give wrong or incomplete information. They also articulated that, at times, service users may not want to disclose issues with an interpreter as they share their culture and this can be a problem. Overall, both interpreters as well as practitioners perceived interpreter’s role as positive and recognised their contribution.

=== Psychological and emotional impact of interpreting ===
This theme illustrates the psychological and emotional impact of interpreting on the interpreters. All studies described significant emotional and psychological impact on interpreters, resulting in the development of emotional distress and burnout.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; Findings suggest that such issues could often become unbearable and overwhelming for the interpreters&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; and may result from listening to the traumatic stories armed attack, assaults, torture, persecution or other traumatic experiences of the service users or breaking bad news during health care encounters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; While interpreters found such instances, at times, ‘intense’&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; or ‘too difficult to handle’,&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; they were required to listen and absorb these stories and relay these back to the practitioner. One participant in a study&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; stated: ‘You have to visualize you know, when you do the interpreting, the interpreting process is not just about words. When you’re telling a story, it’s complex, it’s set in a place and you have to process all that. So you’re hearing the story but you’re also saying the story and imagin[ing] what it was like for the person. You know the emotions, they can never be as strong as what the client feels, but you get a sense of the way they might have felt’ (p.&amp;nbsp;1709).

Such emotions heighten when the interpreters themselves had a traumatic history and interpreting for the service user reminded them of their emotions and past experiences&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; or it may have made them worried about their family members living in the affected country. However, Mehus and Becher&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; found no relationship between trauma history or refugee status with secondary traumatic stress, burnout or compassion satisfaction. Such impacts were reported to have a variable length as interpreters continued to work in demanding environments. The studies reported that the emotional and psychological impact was not limited to the work or professional life of interpreters but also affected their personal life. Interpreters often felt it hard to move on to the next job.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; The studies used terms such as vicarious trauma, PTSD and secondary PTSD. Table 4 describes various psychological and emotional reactions reported. The following quote&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; also illustrates some of the manifestations as experienced by an interpreter: ‘I would perhaps, you know, miss my stop, or [be] forever checking where are the car keys, and keep waking up and feeling still tired. Maybe I was taking my emotions outside with my own emotions and I found no answer to it. I went to bed with it and wake up and they’re still there’ (p.&amp;nbsp;1710).

{{cot|'''Table 4 {{!}}''' Manifestations of Vicarious trauma [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;
| '''Psychological manifestation'''|| Exhaustion, insomnia, anxiety, depression, tiredness, difficulty in concentration, not being able to move on or not being able to forget interpretation encounters, intrusive thoughts, nightmares, mood swings, crying, withdrawal from the family
|-
|'''Physical manifestations'''|| Headache, dizziness, heartburn and acidity, back pain, tiredness
|-
|}
{{cob}}

Another powerful illustration is:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; ‘getting drawn into it. Wishing I could do something. You want to say, “Well, just come home with me.” ... You can’t do something for all of them . . . you do have to maintain your distance and be professional ... but ... you want to pick those kids up and hug ’em. You have to worry because those kids are terrified of you, too... That kind of makes you feel bad’ (p.&amp;nbsp;143).

The fact that they had to keep this confidential and there is usually no other support available, increased the impact. In addition, unlike other health and social care practitioners such as doctors, nurses or other professionals, interpreters are not trained to deal with emotional issues. Other factors at the workplace, such as the feeling of not being valued or recognised by practitioners and employing organisations manifested as not being allowed to have breaks, restricted or no access to appropriate notes, lack of acknowledgement of the role, and underestimation of the impact of the work of interpreters. All these issues contributed to the physical, psychological and emotional impact on interpreters. However, two studies identified positive impacts of such experiences resulting in post traumatic growth where interpreters felt that they became more empathetic towards service users, improved self-understanding and understanding of the world around them.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;

=== Workplace Challenges ===
This theme explains the findings of the study regarding workplace challenges that interpreters face daily and consequently experience negative impact on their health and well-being. Most studies explored or addresses concerns related to workplace challenges and these included heavy workloads, unrealistic expectations and lack of appreciation, lack of appropriate organisational support. Interpreters stated that their workload was too much and sometimes they had to work up to 14 hours without appropriate breaks. The issue of long hours is expressed by one of the participants in a study as:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; ‘If we have to do an all-day conference, two people working, they switch off and on all day. We can’t do that when we’re interpreting in the medical setting... We complain about the hours we work... the amount of concentration... You get to the point where you just physically cannot do it anymore... I’ve had so many calls at 2:00 or 3:00 in the morning from interpreters who have been [at the hospital Emergency Department] all night, and they’re like, “You have to come in and take over. I’m sorry to wake you up, but I just can’t do it anymore. My brain’s just not working.” It’s because we keep switching languages... I have to work Spanish English, English-Spanish. So it skips back and forth, back and forth, back and forth... When you’re doing medical interpreting you keep switching languages all the time. It gets confusing, and it gets to the point that... you speak English to the Hispanic patient and Spanish to the doctor because you are so tired... or you paraphrase’ (p.&amp;nbsp;143).

Other issues such as need for frequent language switching, attentiveness and the need to travel for outside assignments, long waiting times and connection difficulties and delays added to the pressure contributing to physical and psychological stress on interpreters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; More recently, most services are moving towards telephone interpretation creating additional challenges as a participant in one of the study stated: ‘It’s harder because you can’t see the person face to face. You’re telling somebody something really bad on the phone and they can’t even handle [it] face to face’( p.&amp;nbsp;240).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

Interpreters thought that there were too many expectations from too many people, including the practitioners, the service user, their family and the organisations. They considered that it was: ‘too difficult to keep everyone happy’&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; and remain aware of every term used by the practitioner and the service user. Interpreters also considered they were not valued by their colleagues and often seen as a technical tool or a ‘translation machine’ with no feelings or views.

They are often not invited to team meetings or events and decisions made at work. This then has an impact on interpreters’ feelings of integration. In addition, they are often spoken to in degrading tones. They considered that their needs for information about the clients are often ignored and, as a result, they do not feel fully prepared for an assignment resulting in apprehension and stress. For instance, one interpreter stated:&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; ‘I think it would also be better if for all mental health cases… to have five minutes with the professional before you go into the interview room’ (p.&amp;nbsp;233).

In the absence of formal training for interpreters (relevant for many interpreters) interpreters’ frustration and lack of trust on organisations can be easily understood. In addition, lack of provision for appropriate supervision opportunities for interpreters also conveys a lack of recognition.

=== Coping strategies ===
This theme explains the coping strategies that interpreters used to cope with the psychological and emotional impact of interpreting.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; Interpreters said that they really needed various strategies to be able to continue to work effectively and to be normal in their life. As a participant in one of the studies&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; reported: ‘Because they are so emotionally charged, these sessions, you have to find your own ways of dealing with it, and if you don’t have a way, you don’t have this protection, then I don’t know how you can do interpreting in those context[s] really. I think it would be hard because I would be crying every session’ (p.&amp;nbsp;171)

Most common strategies included self-control,&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; self-medication,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; detachment,&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; accessing social support.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; Regarding self-control, interpreters reported using various strategies, essentially, to regulate themselves and ensure that the emotional impact of interpreting was limited. Examples included negotiating and taking a break from interpreting activities, getting involved in a different activity was mentioned by one of the interpreters:&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; ‘I tried to swallow it and keep it down’; ‘After work, I went into the countryside. I concentrated on something quite different, like fishing; sometimes when I felt sick, I just drove around in my car’ (p.&amp;nbsp;26).

The same study&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; also reported use of self-medication as a coping strategy as one participant reported: ‘When I get headaches while interpreting. I take some medicine right away. When I can’t stand it anymore, then I need some headache pills’ (p.&amp;nbsp;26). A very common strategy reported in most studies was the act of detaching/distancing or distracting themselves from the issue. Participants in another study&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; reported: ‘I try to find something that can distract me or move me on to something else’ (p.&amp;nbsp;1711).

Another participant from Holmgren et al. (2003) reported: ‘While interpreting I had to tell myself: This is just work, remember! I have not been exposed to this. One has to switch off part of the brain and look at it as work’ (p.&amp;nbsp;26). Such strategies were used as a defence mechanism and to help them to not to think about traumatic and distressing experiences encountered while interpreting. Accessing appropriate social support was another common strategy used by many interpreters. They felt that it helped them share their feelings with colleagues or friends and, consequently, helped to take it out of their mind. One participant in Holmgreen et al.’s study&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; stated: ‘I spent many evenings together with my Albanian friends; we talked about our worries; our situation was the same; many of my friends had no idea where their families were or if they were still alive; we found strength in one another’ (p.&amp;nbsp;26) Use of various coping strategies helped interpreters to carry on with their daily personal and professional life.

=== Interpreters' support needs ===
This theme presents interpreters' views about the existing support systems available and recommendation to improve support system. Nearly all of the studies explored the interpreters' view about available support system and commented on the lack of appropriate structures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Interpreters in many studies reported the need to have debriefing sessions to talk about the impact of interpreting traumatic stories as these often shocked interpreters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; Interpreters said that there was not appropriate provision of debriefing and support sessions. As most  interpreters are self-employed , formal arrangement of clinical supervision are often unavailable. Another important aspect raised by interpreters was a lack of appropriate training and preparation as suggested by Butler:&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; 'It’s all supposed to be a certain way when you study interpreting, then when you are in the field, it’s not at all as thorough as that because of time constraints or people just can’t be bothered or they just don’t know' (p.&amp;nbsp;9)

Most interpreters either had none or very minimal training for their job. In contrast, they had to deal with a variety of traumatic and difficult situations which require not only an understanding of how to translate or interpret, but how to support vulnerable and distressed people, deal with situation and protect themselves from emotional and psychological impact of the traumatic stories. All of these aspects are often missing and there is none or minimal provision of education and training for interpreters during their career. As one of the interpreters in a study explained:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; &quot;The most difficult things—I would think emotionally. We don’t have the training like nurses or other health care personnel have. How to deal with the very intense situations you’re in as far as life/death situations, [like] having to tell parents that their child has a terminal disease or something like that. So that... we have these debriefing sessions back in the office... very informally... within [the guidelines of] obeying HIPAA. But it makes it very difficult because you know...legally someone can’t go tell their husband this is what happened today.. So we have to have these sessions where basically sometimes you come in that office and you just have to vent because this or that happens. So that is one major problem...&quot;(p.&amp;nbsp;143)

Interpreters believed that appropriate peer support,&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; clinical supervision opportunities,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; briefing as well debriefing sessions may help.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; One interpreter&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; stated: 'Unfortunately that is a problem that we all have that there is no debriefing for interpreters. So I can walk out of an appointment feeling very, very bad and there is no one that you can talk to. In all the years that I have been working as an interpreter only once have I been offered debriefing and that was at the Coroner’s Court. Never in any other situation.” (p. 15)

Interpreters also considered that training in coping strategies would be useful.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Other suggestions included shorter working hours, improved wages, and observance of breaks:&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt; &quot;I think it’s very difficult for interpreters to interpret for hours at a time... I’ve had a call as long as two and a half hours, and that’s very difficult on an interpreter’s voice physically, because you’re saying everything twice. And it takes a lot longer so it tires you out... It’s very draining. Doing it for hours can be very draining... I’ve been called at home. I’ve been called on the weekends. I’ve been called on a holiday, after hours&quot; (p.&amp;nbsp;143). In addition, interpreters considered that working with the same professionals may help increase familiarity with each other and, therefore, would help make interpreters' work easier.

In summary, the findings of this review suggest that while the role of an interpreter is important in helping service users and practitioners communicate with each other effectively, it has its own challenges. The interpreters may themselves have experienced difficult situations in their life and working as interpreter means that they have interpreted and relayed traumatic stories of service users with whom they work, and this may make them remember their own traumatic experiences. The findings of the studies revealed that interpreting for people with traumatic histories can have a serious emotional and psychological impact. However, there appears to be a lack of appropriate support systems to help interpreters perform their job effectively and protect them from the negative impacts of their job.

== Discussion ==
The need for interpretation and interpreters is increasing owing to internal and external migration within and between countries.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Health and social care and other professionals such as those working in, for example, criminal justice system or other professions cannot provide appropriate services to those unable to communicate in the mainstream language of the country. It is important to recognise that interpretation or language barriers are not only relevant to an English speaking country, but  any country where there is a problem with provision of language concordant services. The role of interpreters is important as, without their help, service users and practitioners could not understand each other appropriately; however, it is not always acknowledged and recognised. While research related to interpreters and their needs is an emerging field, there are many areas that have not yet been explored. For instance, the impact of interpreters on women’s ability to disclose their domestic violence experiences, preparedness or interpreters in supporting women (and men) to disclose their experiences of gender based violence and/or domestic violence and abuse, perceptions of men and women with domestic violence histories, about the role and impact of interpreters on the process. One of the reasons to embark on this project was to identify available literature on this particular topic; however, we did not manage to find any studies on the topic and, therefore, broadened the topic area to look at interpreters and their work with people traumatic histories and emotional and psychological impact of such exposure on interpreters and their health and well-being.

The narrative analysis of the concept discussed in the studies is presented in five themes including: ‘role and impact of interpreter’; ‘psychological and emotional impact of interpreting’; ‘workplace challenges faced by interpreters’; ‘coping strategies used by interpreters’; and ‘interpreters’ support needs’. The first theme explored the role of interpreters as perceived by themselves and by other professionals. Interpreters and other professionals agreed that interpreters play very diverse and important roles when helping service users and professionals to communicate with each other. Many studies explored this particular aspect and various roles identified included that of communicator, voice box, cultural broker, advocate and a neutral conduit.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; The findings of the study reveal that, although the role of an interpreter appears simple, it is complex and demanding. An interpreter needs to pay attention to both parties to communicate and this requires multitasking. Professionals, while recognising the role of interpreters, also articulated their frustration as they considered that interpreters do not always interpret all information relayed by the professional to the service user or vice versa or that they interject inappropriately. There appear to be issues with the development of trust and rapport with the service user and many a times, professionals thought that their position was not maintained. Interpreters consider that professionals and others do not always understand the role of an interpreter. This finding is consistent with many studies.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hsieh|first=Elaine|date=2008-10|title=&quot;I am not a robot!&quot; Interpreters' Views of Their Roles in Health Care Settings|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732308323840|journal=Qualitative Health Research|volume=18|issue=10|pages=1367–1383|doi=10.1177/1049732308323840|issn=1049-7323}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|editor1-last=Raval|editor1-first=Hitesh|date=2014-02-04|title=Working with Interpreters in Mental Health|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315812342|doi=10.4324/9781315812342|publisher=Routledge|editor2-last=Tribe|editor2-first=Rachel}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Freckelton|first=Ian|date=2010-08|title=Confidentiality for Mental Health Professionals, by A Kampf, B McSherry, J Ogloff and A Rothschild|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2010.501781|journal=Psychiatry, Psychology and Law|volume=17|issue=3|pages=476–478|doi=10.1080/13218719.2010.501781|issn=1321-8719}}&lt;/ref&gt; The next theme explored the psychological and emotional impact of interpreting on the interpreter. The findings of the review suggest that interpreters are required to interpret the traumatic experiences of those they are interpreting for. This is a complex task and requires interpreters not only to listen to the experiences, but to relay it back to the professional and to so they have to imagine that experiences. Nevertheless, repeated listening to traumatic situations can produce negative emotional and psychological symptoms. Symptoms reported include sadness, anger, feeling upset, insomnia, depression and anxiety.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Greensfelder, A. (2015). Working with Interpreters in Refugee Services. ''Prevention'', ''2''. https://gulfcoastjewishfamilyandcommunityservices.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Working-with-Interpreters-in-Refugee-Services.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kindermann|first=David|last2=Schmid|first2=Carolin|last3=Derreza-Greeven|first3=Cassandra|last4=Huhn|first4=Daniel|last5=Kohl|first5=Rupert Maria|last6=Junne|first6=Florian|last7=Schleyer|first7=Maritta|last8=Daniels|first8=Judith K.|last9=Ditzen|first9=Beate|date=2017|title=Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Secondary Traumatization in Interpreters for Refugees: A Cross-Sectional Study|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000477670|journal=Psychopathology|volume=50|issue=4|pages=262–272|doi=10.1159/000477670|issn=0254-4962}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such symptoms are reported in previous research. Our findings suggest that interpreters considered that such experience had a very negative impact on interpreters and that there is not much support available to help interpreters cope with the such negative impacts.

In addition to exposure to traumatic situations, studies also explored workplace challenges faced by interpreters. Interpreters identified many different workplace stressors such as a feeling of not being treated as equally as their professional colleagues, not being invited to meetings and not being involved in decisions making at the workplace. They also considered that working conditions for interpreters are not good, as they are required to work long hours, often do not get breaks during work and their requests for change in work are not listened to.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;

The next themes explored coping strategies used by interpreters to deal with the negative impacts of interpreting. Various strategies were used including detaching themselves from the situation, self-regulation, self-medication and accessing social support.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; Studies also explored the interpreters' views about their support needs and how these can be met. Interpreters suggested various ways that may help them cope with the negative impact of interpreting and improve their working conditions. These included provision of peer support, the opportunity to have briefing and debriefing session, opportunities to talk to counsellors and professionals, availability of clinical supervision sessions, and shorter working hours.

In summary, this review has identified many issues with regard to interpreting and interpreters. While most studies conducted on this topic, there are many different aspects that still need to be explored. For instance, research needs to be conducted on the role of interpreters with regards to provision of services to victims of gender based violence. Views of women, men, professionals as well as interpreters could be explored. Preparedness of interpreters with regards to provision of services to such vulnerable groups should be explored.

== Implications ==
The findings of the study have implications for professionals, clinical practice, and future research. Present findings clearly highlight that interpreters' roles need to be recognised by organisations and professionals. With regards to interpreters, better education and training opportunities should be made available for interpreters to prepare them better for their roles and especially to provide appropriate services to those with traumatic histories. Interpreters should also have education and development opportunities to learn about coping strategies to enable them to cope with negative impacts of interpreting. Many universities now offer degree programme in interpretation and it may be useful to arrange specific continuous professional development programmes for the interpreters by their employing agencies with regards to interpreters’ field of practice. While it may be difficult to cover every eventuality, helping interpreters’ principles of practice, self care, recognition of when to seek support may be useful. Use of problem-based learning may also be useful. In addition, provision of clinical supervision sessions may be useful.

There appears to be a lack of clear boundaries and role definitions among interpreters as well as professionals. Further work involving interpreters and professionals is required to develop a clear understanding of the role boundaries and their mutual roles. This may help reduce tensions between interpreters and professionals. It is also important to help interpreters prepare for their assignments by providing them with some information about the service user they are going to provide services to. Workplace conditions for interpreters need to be improved, so that interpreters feel valued and not alienated in their workplace. Appropriate service structures should be developed for interpreters for progression in their roles and for better job satisfaction.

Research exploring the role of interpreters, impact of qualification and accreditation on service provision by interpreters and factors affecting interpreters’ performance should be conducted. Research should also be conducted to explore similar issues among sign language interpreters. Further research should be conducted, using validated measures to explore psychological and emotional impacts of interpreting. Finally, further research to explore the impact of telephone interpreting or online interpreting should be explored

== Conclusion ==

Interpreting is an important part of the provision of appropriate health and social care services to those with limited language proficiency in the mainstream language. However, research related to psychological and emotional aspects of interpreting is scarce. This review was conducted to explore the psychological and emotional impact of interpreting. The findings revealed that interpreting has significant impact on interpreters’ personal and professional life. Interpreters develop and use various strategies to cope with the impacts of psychological and emotional impacts of trauma. Further work needs to be done to improve working conditions for interpreters and to support them to provide appropriate services to those affected.

== Additional information ==
The authors did not recieve any funding for this research.

=== Competing interests ===
The authors have no competing interests.

=== Ethics statement ===
Ethical permission was not required to conduct this study.

== References ==
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    <title>WikiJournal of Medicine/Working with Bipolar Disorder During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Both Crisis and Opportunity</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-26T00:08:04Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>tidy refs, +dois where available</comment>
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      <text bytes="65771" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Eric A.
| last1 = Youngstrom
| orcid1 = 0000-0003-2251-6860
| affiliation1 = Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, and Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| correspondence1 = eay@unc.edu
| affiliations = institutes / affiliations
| first2 = Stephen P.
| last2 = Hinshaw
| affiliation2 = Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley
| first3 = Alberto
| last3 = Stefana
| orcid3 = 0000-0002-4807-7184
| affiliation3 = Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia
| first4 = Jun
| last4 = Chen
| affiliation4 = Department of Psychiatry, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine
| first5 = Kurt
| last5 = Michael
| orcid5 = 0000-0001-8145-5362
| affiliation5 = Department of Psychology, Appalachian State University
| first6 = Anna
| last6 = Van Meter
| orcid6 = 0000-0003-0012-206X
| affiliation6 = Department of Psychiatry, Northwell Health
| first7 = Victoria
| last7 = Maxwell
| affiliation7 = Crazy for Life Co.
| first8 = Erin E.
| last8 = Michalak
| orcid8 = 0000-0002-0812-6527
| affiliation8 = Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia
| first9 = Emma G.
| last9 = Choplin
| affiliation9 = Helping Give Away Psychological Science
| username6 = Arvm
| username9 = Emmagch
| first10 = Logan T.
| last10 = Smith
| orcid10 = 0000-0002-2931-4236
| affiliation10 = Department of Psychology, Temple University
| first11 = Caroline
| last11 = Vincent
| affiliation11 = Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| first12 = Avery
| last12 = Loeb
| affiliation12 = Chapel Hill High School
| first13 = Eduard
| last13 = Vieta
| affiliation13 = Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology, University of Barcelona
| correspondence = eay@unc.edu
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| submitted = 2020-04-20
| accepted = 2020-10-05
| doi = 10.15347/WJM/2020.004
| username1 = Eyoungstrom
| license = &lt;!-- [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]--&gt;
| abstract = Beyond public health and economic costs, the COVID-19 pandemic adds strain, disrupts daily routines, and complicates mental health and medical service delivery for those with mental health and medical conditions. [[wikipedia:Bipolar disorder|Bipolar disorder]] can increase vulnerability to infection; it can also enhance stress, complicate treatment, and heighten [https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Famp0000068 interpersonal stigma]. Yet there are successes when people proactively improve social connections, prioritize [https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/self-care-tips-during-the-covid-19-pandemic self-care], and learn to effectively use mobile and telehealth.
| keywords = [[wikipedia:Bipolar disorder|Bipolar disorder]], [[wikipedia:Coronavirus|coronavirus]], [[wikipedia:Social distancing|social distancing]], [[wikipedia:Social stigma|stigma]], [[Evidence based assessment|assessment]], [[wikipedia:Telehealth|telehealth]]
| username10 = Logan520
| username11 = Carovinc2
| username12 = Aaloeb12
}}
== Impact of the Pandemic and Public Health Responses ==
{{fig|1|20200410 Flatten the curve, raise the line - pandemic - international version.gif
| align = left
| caption = &quot;Flattening the curve&quot; of active cases, and &quot;raising the line&quot; of healthcare capacity, attempt to ensure that healthcare can be provided to a population
| attribution = RCraig09, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC BY SA]]
}}
The ongoing [[wikipedia:2019–20 coronavirus pandemic|COVID-19 pandemic]] has to date infected more than 34 million people and led to more than 1 million deaths globally ([https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html map here]) ([https://covid19.healthdata.org/united-states-of-america projections of peak and incidence curve here]).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
|title=Coronavirus Update (Live): 19,938,513 Cases and 731,906 Deaths from COVID-19 Virus Pandemic - Worldometer
|website=www.worldometers.info
|language=en
|access-date=2020-08-09
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Both the infection and mortality numbers will undoubtedly continue to go up before the outbreak recedes. Thus, many governments have enforced regional or national [[wikipedia:Stay-at-home order|stay-at-home orders]] to &quot;flatten the curve&quot; of incidence and slow its spread ([https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/coronavirus-stay-at-home-order.html map of the USA]). In this [[wikipedia:Public Health Emergency of International Concern|global health emergency]], special attention should be paid to the potential impact of the measures taken to combat the pandemic on patients with [https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/the-implications-of-covid-19-for-mental-health-and-substance-use/ mental health problems],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Druss
|first=Benjamin G.
|date=2020-04-03
|title=Addressing the COVID-19 Pandemic in Populations With Serious Mental Illness
|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0894
|journal=JAMA Psychiatry
|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0894
|issn=2168-622X
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.kff.org/coronavirus-covid-19/issue-brief/the-implications-of-covid-19-for-mental-health-and-substance-use/
|title=The Implications of COVID-19 for Mental Health and Substance Use
|last=Panchal
|first=Nirmita
|last2=Kamal
|first2=Rabah
|date=2020-04-21
|website=KFF
|language=en-US
|access-date=2020-05-20
|last3=Orgera
|first3=Kendal
|last4=Muñana
|first4=Cailey
|last5=Chidambaram
|first5=Priya
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last1=Gruber
|first1=June
|last2=Prinstein
|first2=Mitchell J.
|last3=Clark
|first3=Lee Anna
|last4=Rottenberg
|first4=Jonathan
|last5=Abramowitz
|first5=Jonathan S.
|last6=Albano
|first6=Anne Marie
|last7=Aldao
|first7=Amelia
|last8=Borelli
|first8=Jessica L.
|last9=Chung
|first9=Tammy
|date=2020-08-10
|title=Mental health and clinical psychological science in the time of COVID-19: Challenges, opportunities, and a call to action
|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/amp0000707
|journal=American Psychologist
|doi=10.1037/amp0000707
|issn=1935-990X
|first11=Erika E.
|first32=David C.
|first27=Adam Bryant
|last28=Neblett
|first28=Enrique W.
|last29=Nock
|first29=Matthew
|last30=Olatunji
|first30=Bunmi O.
|last31=Persons
|first31=Jacqueline B.
|last32=Rozek
|first33=Jessica L.
|last33=Schleider
|first26=Jane
|last34=Slavich
|first34=George M.
|last35=Teachman
|first35=Bethany A.
|last36=Vine
|first36=Vera
|last37=Weinstock
|first37=Lauren M.
|last11=Forbes
|first10=Joanne
|last10=Davila
|last27=Miller
|last26=Mendle
|last12=Gee
|last18=Joormann
|first12=Dylan G.
|last13=Hall
|first13=Gordon C. Nagayama
|last14=Hallion
|first14=Lauren S.
|last15=Hinshaw
|first15=Stephen P.
|last16=Hofmann
|first16=Stefan G.
|last17=Hollon
|first17=Steven D.
|first18=Jutta
|first25=Katie A.
|last19=Kazdin
|first19=Alan E.
|first20=Daniel N.
|last21=La Greca
|first21=Annette M.
|last22=Levenson
|first22=Robert W.
|last23=MacDonald
|first23=Angus W.
|last24=McKay
|first24=Dean
|last25=McLaughlin
|last20=Klein
}}&lt;/ref&gt; especially those with [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/bipolar-you/202003/surviving-bipolar-disorder-during-the-covid-19-pandemic bipolar disorders (BDs)].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://ibpf.org/managing-my-mental-health-during-covid-19/
|title=Managing my Mental Health During COVID-19
|date=2020-03-17
|website=International Bipolar Foundation
|language=en-US
|access-date=2020-05-20
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[wikipedia:Shelter in place|Shelter-in-place]] and [[wikipedia:Quarantine|quarantine]] are key public health tools, yet they have high [[doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8|psychological]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Brooks
|first=Samantha K
|last2=Webster
|first2=Rebecca K
|last3=Smith
|first3=Louise E
|last4=Woodland
|first4=Lisa
|last5=Wessely
|first5=Simon
|last6=Greenberg
|first6=Neil
|last7=Rubin
|first7=Gideon James
|date=2020-03
|title=The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence
|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
|journal=The Lancet
|volume=395
|issue=10227
|pages=912–920
|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30460-8
|issn=0140-6736
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/coronavirus-covid-19-cost-economy-2020-un-trade-economics-pandemic/ economic costs.]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.mercatus.org/publications/covid-19-policy-brief-series/cost-covid-19-rough-estimate-2020-us-gdp-impact
|title=The Cost of COVID-19: A Rough Estimate of the 2020 US GDP Impact
|date=2020-04-06
|website=Mercatus Center
|language=en
|access-date=2020-04-15
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/economic-cost-coronavirus-recession-covid-deaths
|title=Containing COVID-19 Will Devastate the Economy. Here’s the Economic Case for Why It’s Still Our Best Option.
|website=Kellogg Insight
|language=en
|access-date=2020-04-15
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/coronavirus-covid-19-cost-economy-2020-un-trade-economics-pandemic/
|title=This is how much the coronavirus will cost the world's economy, according to the UN
|website=World Economic Forum
|language=en
|access-date=2020-04-14
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059011
|title=Coronavirus update: COVID-19 likely to cost economy $1 trillion during 2020, says UN trade agency
|date=2020-03-09
|website=UN News
|language=en
|access-date=2020-04-14
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2020/04/11/the-changes-covid-19-is-forcing-on-to-business
|title=The changes covid-19 is forcing on to business
|work=The Economist
|access-date=2020-04-16
|issn=0013-0613
}}&lt;/ref&gt; They require sacrificing daily routines and public/personal social encounters that enhance health and quality of life and provide emotional support and resilience.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/731918383
|title=The power of habit : why we do what we do in life and business
|last=Duhigg, Charles.
|date=2012
|publisher=Random House
|isbn=978-1-4000-6928-6
|edition=1st
|location=New York
|oclc=731918383
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sanchez-Moreno
|first=José
|last2=Martinez-Aran
|first2=Anabel
|last3=Gadelrab
|first3=Hesham F.
|last4=Cabello
|first4=Maria
|last5=Torrent
|first5=Carla
|last6=del Mar Bonnin
|first6=Caterina
|last7=Ferrer
|first7=Montse
|last8=Leonardi
|first8=Matilde
|last9=Ayuso-Mateos
|first9=José Luís
|date=2010-01
|title=The role and impact of contextual factors on functioning in patients with bipolar disorder
|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/09638288.2010.520810
|journal=Disability and Rehabilitation
|language=en
|volume=32
|issue=sup1
|pages=S94–S104
|doi=10.3109/09638288.2010.520810
|issn=0963-8288
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Even in the general population, extended duration and constrained physical space in [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/05/ce-corner-isolation social isolation] can lead to a wide range of adverse psychological [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/05/ce-corner-isolation effects], including depression, malaise, lowered self-esteem, alienation, helplessness, panic, [[wikipedia:Compulsive buying disorder|compulsive buying disorder behaviors]], and [[wikipedia:Panic buying|panic-buying]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sim
|first=Kang
|last2=Chua
|first2=Hong Choon
|last3=Vieta
|first3=Eduard
|last4=Fernandez
|first4=George
|date=2020-06
|title=The anatomy of panic buying related to the current COVID-19 pandemic
|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165178120308349
|journal=Psychiatry Research
|language=en
|volume=288
|pages=113015
|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113015
|pmc=PMC7158779
|pmid=32315887
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Anger, [[wikipedia:Talk:Anxiety disorder|clinical anxiety]], and [[wikipedia:Posttraumatic stress disorder|posttraumatic stress disorder]] can persist years after the end of isolation, as indicated by literature on quarantine.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Vulnerable populations – such as people with low income, racial and ethnic minorities, and those who struggle with managing their mental health – are also at an increased risk of contracting coronavirus due to factors such as lack of access to safe transportation (versus having to use subways/busing/metros), the inability to work at home due to unpaid time off, and differences in the type of jobs (low-wage essential workers like grocers, sanitation workers, home health aides, delivery drivers, and fast food servers all involve more exposure than desk jobs would).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=http://theconversation.com/low-wage-essential-workers-get-less-protection-against-coronavirus-and-less-information-about-how-it-spreads-138076
|title=Low-wage essential workers get less protection against coronavirus – and less information about how it spreads
|last=Hammonds
|first=Clare
|last2=Kerrissey
|first2=Jasmine
|website=The Conversation
|language=en
|access-date=2020-06-04
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sy
|first=Karla Therese L.
|last2=Martinez
|first2=Micaela E.
|last3=Rader
|first3=Benjamin
|last4=White
|first4=Laura F.
|date=2020-05-30
|title=Socioeconomic disparities in subway use and COVID-19 outcomes in New York City
|url=https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.05.28.20115949v1
|journal=medRxiv
|language=en
|pages=2020.05.28.20115949
|doi=10.1101/2020.05.28.20115949
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Yearby
|first=Ruqaiijah
|last2=Mohapatra
|first2=Seema
|date=2020-05-30
|title=Law, Structural Racism, and the COVID-19 Pandemic
|url=https://academic.oup.com/jlb/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jlb/lsaa036/5849058
|journal=Journal of Law and the Biosciences
|language=en
|pages=lsaa036
|doi=10.1093/jlb/lsaa036
|issn=2053-9711
|pmc=PMC7313873
}}&lt;/ref&gt; We cite all of this not to contradict the importance of [[wikipedia:Social distancing|physical and social distancing]] measures in the COVID era, but rather to underscore the potential consequences for vulnerable and marginalized populations.

== Effects on People with Bipolar Disorders ==
{{fig|2|Coping with Bipolar Disorder during COVID-19 (Tashsa Regan) v1.jpg
| clear = none
| caption = COVID-19 has created much uncertainty which can negatively impact individuals living with bipolar disorder (BD). To help manage stress and symptoms during the pandemic, here are some ways to cope with BD.
| attribution = Tasha Regan, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC BY-SA]][[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC BY-SA]]
}}
There are multiple ways that the pandemic is affecting people with bipolar disorders.  
=== Disruption of Medical and Mental Health Services ===
The impact of measures to combat [[wikipedia:Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] could be particularly severe and long-lasting in persons with BD. The emergency disrupted both public and private mental health services. The situation has continued to shift speedily as governments, insurance companies, providers, and patients all advance policies and behavior in response to new information.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;  Most initial patients had trouble accessing outpatient care in the immediate wake of the lock-downs and mandated social isolation and distancing. More specifically, during the current COVID-19 emergency, the state of mental health services in different countries worldwide, including China,&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Li
|first=Shen
|last2=Zhang
|first2=Yong
|date=2020-04
|title=Mental healthcare for psychiatric inpatients during the COVID-19 epidemic
|url=http://gpsych.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100216
|journal=General Psychiatry
|language=en
|volume=33
|issue=2
|pages=e100216
|doi=10.1136/gpsych-2020-100216
|issn=2517-729X
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Italy, and Spain&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Arango
|first=Celso
|date=2020-04
|title=Lessons learned from the coronavirus health crisis in Madrid, Spain: How COVID-19 has changed our lives in the last two weeks
|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.04.003
|journal=Biological Psychiatry
|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.04.003
|issn=0006-3223
|pmc=PMC7141703
}}&lt;/ref&gt; was as follows: Psychiatric outpatient facilities often initially suspended all programmed and routine clinical activities as well as case management, though still guaranteeing interventions in urgent cases (e.g., exacerbation of symptoms; the appearance of adverse effects reported by the patient or family members), clinical demands (e.g., administration of depot [[wikipedia:Antipsychotic|antipsychotic medication]]), and legal authority prescriptions. Home visits were limited to urgent cases and to ones that cannot be postponed when patients cannot reach the service. In all other cases, therapeutic continuity can be achieved via telephone or online sessions to monitor the patient’s clinical progress. Semi-residential facilities ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274745/ psychiatric day-care facilities)] are often closed, but even in these cases, [https://www.aafp.org/about/policies/all/definition-care.html continuity of care] has been achieved through phone contact. In residential facilities, individual clinical practices continue to be regularly carried out, and some group activities. In these settings, patient passes were suspended, and most outings were only allowed with operator supervision – both of which curtail freedom of movement. The entry of outside visitors was forbidden, so that the staff would be the only potential contagious carriers, thus again increasing social isolation. The entry of new patients has allowed in cases that cannot be delayed (e.g., patients coming from the hospital for a post-relapse period). Even [[wikipedia:Psychiatric hospital|psychiatric inpatient units]] have limited, as much as possible, hospitalizations to urgent cases and those that cannot be postponed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Patients presenting both active [https://www.verywellmind.com/psychiatric-disorder-definition-425317 psychiatric disorders] needing hospitalization and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 [[wikipedia:Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2|(SARS-CoV-2]]) symptoms are generally placed in psychiatric wards, and when possible, in COVID-dedicated areas or rooms. These patterns threaten to undermine [[wikipedia:Transitional care|treatment continuity]], [[wikipedia:Therapeutic relationship|patient-clinician alliance]], [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy#Adherence|treatment adherence]], and patient-driven recovery progress – while the pandemic simultaneously escalates stress levels.

There was a rapid adjustment, with some clinics pivoting to providing services primarily or only by telephone, and then adding video sessions. Many governments and insurance payers modified rules to allow more video service provision, including changes to billing codes and regulations. Recommendations for telehealth and protective measures to allow the resumption of in-person services have swiftly followed, balancing issues of safety and prevention of infection with concerns about privacy and offer continued service provision. Six months after the initial distancing and lock-down orders, there is uncertainty and variation about how long to authorize telehealth as the primary form of service provision. Although the pace of innovation has accelerated, there have been changes in service use patterns, with some hospitals and clinics seeing a big decrease in admissions and appointments.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Clerici
|first=M.
|last2=Durbano
|first2=F.
|last3=Spinogatti
|first3=F.
|last4=Vita
|first4=A.
|last5=de Girolamo
|first5=G.
|last6=Micciolo
|first6=R.
|date=2020-05-05
|title=Psychiatric hospitalization rates in Italy before and during COVID-19: did they change? An analysis of register data
|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0790966720000294/type/journal_article
|journal=Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine
|language=en
|pages=1–8
|doi=10.1017/ipm.2020.29
|issn=0790-9667
|pmc=PMC7264453
|pmid=32368994
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The changes have been larger for elective issues than for emergencies, perhaps due to concerns about medical facilities being a place for potential exposure to the virus.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=de Girolamo
|first=Giovanni
|last2=Cerveri
|first2=Giancarlo
|last3=Clerici
|first3=Massimo
|last4=Monzani
|first4=Emiliano
|last5=Spinogatti
|first5=Franco
|last6=Starace
|first6=Fabrizio
|last7=Tura
|first7=Giambattista
|last8=Vita
|first8=Antonio
|date=2020-04-30
|title=Mental Health in the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Emergency—The Italian Response
|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2765557
|journal=JAMA Psychiatry
|language=en
|doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.1276
|issn=2168-622X
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The situation is likely to continue to be fluid and variable across regions, even months after an effective vaccination program might become available.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; 

=== Increased Strain ===
Alarming news [https://www.npr.org/2020/04/16/836424337/coronavirus-updates-the-economic-toll reports] about [https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2020/03/06/481394/economic-impact-coronavirus-united-states-possible-economic-policy-responses/ economic] and human costs add heightened [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/daily-life-coping/managing-stress-anxiety.html#stressful stress,] while social distancing measures simultaneously reduce [[wikipedia:Neurobiological effects of physical exercise|exercise]] opportunities, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2290997/ sunlight exposure], participation in meaningful activities, and social engagement. Job loss and financial uncertainty add additional [https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Financial_strain strain], potentially triggering [https://adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/related-illnesses/bipolar-disorder anxiety and mood symptoms] – again, in a population already vulnerable. At the time of writing, there are now more than 22 million Americans out of work. Over 10 million Americans have applied for unemployment benefits, and more are anticipated to apply.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/04/02/jobless-march-coronavirus/
|title=Over 10 million Americans applied for unemployment benefits in March as economy collapsed
|last=Long
|first=Heather
|date=
|website=Washington Post
|language=en
|archive-url=
|archive-date=
|access-date=2020-04-17
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The surge is causing unemployment offices to fall behind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/04/06/unemployment-benefits-coronavirus/
|title=Underfunded, understaffed and under siege: Unemployment offices nationwide are struggling to do their jobs
|last=Romm
|first=Tony
|date=
|website=Washington Post
|language=en
|archive-url=
|archive-date=
|access-date=2020-04-17
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many large corporations and small businesses are having to lay off workers and are experiencing significant financial hardship. The United States federal government appropriated funds for small businesses, but businesses are still in need of aid while waiting for the funds to be disbursed.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/16/business/coronavirus-sba-loans-out-of-money.html
|title=Loan Money Runs Out While Small-Business Owners Wait in Line
|last=Flitter
|first=Emily
|date=2020-04-16
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=2020-04-17
|language=en-US
|issn=0362-4331
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many shuttered businesses may not reopen, causing the unemployment rates to remain low even when regions relax restrictions on movement and work.

=== Disrupted Routines and Sleep ===
A healthy life's regular rhythm becomes hard to maintain as sheltering-in-place eliminates much of the existing structure from an individual's day. It also interferes with the positive influence of other [[wikipedia:Zeitgeber|zeitgebers]] (e.g., getting exposure to sunlight, eating meals, engaging in social activities, and [https://www.sleepfoundation.org/articles/how-exercise-impacts-sleep-quality going to the gym]) to keep sleep and activity regular.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Grandin
|first=Louisa D.
|last2=Alloy
|first2=Lauren B.
|last3=Abramson
|first3=Lyn Y.
|date=2006-10
|title=The social zeitgeber theory, circadian rhythms, and mood disorders: Review and evaluation
|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.07.001
|journal=Clinical Psychology Review
|volume=26
|issue=6
|pages=679–694
|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2006.07.001
|issn=0272-7358
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Shen
|first=Gail HC
|last2=Alloy
|first2=Lauren B
|last3=Abramson
|first3=Lyn Y
|last4=Sylvia
|first4=Louisa G
|date=2008-06
|title=Social rhythm regularity and the onset of affective episodes in bipolar spectrum individuals
|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x
|journal=Bipolar Disorders
|volume=10
|issue=4
|pages=520–529
|doi=10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x
|issn=1398-5647
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sleep and schedule regularity are key components of mood maintenance for people with BD&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Carvalho
|first=Andre F.
|last2=Firth
|first2=Joseph
|last3=Vieta
|first3=Eduard
|date=2020-07-02
|editor-last=Ropper
|editor-first=Allan H.
|title=Bipolar Disorder
|url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMra1906193
|journal=New England Journal of Medicine
|language=en
|volume=383
|issue=1
|pages=58–66
|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1906193
|issn=0028-4793
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Frank
|first=Ellen
|last2=Gonzalez
|first2=Jodi M.
|last3=Fagiolini
|first3=Andrea
|date=2006-06
|title=The Importance of Routine for Preventing Recurrence in Bipolar Disorder
|url=http://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.6.981
|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry
|language=en
|volume=163
|issue=6
|pages=981–985
|doi=10.1176/ajp.2006.163.6.981
|issn=0002-953X
}}&lt;/ref&gt; who typically have less social rhythm regularity under normal circumstances.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Shen
|first=Gail HC
|last2=Alloy
|first2=Lauren B.
|last3=Abramson
|first3=Lyn Y.
|last4=Sylvia
|first4=Louisa G.
|date=2008
|title=Social rhythm regularity and the onset of affective episodes in bipolar spectrum individuals
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x
|journal=Bipolar Disorders
|language=en
|volume=10
|issue=4
|pages=520–529
|doi=10.1111/j.1399-5618.2008.00583.x
|issn=1399-5618
|pmc=PMC4090015
|pmid=18452448
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, when work-at-home policies are implemented, and classes are canceled or moved [[wikipedia:Virtual school|online]], there are fewer external forces to help people with BD to adhere to a routine.

Many people with BD have an evening [[w:Chronotype|chronotype]], preferring to stay up late and sleep through the morning.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Melo
|first=Matias C. A.
|last2=Abreu
|first2=Rafael L. C.
|last3=Linhares Neto
|first3=Vicente B.
|last4=de Bruin
|first4=Pedro F. C.
|last5=de Bruin
|first5=Veralice M. S.
|date=2017-08-01
|title=Chronotype and circadian rhythm in bipolar disorder: A systematic review
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1087079216300594
|journal=Sleep Medicine Reviews
|language=en
|volume=34
|pages=46–58
|doi=10.1016/j.smrv.2016.06.007
|issn=1087-0792
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Work or [[wikipedia:Light in school buildings|school]] obligations can help to keep an individual’s [[wikipedia:Circadian rhythm|circadian rhythm]] more or less entrained with the environment. Unfortunately for many people, COVID-19 has led to job loss or cessation of regular classes (e.g., replacement of instruction with independent work or online instructional videos that can be viewed at any time). [[c:File:ILO Monitor Covid-19 work force and stats.pdf|More than a third of the global workforce was employed in sectors now experiencing a severe reduction in productivity with a high risk of furlough, job loss, or bankruptcy]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/coronavirus/impacts-and-responses/WCMS_739047/lang--en/index.htm
|title=How will COVID-19 affect the world of work?
|date=2020-03-19
|website=www.ilo.org
|language=en
|access-date=2020-04-16
}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{fig|3
|ILO Monitor Covid-19 work force and stats.pdf
|The United Nations' specialized agency, the International Labour Organization's second edition of key analysis and policy recommendations surrounding worsening COVID-19 world crisis with devastating effects on the world of work.
|attribution=International Labour Organization, public domain
}}

Additionally, many other activities in which people have engaged for social or health benefits (e.g., sports teams, clubs) are on pause. Guidelines during shelter-in-place – stay at home as much as possible, leaving only to engage in essential activities – reinforce behaviors that clinicians often try hard to discourage. Although it is possible to attain structure on one’s day during shelter-in-place, it requires [[wikipedia:Avolition#Psychopathology|motivation]] and self-control. For many people with BD, acting against what feels best (i.e., resisting the tendency to stay up late) may be quite challenging to enforce. Other people can help impose structure through shared meals and other activities, but this also becomes a challenge. That is, people with BD are less likely to be partnered than other adults&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Breslau
|first=J.
|last2=Miller
|first2=E.
|last3=Jin
|first3=R.
|last4=Sampson
|first4=N. A.
|last5=Alonso
|first5=J.
|last6=Andrade
|first6=L. H.
|last7=Bromet
|first7=E. J.
|last8=Girolamo
|first8=G. de
|last9=Demyttenaere
|first9=K.
|date=2011
|title=A multinational study of mental disorders, marriage, and divorce
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01712.x
|journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
|language=en
|volume=124
|issue=6
|pages=474–486
|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01712.x
|issn=1600-0447
|pmc=PMC4011132
|pmid=21534936
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and, as a result, may find themselves isolated. Although social interaction patterns may be beneficial for those who do live with others, other stressors related to being confined can introduce[[wikipedia:Bipolar disorder#psychosocial|interpersonal challenges]], with associated mood consequences.

=== Medical risk factors and comorbidity ===

==== Higher risk of infection and poor outcome ====
People with BD are likely to be especially [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Coping with Coronavirus and other Epidemics#High-Risk Groups|susceptible]] to infection because those with BD have high comorbidity with [[wikipedia:Obesity|obesity]], [[wikipedia:Diabetes|diabetes mellitus]], [[wikipedia:Coronary artery disease|coronary heart disease]], and [[wikipedia:Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|obstructive pulmonary disease]], as well as [[wikipedia:Smoking|smoking]] and [[wikipedia:Substance abuse|substance use]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=De Hert
|first=Marc De
|last2=Correll
|first2=Christoph U.
|last3=Bobes
|first3=Julio
|last4=Cetkovich‐Bakmas
|first4=Marcelo
|last5=Cohen
|first5=Dan
|last6=Asai
|first6=Itsuo
|last7=Detraux
|first7=Johan
|last8=Gautam
|first8=Shiv
|last9=Möller
|first9=Hans-Jurgen
|date=2011
|title=Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. I. Prevalence, impact of medications and disparities in health care
|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00014.x
|journal=World Psychiatry
|language=en
|volume=10
|issue=1
|pages=52–77
|doi=10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00014.x
|issn=2051-5545
|pmc=PMC3048500
|pmid=21379357
|via=
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70929267
|title=Manic-depressive illness : bipolar disorders and recurrent depression
|last=Goodwin, Frederick K. (1936-)
|date=2007
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|others=Jamison, Kay R., Ghaemi, S. Nassir.
|isbn=978-0-19-513579-4
|edition=2nd
|location=New York, N.Y.
|oclc=70929267
}}&lt;/ref&gt; These factors and related physical illnesses compromise immune functioning and heighten the risk for severe acute respiratory syndrome (COVID-19 if one is infected with the [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Coping with Coronavirus and other Epidemics|coronavirus)]]. Smoking and cardio-pulmonary disease are also common comorbidities observed among those who perish from COVID-19. 
==== Managing complex treatments ====
Current treatment protocols for COVID-19 are quickly evolving, incurring risk for [https://www.webmd.com/interaction-checker/default.htm drug interactions], especially in patients being managed with complex regimens. Of course, BD itself frequently involves polypharmacy. Because no specific antiviral treatment has been developed, current treatment options include off-label use of [[w:Azithromycin|azithromycin]], [[w:Lopinavir–ritonavir|lopinavir–ritonavir]], [[w:Chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine|chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine]], [[w:Tocilizumab|tocilizumab]], [[w:Remdesivir|remdesivir]], [[w:Atazanavir|atazanavir]], [[w:Favipiravir|favipiravir]], and other agents.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Vieta
|first=Eduard
|last2=Pérez
|first2=Víctor
|last3=Arango
|first3=Celso
|date=2020-04
|title=Psychiatry in the aftermath of COVID-19
|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S188898912030029X
|journal=Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental
|language=en
|volume=13
|issue=2
|pages=105–110
|doi=10.1016/j.rpsm.2020.04.004
|pmc=PMC7177054
|pmid=32376131
|via=Elsevier Public Health Emergency Collection
}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, using these medications for BD patients requires careful attention because of interactions between azithromycin/lopinavir–ritonavir and the commonly recommended medications for BD. For example, atazanavir and lopinavir/ritonavir are protease inhibitors that change CYP34A related metabolism, thus substantially increasing [[w:Quetiapine|quetiapine]], [[w:Lurasidone|lurasidone]], [[w:Ziprasidone|ziprasidone]], and pimozide levels, as well as levels of [[w:Benzodiazepines|benzodiazepines]], such as [[w:Midazolam|midazolam]] and [[w:Triazolam|triazolam]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Chatterjee
|first=Seshadri Sekhar
|last2=Malathesh
|first2=Barikar C
|last3=Das
|first3=Soumitra
|last4=Singh
|first4=Om Prakash
|date=2020-08
|title=Interactions of recommended COVID-19 drugs with commonly used psychotropics
|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1876201820302859
|journal=Asian Journal of Psychiatry
|language=en
|volume=52
|pages=102173
|doi=10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102173
|pmc=PMC7239782
|pmid=32446195
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some of the COVID-19 experimental treatments (azithromycin, hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, and tocilizumab) may increase the QT interval, requiring ECG monitoring and caution when co-administered with some antipsychotics and antidepressants.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Anmella
|first=G.
|last2=Arbelo
|first2=N.
|last3=Fico
|first3=G.
|last4=Murru
|first4=A.
|last5=Llach
|first5=C.D.
|last6=Madero
|first6=S.
|last7=Gomes-da-Costa
|first7=S.
|last8=Imaz
|first8=M.L.
|last9=López-Pelayo
|first9=H.
|date=2020-09
|title=COVID-19 inpatients with psychiatric disorders: Real-world clinical recommendations from an expert team in consultation-liaison psychiatry
|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165032720312726
|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders
|language=en
|volume=274
|pages=1062–1067
|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.149
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Of real concern, the possible adverse psychiatric effects of chloroquine/hydroxychloroquine include [[w:Psychosis|psychosis]], mood change, [[w:Mania|mania]], and [[wikipedia:Suicidal ideation|suicidal ideation]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Nevin
|first=Remington L.
|last2=Croft
|first2=Ashley M.
|date=2016-06-22
|title=Psychiatric effects of malaria and anti-malarial drugs: historical and modern perspectives
|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-016-1391-6
|journal=Malaria Journal
|volume=15
|issue=1
|pages=332
|doi=10.1186/s12936-016-1391-6
|issn=1475-2875
|pmc=PMC4918116
|pmid=27335053
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chloroquine may exacerbate BD&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Bogaczewicz
|first=J
|last2=Sobów
|first2=T
|last3=Bogaczewicz
|first3=A
|last4=Robak
|first4=E
|last5=Bienkowski
|first5=P
|last6=Sysa-Jędrzejowska
|first6=A
|last7=Woźniacka
|first7=A
|date=2013-12-02
|title=Exacerbations of bipolar disorder triggered by chloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus—a case report
|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0961203313513818
|journal=Lupus
|language=en-US
|volume=23
|issue=2
|pages=188–193
|doi=10.1177/0961203313513818
|issn=0961-2033
}}&lt;/ref&gt; and might increase [[w:Phenothiazine|phenothiazine]] levels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Mascolo
|first=Annamaria
|last2=Berrino
|first2=Pasquale Maria
|last3=Gareri
|first3=Pietro
|last4=Castagna
|first4=Alberto
|last5=Capuano
|first5=Annalisa
|last6=Manzo
|first6=Ciro
|last7=Berrino
|first7=Liberato
|date=2018-06-09
|title=Neuropsychiatric clinical manifestations in elderly patients treated with hydroxychloroquine: a review article
|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10787-018-0498-5
|journal=Inflammopharmacology
|volume=26
|issue=5
|pages=1141–1149
|doi=10.1007/s10787-018-0498-5
|issn=0925-4692
}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Corticosteroids|Corticosteroids]] are being used in some COVID-19 patients with severe respiratory distress, and the effects of steroids in terms of triggering manic episodes in bipolar patients are well-known.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Wada
|first=Ken
|last2=Yamada
|first2=Norihito
|last3=Sato
|first3=Toshiki
|last4=Suzuki
|first4=Hiroshi
|last5=Miki
|first5=Masahito
|last6=Lee
|first6=Yomei
|last7=Akiyama
|first7=Kazufumi
|last8=Kuroda
|first8=Shigetoshi
|date=2001-11
|title=Corticosteroid-Induced Psychotic and Mood Disorders: Diagnosis Defined by DSM-IV and Clinical Pictures
|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.psy.42.6.461
|journal=Psychosomatics
|volume=42
|issue=6
|pages=461–466
|doi=10.1176/appi.psy.42.6.461
|issn=0033-3182
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, [[w:Carbamazepine|carbamazepine]] may significantly decrease the blood levels of many of the drugs medications for COVID-19, thus reducing such treatment's effectiveness.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; In short, the management of dual treatments for COVID-19 and BD requires substantial monitoring.

== Stigma ==
[[wikipedia:Social stigma|Social stigma]] flares when societies are under stress, with a malign eye falling on people associated with or belonging to high-risk groups, on those considered contagious, as well as on anyone considered “different.”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Hinshaw|first1= S. P.|date=2007|title=The mark of shame: Stigma of mental illness and an agenda for change|publisher= Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/med:psych/9780199730926.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Hinshaw
|first=Stephen P.
|last2=Cicchetti
|first2=Dante
|date=2000/12
|title=Stigma and mental disorder: Conceptions of illness, public attitudes, personal disclosure, and social policy
|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/development-and-psychopathology/article/stigma-and-mental-disorder-conceptions-of-illness-public-attitudes-personal-disclosure-and-social-policy/438D307B82573D79222C8A3D1E861EDB
|journal=Development and Psychopathology
|language=en
|volume=12
|issue=4
|pages=555–598
|doi=10.1017/S0954579400004028
|issn=1469-2198
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Stigma around COVID-19 ===
{{fig|4
|Canva_-_Selective_Focus_Photography_of_Person_Wearing_Black_and_Red_Helmet_and_Gray_Mask.jpg
|align=left
|caption=Many people of Asian descent have been blamed and ostracized during the COVID-19 pandemic.
|attribution = Min An, [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en CC0]
}}
Social stigma has mainly manifested toward several high-risk groups since the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/us/coronavirus-race.html
|title=Black Americans Face Alarming Rates of Coronavirus Infection in Some States
|last=Eligon
|first=John
|date=2020-04-07
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=2020-04-16
|last2=Burch
|first2=Audra D. S.
|language=en-US
|issn=0362-4331
|last3=Searcey
|first3=Dionne
|last4=Jr
|first4=Richard A. Oppel
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Aside from those who are ostracized because of their diagnosis,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/04/us/stigma-coronavirus.html
|title=What It’s Like to Come Home to the Stigma of Coronavirus
|last=Stockman
|first=Farah
|date=2020-03-04
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=2020-04-16
|language=en-US
|issn=0362-4331
}}&lt;/ref&gt; healthcare workers treating COVID-19 patients and people of Asian ethnicity have been subject to increased maltreatment in countries worldwide. In India, news outlets report that stigma towards healthcare workers is on the rise and has resulted in physical violence.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot;&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-13/doctors-come-under-attack-in-india-as-coronavirus-stigma-grows
|title=Doctors Come Under Attack in India as Coronavirus Stigma Grows
|last=Altstedter
|first=Ari
|date=2020-04-13
|work=Bloomberg
|access-date=2020-04-16
|archive-url=
|archive-date=
|last2=Shrivastava
|first2=Bhuma
|language=en-US
|issn=0007-7135
|last3=Pandya
|first3=Dhwani
}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the United States, there are higher rates of infection and death in African Americans.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/us/coronavirus-race.html
|title=Black Americans Face Alarming Rates of Coronavirus Infection in Some States
|last=Eligon
|first=John
|date=2020-04-07
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=2020-04-17
|last2=Burch
|first2=Audra D. S.
|language=en-US
|issn=0362-4331
|last3=Searcey
|first3=Dionne
|last4=Jr
|first4=Richard A. Oppel
}}&lt;/ref&gt; There have also been reports of Asian Americans who fear racially motivated violence due to COVID-19.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/us/chinese-coronavirus-racist-attacks.html
|title=Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese-Americans Fear for Their Safety
|last=Tavernise
|first=Sabrina
|date=2020-03-23
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=2020-04-16
|last2=Jr
|first2=Richard A. Oppel
|language=en-US
|issn=0362-4331
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Government officials and the media's improper language to describe COVID-19 has created friction between racial groups and incited others to weaponize it against Asians across the globe.&lt;ref&gt;Covid-19 Is Becoming the Disease That Divides Us: By Race, Class and Age. (2020, March 21). ''Bloomberg.Com''. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-21/covid-19-divides-u-s-society-by-race-class-and-age&lt;/ref&gt; The increase of fear and anxiety surrounding the Coronavirus outbreak has bred racially-motivated [[wikipedia:Hate crime|hate crimes]] against Asians as a form of [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201312/the-psychology-scapegoating scapegoating].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/anti-asian-racism-stopped-normalised-200412103717485.html
|title=Anti-Asian racism must be stopped before it is normalised
|last=Aziz
|first=Sahar
|website=www.aljazeera.com
|access-date=2020-04-16
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The rise of coronavirus hate crimes towards people of Asian descent has taken the form of physical assault such as acid attacks,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://asamnews.com/2020/04/07/ny-mayor-vows-to-throw-the-full-force-of-the-law-to-stop-anti-asian-hate-crimes-asian-woman-suffers-second-degree-burns-in-acid-attack/
|title=Acid attack on Brooklyn woman in apparent coronavirus hate crime. NY Mayor DeBlasio calls the rise in racist attacks on Asians a &quot;crisis.&quot;
|date=2020-04-07
|website=AsAm News
|language=en-US
|access-date=2020-04-16
}}&lt;/ref&gt; verbal abuse and harassment such as yelling racial slurs and blaming for &quot;spreading the virus.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://www.adl.org/blog/reports-of-anti-asian-assaults-harassment-and-hate-crimes-rise-as-coronavirus-spreads
|title=Reports of Anti-Asian Assaults, Harassment and Hate Crimes Rise as Coronavirus Spreads
|website=Anti-Defamation League
|language=en
|access-date=2020-04-16
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Survivors of [https://www.apa.org/advocacy/interpersonal-violence/hate-crimes hate crimes] are more likely to experience psychological distress than survivors of violent crimes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=https://legalcouncil.org/hate-crimes-public-health/
|title=Hateful to Health: The lasting effects of hate crimes on public health
|date=2019-03-04
|website=Legal Council for Health Justice
|language=en-US
|access-date=2020-04-16
}}&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.istss.org/ISTSS_Main/media/Documents/ISTSS-Global-Perspectives-on-the-Trauma-of-Hate-Based-Violence-Briefing-Paper.pdf Victims of hate crimes suffer from psychological trauma] like internalizing the messages associated with perpetrators' motivation to engage in the attacks, leading to low self-esteem, posttraumatic stress reactions, and a fear and distrust of others and social institutions.&lt;ref&gt;Ghafoori, B., Caspi, Y., Salgado, C., Allwood, M., Kreither, J., Tejada, J.L., Hunt, T., Waelde, L.C., Slobodin, O., Failey, M., Gilberg, P., Larrondo, P., Ramos, N., von Haumeder, A., &amp; Nadal, K. (2019). ''Global Perspectives on the Trauma of Hate-Based Violence: An International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Briefing Paper.'' Retrieved from [https://istss.org/public-resources/istss-briefing-papers/hate-based-violence www.istss.org/hate-based-violence]&lt;/ref&gt; Another consequence of using racist language and the influx of hate crimes against the Asian community is the fracturing of unity in society, which makes preserving the sustenance of the global economy harder to achieve.&lt;ref&gt;Davenport, C., Gregg, A., &amp; Timberg, C. (2020, March 22). Working from home reveals another fault line in America’s racial and educational divide. Retrieved April 16, 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/22/working-home-reveals-another-fault-line-americas-racial-educational-divide/&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Stigma around bipolar disorder and other serious mental illnesses ===
BD is already prone to high levels of [[wikipedia:Mental disorder#Stigma|stigmatization]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Corrigan
|first=Patrick W.
|last2=Bink
|first2=Andrea B.
|last3=Fokuo
|first3=J. Konadu
|last4=Schmidt
|first4=Annie
|date=2015-03-30
|title=The public stigma of mental illness means a difference between you and me
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178115000074
|journal=Psychiatry Research
|language=en
|volume=226
|issue=1
|pages=186–191
|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2014.12.047
|issn=0165-1781
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Hinshaw|first1= S. P.|date=2010|url=https://hinshawsubdomain.dreamhosters.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Hinshaw-2010-Growing-Up-in-a-Family-Chapter-in-Miklowitz-Cicchetti.pdf|chapter= Growing Up in a Family with Bipolar Disorder: Personal Experience, Developmental Lessons, and Overcoming Stigma|editor1-first=D. |editor1-last=Miklowitz |editor2-first=D.|editor2-last= Cicchetti |title= Understanding bipolar disorder: A developmental psychopathology perspective|pages= 525-556|publisher= Guilford Press|isbn=9781606236222}}&lt;/ref&gt; and will undoubtedly take a second hit when people with BD also contract COVID-19. Multiple incidents of ostracism, violence, and discrimination against doctors and people suffering from COVID-19 have already been flurrying in the news worldwide.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Bagcchi
|first=Sanjeet
|date=2020-07
|title=Stigma during the COVID-19 pandemic
|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1473309920304989
|journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases
|language=en
|volume=20
|issue=7
|pages=782
|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30498-9
|pmc=PMC7314449
|pmid=32592670
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/27/world/americas/coronavirus-health-workers-attacked.html
|title=‘Afraid to Be a Nurse’: Health Workers Under Attack
|last=Semple
|first=Kirk
|date=2020-04-27
|work=The New York Times
|access-date=2020-10-05
|language=en-US
|issn=0362-4331
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, it is well documented that when people with mental disorders also develop a physical condition, the “medical” disorders are likely to be discounted and [https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(14)00023-6/fulltext undertreated]. If a person with BD contracts SARS-CoV-2 and develops COVID-19, there is a clear risk that stigma could change treatment decisions and threaten therapeutic rapport.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Corrigan
|first=Patrick W.
|last2=Mittal
|first2=Dinesh
|last3=Reaves
|first3=Christina M.
|last4=Haynes
|first4=Tiffany F.
|last5=Han
|first5=Xiaotong
|last6=Morris
|first6=Scott
|last7=Sullivan
|first7=Greer
|date=2014-08-15
|title=Mental health stigma and primary health care decisions
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178114003254
|journal=Psychiatry Research
|language=en
|volume=218
|issue=1
|pages=35–38
|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2014.04.028
|issn=0165-1781
|pmc=PMC4363991
|pmid=24774076
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The double stigma of having two burdens may not just aggravate a sense of isolation but provoke hostility instead of support –  and deprive the individual of needed treatments.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book
|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy420
|title=Developmental Psychopathology
|last=Martinez
|first=Andres G.
|last2=Hinshaw
|first2=Stephen P.
|date=2016-02-10
|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc.
|isbn=978-1-119-12555-6
|editor-last=Cicchetti
|editor-first=Dante
|location=Hoboken, NJ, USA
|pages=1–43
|language=en
|doi=10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy420
}}&lt;/ref&gt; The World Health Organization has provided [https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/covid19-stigma-guide.pdf guidelines] and a [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Pa2r02V5yjzR095ZQ2p1e80udfCuj_P9/view powerpoint] on ways to address the social stigma surrounding COVID-19 in the community such as effective ways to communicate, hosting an open discussion that includes health education while dispelling rumors and misinformation about the virus, and engaging influential people in the community to encourage harmony.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web
|url=http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/links/covid19-resources-and-support-for-mncah-and-ageing/en/
|title=WHO {{!}} COVID-19 : Resources and support
|website=WHO
|access-date=2020-10-05
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Opportunities ==
{{fig|5
|&quot;Crisis&quot; combines the characters for &quot;Danger&quot; and &quot;Opportunity&quot;-Simplified &amp; Traditional Chinese.png
|caption=The Chinese word for &quot;crisis&quot; combines characters that separately would mean &quot;danger&quot; and &quot;opportunity.&quot; The top row uses Simplified characters, and the bottom row shows Traditional characters.
|attribution = Jun Chen, [[creativecommons:by/4.0/deed.en|CC BY]] 
}}
Still, crises are also times of opportunity. We can learn from examples of resilience and rethink and adapt our ways of working. At a global level, the pandemic and response to it are accelerating social and economic changes and transforming daily life and technology for shopping, communicating, and engaging with the community in ways likely to persist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
=== Learning from unexpected resilience ===
Within a few months after the start of China’s COVID-19 lock-down, Chinese mental health clinicians see that if patients move from insecure housing to more secure housing, they report more daily regulation and mood stability or improvement. These positive trends occur in patients returning to live with their families, as well as in hospital settings. Similarly, people with lived experience of BD who are engaged with the Collaborative RESearch Team in Bipolar Disorder (CREST.BD) network report silver linings. Indeed, during the [http://www.crestbd.ca/talkbd/ TalkBD Online Meetup: Staying Mentally Well During COVID-19] (March 20, 2020) forum, investigators found that being proactive about protecting routine and doubling down on [https://www.mhanational.org/ten-tools wellness tools] prevented social distancing from triggering deterioration.

=== Opportunities to transform service delivery ===
The COVID-19 pandemic forces a rethinking of how best to improve access to and implementation of enhanced psychological and psychiatric intervention services specific to [https://www.div12.org/diagnosis/bipolar-disorder/ BD treatment]. These should include—but not be limited to—home visits with physical distancing measures in place,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Garriga
|first=Marina
|last2=Agasi
|first2=Isabel
|last3=Fedida
|first3=Ester
|last4=Pinzón-Espinosa
|first4=Justo
|last5=Vazquez
|first5=Mireia
|last6=Pacchiarotti
|first6=Isabella
|last7=Vieta
|first7=Eduard
|date=2020-04-11
|title=The role of Mental Health Home Hospitalization Care during the COVID-19 pandemic
|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/acps.13173
|journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
|language=en
|doi=10.1111/acps.13173
}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/telepsychiatry telepsychiatry] and [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology|telepsychology]] (including both therapy and assessment; e.g., [https://effectivechildtherapy.org/assessment-center Effective Child Therapy's online assessment center]). Online prescription and medicine express delivery, [https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/telepsychology telepsychology] management interventions, [https://societyforpsychotherapy.org/report-task-force-telepsychotherapy/ telepsychotherapy], online psycho-education programs, [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272735815300623 online mindfulness-based interventions], online sleep hygiene resources, and apps, facilitate access to existing phone and online support lines staffed by mental health professionals trained in treating BD are all salient and essential. The emerging number of apps and mental health resources may play a crucial positive role.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Hidalgo-Mazzei
|first=Diego
|last2=Llach
|first2=Cristian
|last3=Vieta
|first3=Eduard
|date=2020-03
|title=mHealth in affective disorders: hype or hope? A focused narrative review
|url=https://journals.lww.com/intclinpsychopharm/FullText/2020/03000/mHealth_in_affective_disorders__hype_or_hope__A.1.aspx
|journal=International Clinical Psychopharmacology
|language=en-US
|volume=35
|issue=2
|pages=61–68
|doi=10.1097/YIC.0000000000000302
|issn=0268-1315
}}&lt;/ref&gt; [https://www.reddit.com/ Reddit], [https://www.quora.com/q/coronavirus?source=banner Quora], and [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Coping with Coronavirus and other Epidemics|Wikiversity]] provide mechanisms for prompt, interactive information exchange and education, with Reddit and Quora providing models for expert-community exchange (e.g., [https://www.lifewire.com/what-exactly-is-a-reddit-ama-3485985 “Ask Me Anything” (AMA) threads], such as [https://www.reddit.com/user/crest_bd CREST-BD]).  Wikiversity offers a potential “train the trainer” platform for rapidly changing areas, such as [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology|telepsychology]]. A great need exists to train and support clinicians to go to people’s online presence.

There are several low or no-cost crisis support resources for patients experiencing acute distress during and after the pandemic. For example, in the USA, the [https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/ Suicide Prevention Lifeline] (800-273-8255) is available 24/7. The Suicide Prevention Lifeline is also available in Spanish ([https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/help-yourself/en-espanol/ Nacional de Prevencion del Suicido; 888-628-9454]), and for the [https://suicidepreventionlifeline.org/help-yourself/for-deaf-hard-of-hearing/ Deaf and Hard of Hearing (800-799-4889)]. For those who are more comfortable texting, [https://www.crisistextline.org/text-us/ Crisis Text Line] (CTL) is accessible and available around the clock (Text HOME to 741741). Disaster distress helplines like [https://www.samhsa.gov/ SAMHSA] are now offering counseling and support to those experiencing emotional distress related to the Coronavirus pandemic for free 24/7 by phone (1-800-985-5990), by texting &quot;TalkWithUs&quot; to 66746, or by visiting [https://www.samhsa.gov/find-help/disaster-distress-helpline DisasterDistress.samhsa.gov]. Since 2013, CTL volunteer crisis workers have engaged in over 140,000,000 crisis conversations with individuals across the United States. Approximately 25% of crisis conversations include support requests by people experiencing suicidal thoughts. Among support options, CTL in particular, is accessed at higher rates during population-wide stressors, such as exposure to fictional suicides (e.g., [[What We Wish They Knew: 13 Reasons Why|13 Reasons Why]]), media coverage of suicide deaths of celebrities (e.g., [[w:Anthony Bourdain|Anthony Bourdain]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Sugg
|first=Margaret M.
|last2=Michael
|first2=Kurt D.
|last3=Stevens
|first3=Scott E.
|last4=Filbin
|first4=Robert
|last5=Weiser
|first5=Jaclyn
|last6=Runkle
|first6=Jennifer D.
|date=2019-12-01
|title=Crisis text patterns in youth following the release of 13 Reasons Why Season 2 and celebrity suicides: A case study of summer 2018
|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335519301706
|journal=Preventive Medicine Reports
|language=en
|volume=16
|pages=100999
|doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100999
|issn=2211-3355
|pmc=PMC6849446
|pmid=31750076
}}&lt;/ref&gt;  and climate-related disasters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Runkle
|first=Jennifer D.
|last2=Michael
|first2=Kurt D.
|last3=Stevens
|first3=Scott E.
|last4=Sugg
|first4=Margaret M.
|date=2021-01
|title=Quasi-experimental evaluation of text-based crisis patterns in youth following Hurricane Florence in the Carolinas, 2018
|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969720352311
|journal=Science of The Total Environment
|language=en
|volume=750
|pages=141702
|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141702
}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, after [[w:Hurricane Florence|Hurricane Florence]] in 2018, CTL crisis text volume in North and South Carolina, USA,  showed an immediate, sustained increase in crisis texts about stress/anxiety and suicidal thoughts in the six weeks following the weather-related disaster. Taken together, these data provide some promise in contributing feasible, acceptable, and accessible resources for those in distress in short order.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

In addition to promoting such easy-access crisis resources for bipolar disorder patients, it may become necessary to make home environments safer during a prolonged shelter-in-place orders. Unfortunately, suicidal crises, though often brief, can escalate quickly. In studies involving patients who have made a serious attempt, nearly 50% escalated from experiencing suicidal thoughts to an attempt in under 10 minutes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal
|last=Deisenhammer
|first=Eberhard A.
|last2=Ing
|first2=Chy-Meng
|last3=Strauss
|first3=Robert
|last4=Kemmler
|first4=Georg
|last5=Hinterhuber
|first5=Hartmann
|last6=Weiss
|first6=Elisabeth M.
|date=2008-10-21
|title=The Duration of the Suicidal Process
|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/jcp.07m03904
|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
|volume=70
|issue=1
|pages=19–24
|doi=10.4088/jcp.07m03904
|issn=0160-6689
}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, for those patients at risk for suicide (i.e., with either a history of attempts or acute distress), helping families secure unlocked firearms and reduce access to dangerous medications could help prevent suicide death during the pandemic.  For clinicians unfamiliar with these suicide prevention strategies, online training for particular types of means safety approaches (e.g., [https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/calm-counseling-access-lethal-means Counseling on Access to Lethal Means; CALM]) are publicly available and free [https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/calm-counseling-access-lethal-means here]. Other prominent [https://www.mirecc.va.gov/lethalmeanssafety/index.asp “lethal means safety” approaches] are available either for free [https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/patient-safety-plan-template here] or for a modest cost, including the [http://www.cams-care.com/ Collaborative Assessment and Management of Suicidality (CAMS) Model].

===[[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology|Telepsychology and Telepsychiatry]]===
[https://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/telepsychology Telepsychology], including both therapy and assessment, can be especially helpful during shelter-in-place. In addition to providing support during a stressful time, telepsychology can help patients maintain their lifestyle strategies and skills and adapt and cope with changing circumstances. Therapy also provides some interaction and structure during weekdays, which can be valuable for patients with BD. The sudden shift to online services is part of a general trend for the pandemic response to accelerating the transition back to normalcy.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; There are several ways to conduct therapy while maintaining social distance successfully. The easiest option is to use the [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Phone|phone]], as both patient and therapist should have the necessary equipment and are familiar with its use. Furthermore, phone-based therapy raises fewer HIPAA-related concerns than other modalities. The primary downside of phone therapy is that the therapist and patient cannot see each other during the session, and so, valuable information can be lost.

If possible, it is often preferable to use a secure [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Video Conferencing|video conferencing platform]] such as [https://doxy.me/ doxy.me], [https://zoom.us/ Zoom](with needed security features), or [https://www.thera-link.com/ thera-LINK]. In addition to seeing one another and interacting more naturally, video enables the use of worksheets, play, and other activities to increase engagement and facilitate learning. Video is more technologically difficult to use than a phone, but most people can master it with some instruction. Video also requires that both the patient and the therapist have a camera-enabled device. [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Conducting assessment|Assessment]]—particularly frequent self-report of mood, sleep, and activities – can provide insight to both the therapist and patient. Routine assessment enables early identification of clinically significant change in need of intervention; it can also help the patient better understand him/herself and how choices they make (e.g., sleep habits, exercising or not) can affect mood and later physiology. Assessment can be conducted by emailing self-reports, reading the assessment out loud for the patient to respond to, using an [https://effectivechildtherapy.org/assessment-center online form or survey], or procuring an app. When choosing to engage in telepsychology, it is also important to consider [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Telepsychology#Appropriate clients|patient symptom severity and risk]]. Knowing the patient’s address and emergency contact information is critical, as is [http://www.suicidesafetyplan.com/ updating the safety plan] with the patient to account for current circumstances. Some patients may need more intensive services than can reasonably be offered via telepsychology; finding an appropriate referral is vital in these cases.

== Conclusion ==
Despite the dramatic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, this emergency presents both the opportunity for (a) broader and more in-depth understanding of BD patients’ psychological functioning; and (b) development and implementation of mental health policies and services. A prompt and effective response holds the potential to lower the personal and societal risks associated with poor mental health, with the added benefit of saving private and public money. These efforts offer the opportunity to address mental illness stigma. They potentially ameliorate internalized stigma by fostering a society where persons with a mental disorder are demonstrably valued—with adequate support of their health needs. Indeed, appropriate use of technology can help to maintain human connections despite physical distance.

The COVID-19 crisis is a wave propelling sweeping changes in policy, access, delivery, and attitudes. When it recedes, the landscape for the treatment of BD will have changed. There will be damage and loss, but also opportunities to learn – and changes in service delivery that could evolve into significant innovations in service provision and improved outcomes.

== Additional information ==

=== Acknowledgements ===
We thank John Nicholas Fogg for help gathering candidate links, Tasha Regan for making the [[c:File:Coping_with_Bipolar_Disorder_during_COVID-19_(Tashsa_Regan)_v1.jpg|Coping with Bipolar During COVID-19 infographic]] and letting us feature it in this article, and Jennifer Youngstrom, PhD, for comments on several early versions of the paper.

=== Conflict of Interest ===
Eric A. Youngstrom, PhD, is the co-founder and CEO of [https://hgaps.org Helping Give Away Psychological Science], a [[w:501(c)3 nonprofit|501(c)3 nonprofit]] charitable educational national organization. He is on the editorial board of the ''WikiJournal of Medicine'' (and is recused from the review process). The other authors have no competing interests to declare.

=== Ethics statement ===
There are no primary results from human or animal subjects research presented in this paper.

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== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>t2q3ee6wehfqk4t1yxeqvkx0m99h3tw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>263444</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-25T17:44:38Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Scogdill</username>
        <id>1331941</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="41228" xml:space="preserve">== Also Known As ==
*Louise, Duchess of Devonshire
*Louisa, Duchess of Manchester
*Luise Friederike August Gräfin von Alten
*Louisa Montagu
*Louise Cavendish
*The Double Duchess
== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==
=== Friends ===
*[[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (beginning about 1852)
*[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], Lord Hartington (later 8th Duke of Devonshire)
*Daisy, Lady Warwick
*Lady Mayoress, Mrs. Benjamin Samuel Faudel-Phillips, 2nd Baronet,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-25|title=Faudel-Phillips baronets|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faudel-Phillips_baronets&amp;oldid=974879290|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;&quot;The Queen's Drawing Room&quot; ''Morning Post'' 25 February 1897 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 5a–7b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970225/047/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}}
*Mrs. J. E. Mellor, presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}}
=== Enemies ===
* Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough (at least, in 1901)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick &amp; Jackson, 1984.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|pp. 31–32}}
== Organizations ==

== Timeline ==
'''1852 July 22''', Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten and William Drogo Montagu married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1863, early, or late 1862''', Louise and Spencer Compton Cavendish began a relationship.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 26}}

'''1873 December 10''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu (daughter) and William Douglas-Hamilton married.

'''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and George Victor Drogo Montagu (son) married in Grace Church, New York City.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-24|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=974659520|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=969888488|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1876 August 10''', Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu (daughter) and Archibald Acheson married.

'''1889 January 5''', Alice Maude Olivia Montagu (daughter) and Edward Stanley married.

'''1890 March 22''', William Drogo Montagu (7th Duke) died.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10128.htm#i101274|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (grandson) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Helena Zimmerman.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p34555.htm#i345545|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1892 August 16''', Louise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu and Spencer Compton Cavendish, her second husband, married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise Cavendish (#18 on the list of attendees) hosted her famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball| fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London.

'''1897 July 20''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton and Robert Carnaby Foster married.

'''1900 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu and Helena Zimmerman married.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-17|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&amp;oldid=968067371|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1901 Spring''', Paris, Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, describes a meeting with Louise Cavendish in the spring following Queen Victoria's death at the horse racetrack, Longchamps:&lt;blockquote&gt;A renowned character and virtually dictator of what was known as the fast set as opposed to the Victorian, Her Grace was a German aristocrat by birth. She had first been married to the impoverished Duke of Manchester, and when he died had improved her status by marriage to the rich Duke of Devonshire, who waged an undisputed influence in politics. Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash and from it, when she saw me, issued a stream of abuse. How could I, she complained, pointing to my white gloves, show so little respect to the memory of a great Queen? What a carefree world we must have lived in, that etiquette even in such small matters could assume so much importance?&lt;ref&gt;Balsan, Consuelo Vanderbilt. ''The Glitter and the Gold: The American Duchess — In Her Own Words''. New York: St. Martin's, 1953.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 115}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Annual Events ===
Every year, as Duchess of Devonshire, Louise held a dance on the night after the Derby at Epsom Downs, which at this point was held on Wednesdays after Easter.

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==
[[File:Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.jpg|thumb|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|alt=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in costume as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra]]

At their fancy-dress ball, Louisa, Duchess of Devonshire sat at Table 1 during the first seating for supper, escorted in to the table by the Prince of Wales.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}}

Her costume was designed by M. Comelli (Attillo Giuseppe Comelli, 1858–1925, artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT207&amp;lpg=PT207&amp;dq=Attilio+Comelli&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=lFB0If7CwV&amp;sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&amp;q=Attilio%20Comelli&amp;f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram.&quot; ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;&quot;By One Who Was There.&quot; “The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.&lt;/ref&gt; and constructed by the House of Worth. Comelli seems to have designed [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|the costumes of her retinue as well]]. According to Russell Harris,&lt;blockquote&gt;For her costume, the Duchess commissioned Monsieur Comelli (1858-1925), a well-known designer of opera costumes for the London theatre and opera stage, and then had the design made up by Worth of Paris. ''Munsey’s Magazine'' noted “it is safe to say that the Queen of Palmyra never owned such a sumptuous costume in her lifetime.”&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html|title=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, née Countess von Alten of Hanover (1832-1911), as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2022-05-05}} ''Narrated in Calm Prose: Photographs from the V&amp;A's Lafayette Archive of Guests in Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Ball, July 1897''. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Lafayette's portrait of &quot;Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester)&quot; in costume is photogravure #5 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker &amp; Boutall after various photographers.&quot; 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.&lt;/ref&gt; The printing on the portrait says, &quot;The Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia Queen of Palmyra,&quot; with a Long S in ''Duchess''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.&quot; Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158357/Louise-Frederica-Augusta-Cavendish-ne-von-Alten-Duchess-of-Devonshire-formerly-Duchess-of-Manchester-as-Zenobia-Queen-of-Palmyra.&lt;/ref&gt; Often, the V&amp;A Lafayette Archive contains more than one portrait of a sitter for this ball, but the uncropped portrait (above right), which shows the unfinished end of the balustrade in front of the Duchess and the edge of the painted flat behind it, seems to have been the only portrait taken by Lafayette of the Duchess in costume. The copy owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London and the copy included in the album are cropped so that those unfinished edges do not show, but they appear to be from the same photograph.

'''[Stuff about [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|entourage below]] in case you're interested.]'''

=== Newspaper Descriptions of the Duchess's Costume ===
These almost exactly identical descriptions suggest [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]] or a shared primary source:
* &quot;The Duchess of Devonshire was a dazzling vision, dressed as 'Zenobia,' in a glistening gold gauze gown, elaborately ornamented with suns and discs, wrought in purple and green gems outlined with gold, and having a large diamond as centre. The space between was fluted with fine silver spangles. This robe was open in front over an under dress of white crépe de chine, delicately worked in crystals, and at each side of the opening on the gold robe were large fan-shaped groups of peacock feathers, worked in multicoloured jewels. '''The corsage''' was to correspond, and had a magnificent girdle of jewels, the train of bright green velvet, hung like a fan, without folds, being fastened at each side of the shoulders by diamond brooches, and caught at the waist with a similar ornament. It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet, lotus flowers studded with tinted gems, and other devices in terra-cotta and electric blue velvet — all enriched with gold, diamond, and jewelled embroidery — and lined with pale blue satin. The crown worn with this was high, and of filigree gold, surmounted with two horns, each tipped with a large diamond. It was encrusted with large diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and long chains of pearls fell under the chin and about the head — one magnificent pear-shaped pearl resting on the forehead. Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses.&quot; London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}}
* &quot;The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume, supplied by Worth, of Paris. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels, outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine, hidden with a stomacher of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jewelled belt. A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end, and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls, with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}}
*&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crepe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crepe de chine, hidden with a stomacher of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jeweled belt. A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies with a diamond drop at each curved end and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}}
*&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks’ outspread tails. This opened to show an underdress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train, which was attached to the shoulders by two slender points and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament, was a green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, with four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of real diamonds, rubies and emeralds. Jewelled belt. A gold crown incrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the middle, and round the front festoons of pearls with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;&quot;Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1A–4C ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}}
*According to the article in ''The Graphic'', written by [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] though this caption to the Lafayette photograph seems to have been boilerplate and printed in other places, the Duchess of Devonshire wore a &quot;Skirt of gold tissue, embroidered all over with emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold. This opened to show an underdress of crème crêpe de chine, embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was green velvet, superbly embroidered in Oriental designs. The bodice was composed of gold tissue, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds. A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the middle, and round the front festoons of pearls with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Greville, Violet, Lady. &quot;Devonshire House Ball.&quot; The ''Graphic'' Saturday 10 July 1897: 15 [of 24]: Col. 1a–16, Col. 1c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000057/18970710/019/0015.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}}
*The ''Guernsey Star'' describes first [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire]] and then Louisa, Duchess: &quot;The host himself personated Charles V. of Germany in a costume copied from a celebrated picture by Titian, while the hostess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was tissue of silver in front [sic], wrought with jewels. The over-dress was cloth of gold magnificently wrought with jewels, and Her Grace wore a bandeau of gold round her head, studded with diamonds, turquoise, and emeralds, and surrounded by hanging chains of superb pearls.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle.&quot; The [Guernsey] ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}}
Gossipy newspaper reports before the ball reported on how costumes were being made. For example, according to the Edinburgh ''Evening News'' on 21 June 1897, less than two weeks before the party, &quot;The ball being a fancy dress one, men as well as women will be able in certain characters to wear jewels. The Duchess of Devonshire, who is to appear as Zenobia, is getting her jewels reset after the antique style.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” Edinburgh ''Evening News'' 21 June 1897, Monday: 4 [of 6], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000452/18970621/079/0004.&lt;/ref&gt; While almost all descriptions of her mention her jewels because they were sewn onto the costume itself, these emphasize her jewelry:

* &quot;The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032. &lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 32,  Cols. 1c–2a}}
* &quot;A wonderfully beautiful dress was that which was worn by the Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. It was of golden tissue, sewn with silver paillettes, and jewelled with diamonds and other precious stones. In front there were silk embroideries, in many vivid shades of colour, and here the golden draperies opened to show a petticoat of white crêpe de chine, embroidered with pearls and gold. The short train was of brilliant green velvet, exquisitely embroidered. One of the Duchess of Devonshire’s beautiful diamond and emerald tiaras had been taken to pieces to form a stomacher, the effect of which was dazzling in its brilliancy. Long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels were worn with this beautiful dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}}
* In the article about the ball in the ''Graphic'', [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] says, &quot;The Ducal hostess herself elected to appear as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with lavish magnificence, and wearing a corruscation of jewels which must have eclipsed the state of even the all-subduing majesty the Duchess impersonated.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 16, Col. 1a}}
*The Duchess was dressed &quot;as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, her dress a marvel of soft tissues and exquisite ornament, and her tiara a still greater marvel of the jeweller's art.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} &lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes.&quot; Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 11, 4a}}

== The Duchess and Her Entourage ==
Besides the Duke of Devonshire, the retinue of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire was dressed as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, included her grandson, [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drago Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester]], dressed as a Georgian courtier. According to a single source, the Belfast ''News-Letter''&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; (p. 5, Col. 9a), the rest of her entourage — all in costume — seems to have been made up of the following:

* Four children
* Four trumpeters
* Four fan-bearers

Three newspapers — The Belfast ''News-Letter'', the ''Man of Ross'' and the ''Westminster Gazette'' — say that the Duchess's entourage included three groups: children, trumpeters and fan-bearers. Only the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says that each group had four members. These three sources describe the Duchess's retinue and how the people in it were dressed:

*&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire was dazzingly [sic] magnificent as 'Zenobia,' arrayed in the glistening fabrics and massive jewels in which artists have delighted to depict the Warrior Queen, the costume in this case being specially designed by the clever French artist, M. Comelli, who was also responsible for the splendid attire of the Queen's suite. This was composed of four children in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls; four trumpeters in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel; and four fan-bearers attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold — a gloriously magnificent pageant.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}}
*&quot;The duchess was dressed as Zenobia, in gold cloth, gorgeously embroidered in gold, brilliants, and coloured stones, and opening over an under dress of white crêpe de Chine, worked finely in brilliants. The train of light green velvet was lined with blue, and sumptuously embroidered in jewels and gold, the colouring being particularly artistic. With this dress were worn splendid jewels, and a large horn crown, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. The duchess was attended by a suite of children, trumpeters, and fan-bearers, all picturesquely attired in Assyian [sic] costumes — the whole group being specially designed by M. Comelli.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
*&quot;The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

=== Details of the Costumes in the Entourage ===
The Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) has &quot;receipts&quot; or invoices that functioned as receipts for several commercial concerns that were involved in making costumes or accessories for costumes for this ball. They are the following:

* [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli]]
* [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#B. Burnet &amp; Co.|B. Burnet &amp; Co.]]
* [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller|Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller]]
* Liberty &amp; Co.
* Lafayette, Ltd.
* Goldsmith, Pearl &amp; Diamond Merchant, &amp; Silversmith
This list of commercial concerns almost certainly cannot be the complete list of all concerns that contributed to the costumes. These are the only receipts or invoices about expenses for the ball, however, that the Chatsworth Archive contains; similar documents were likely not even kept or were destroyed with other papers not retained at some point in time.

The business concerns listed above were specialized and likely used for different elements of the costumes. As a theatrical designer, Comelli would have depended on the suppliers he knew and arranged with them for the construction of these costumes.

The Chatsworth Archive calls these documents ''receipts'', which indeed they are because they were returned to Devonshire House as receipts for payment. From our perspective, though, they are invoices that contain specifics about what was used to make the costumes. The analysis of these invoices has led to an understanding of what the people who attended the Duchess in her entourage wore and a clearer sense, perhaps, of how many people walked in that entourage. This analysis is based on the items listed on the invoices and their pricing, most of which is included in the section for each invoice, below.

It is not always clear in the invoices which or how many costumes are being described. If each group contained four members (as the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;(p. 5, Col. 9a)), then other suppliers must have made some of these costumes or other invoices and receipts from these businesses must have existed at that time. The invoices, however, suggest that the Belfast ''News-Letter'' may have been wrong about the number of people in each group, which seem to have contained two rather than four members.

'''[Collier discussion?]'''

Besides providing welcome detail about the costumes of the people in the Duchess's entourage, which is available nowhere else, these invoices also raise at least as many questions as they answer.  

==== M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli ====

==== B. Burnet &amp; Co. ====
An invoice and receipt from B. Burnet &amp; Co., held in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire, has specific information about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories purchased for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;B. Burnet &amp; Co. to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 2 and 6 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).&lt;/ref&gt;

Besides itemizing some costume or accessory elements that seem clearly to be for the groups, the invoice also lists items not easy to associate with particular costumes, like the following:

* 12 yards of White silk fringe 8in deep&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back left}}
* 12 1/2 yards of &quot;wht cloth&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back left}}
* 9 yards of &quot;Selesia&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back left}}
* 2 yards of Canvas&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back right}}
* 4 Tan Wool Tights&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back right}}
* 2 Tan Boys Tights&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back right}}

At this time, we are not sure which costumes these elements were used for. Possibly the white silk fringe and the white cloth would have been used to construct the robes for the children and trumpeters in the entourage.

The number of tights suggests that the six costumes on this invoice all included tights. With other elements of the trumpeters' costumes, the Burnet invoice also lists &quot;6 prs Assyrian Buskins.&quot; Probably, to a late Victorian, buskins would have been &quot;defensive leggings&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Demmin, Auguste. An illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. George Bell, 1894. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ: 106.&lt;/ref&gt; laced together and covering the lower leg and often feet of a soldier. To a clothing and military historian, buskins (or greaves) were worn by people in a number of cultures over millennia and varied widely in style and construction. Buskins appear in Assyrian art held at the time by the British Museum. Listing six pairs of buskins suggests that every costume in the Duchess's entrourage included buskins, possibly worn over the tan tights.

The Burnet invoice lists &quot;4 Broad Belts,&quot; which may have held &quot;4 Skins Fleshers.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;(p. 1, front of invoice) (A skin flesher is a kind of knife used to separate the skin from the meat in animals.) If each group included only two members, then perhaps the belts and fleshers were worn not only by the trumpeters but also by the fan-bearers. The Millward invoice (specifics in the section on the Millward invoice below) lists &quot;8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts'&quot; with a drawing of an upright rectangle with a circle in the middle, which might have been a jewel. Double lines around the rectangle suggest that the plaques were not flat or the metal was not thin. The drawing does not give any ideas about how the plaques were attached to the belts, if they were. It is impossible to tell if the plaques were attached to the &quot;4 Broad Belts&quot; (likely for the trumpeters and fan-bearers), but unless they were quite tiny, &quot;8 Doz 'Plaques'&quot; would be far too many for the belts of only the two children.
A different hand, probably &quot;[L.??] L. Collier,&quot; wrote the following sentence at the end of the invoice and receipt, above the postmark:&lt;blockquote&gt;All the above named articles were used for the six [?] dresses made for the Devonshire Ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;(back right)&lt;/blockquote&gt;This same hand, signing what is possibly &quot;Floyd Collier,&quot; also signed the postmark of the Comelli invoice and receipt. On the Burnet document, this writer, possibly an assistant or employee of the Duchess of Devonshire, says that &quot;six dresses&quot; were made (if in fact, that word is ''six''). (No &quot;Collier&quot; is listed among the staff or servants of the Duke of Devonshire at the end of the 19th century.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Servants A-H.&quot; ''Historic Servants and Staff. Servants and Staff Database''. Retrieved 18 July 2022 https://www.chatsworth.org/media/11528/servants-a-h.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

The invoice appears to itemize materials used for six costumes: two children, two trumpeters and two fan-bearers.

==== Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller ====
An invoice and request for payment from Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, held in the Archives of Chatsworth House, has more specifics about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;Memorandum. Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 1 July 1897; date of request for payment(?) 27 August 1897. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).&lt;/ref&gt; This invoice lists the following, which could have been used in any of the costumes for the entourage:

* 8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts [discussed with the belts in the section on the Burnet invoice, above]
* 4 Large Armlets
* 4 Bracelets
* 8 Armlets&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;(2, back)

Because Millward was a Theatrical Jeweller, it seems likely that most (if not all) of the items listed on the invoice were made of metal and the jewels mentioned were artificial, made of glass or paste.

Other items on the invoice seem to belong to the costumes of the trumpeters, which the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says included helmets:

* 2 Helmets
* 2 Centre pieces

The Millward invoice shows tiny line drawings next to the words ''2 Helmets'' and ''2 Centre pieces''. These drawings suggest that the Centre pieces were attached to the helmets rather than being anything that would have been put on a table as decoration.

Other items seem to belong to the costumes of the fan-bearers:

* 2 Pearl &amp; Gold Headdresses
* 2 Fan properties with Feathers

The &quot;Pearl &amp; Gold Headdresses&quot; were likely the &quot;jewelled diadems&quot; mentioned in the Belfast ''News-Letter''. The &quot;Fan properties with Feathers&quot; are likely to have been the &quot;long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold&quot; mentioned in the newspaper report.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;(p. 5, Col. 9a)

At the end of the Millward invoice, a &quot;reduction as agreed with M [Mr?] Commelli [sic]&quot; of £1 10''s'' is subtracted from a total of £22 3''s''. No reason for this reduction is given.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;(2, back)

==== Details for the Children in the Entourage ====
According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four children were &quot;in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for &quot;White Cloth Dresses&quot;:&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 2, back left of invoice}}

* &quot;2 Terra Gown draperies with Stars 200 in all&quot;
* &quot;2 Cloth fronts embroidered with Square Medallions down centre&quot;
* &quot;2 do do [ditto ditto, that is, cloth fronts] embroidered double border down front each side and collar&quot;
* &quot;4 Sleeves embroidered Small Medallions&quot;

The Burnet &amp; Co. invoice lists 6 yards of &quot;Terra&quot; Silk Fringe, which perhaps was used to trim the &quot;terra draperies,&quot;  or shawls, made from 3 1/4 yards of &quot;Light Terra Satinette&quot; worn by the children?

==== Details for the Trumpeters in the Entourage ====
According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four trumpeters were &quot;in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} The trumpeters appear to have been dressed as soldiers or military men.

According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the trumpeters' costumes:&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}}

* 7 '''units (yards?)''' of purple silk [probably used for shawls]
* &quot;2 skirt fronts with border alround [sic]&quot;
* &quot;2 sets of Leather Cuarasses [sic] Embroidered front &amp; back&quot;
* &quot;4 Sleeves embroidered loop stitch&quot;

The Millward invoice lists

* 2 Helmets
* 2 Centre Pieces [probably for helmets rather than table decorations]

==== Details for the Fan-bearers in the Entourage ====
According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four fan-bearers were &quot;attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the fan bearers's costumes:&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pp. 1–2, front and left-back of invoice}} 

* &quot;Embroidering 2 Crimson draperies with Stars 334 in all&quot;
* &quot;2 Top [?] fronts embroidered &amp; round necks&quot;
* &quot;4 Sleeves embroidered long stitch&quot;The Millward invoice lists

* 2 Pearl &amp; Gold Headdresses
* 2 Fan properties with Feathers&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;(2, back)

The Burnet &amp; Co. invoice lists 12 yards of &quot;Red Silk Fringe,&quot; which perhaps was used to trim the &quot;crimson shawls&quot; or &quot;Crimson draperies,&quot; which may have been made from the 5 yards of &quot;Red Satinette.&quot; Again, this list suggests two rather than four costumes.

=== The Historical Zenobia ===
Zenobia (240 – c. 274) was queen of the Syrian Palmyrene Empire, ruling as regent for her son after her husband's assassination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-03|title=Zenobia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&amp;oldid=1086005949|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia.&lt;/ref&gt; She was the subject of much art in the 19th century, including literature, opera, sculpture, and paintings. Middle-eastern traveller Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) discussed Zenobia in her memoirs, published in 1847.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-07|title=Lady Hester Stanhope|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Hester_Stanhope&amp;oldid=1075838273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Demographics ==
*Nationality: born in Hanover, in what is now Germany&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&amp;oldid=969824214|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Residences ===

==== As Duchess of Manchester ====
*Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire
*Manchester House, London

==== As Duchess of Devonshire ====
*Devonshire House, London (mid-April until mid-July, for the Season)
*Compton Place, Eastbourne (mid-July until 12 August&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
*Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (12 August until the middle of September&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
*Chatsworth, Derbyshire (middle of September until early Spring&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
*Lismore Castle, County Waterford (early Spring until the middle of April&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
== Family ==
*Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester (15 October 1823 – 22 March 1890)&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-07|title=William Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_7th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=977197445|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#George Victor Drogo Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)
#Mary Louise [Louisa?] Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton Forster (27 December 1854 – 10 February 1934)
#Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu Acheson (c. 1856 – 3 March 1944)
#Charles William Augustus Montagu (23 November 1860 – 10 November 1939)
#Alice Maude Olivia Montagu Stanley (15 August 1862 – 23 July 1957)
*[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908)

== Notes and Questions ==
#As Duchess of Manchester Luise was not invited to the wedding between Bertie and Alix, Victoria's punishment for Luise's having gotten the Duke of Derby to promise her the position of Mistress of the Robes (and then exacting that promise).&lt;ref&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|pp. 47–48}}
#&quot;As a young woman she was extremely beautiful; Princess Catherine Radziwill saw her at a reception given by the Empress of Germany and recalls on being introduced to her 'how she struck me as the loveliest creature I had ever set eyes upon. Indeed I have only met three women in my whole existence who could be compared to her.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 21}}

== Footnotes ==
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      <text bytes="42041" xml:space="preserve">== Also Known As ==
*Louise, Duchess of Devonshire
*Louisa, Duchess of Manchester
*Luise Friederike August Gräfin von Alten
*Louisa Montagu
*Louise Cavendish
*The Double Duchess
== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==
=== Friends ===
*[[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (beginning about 1852)
*[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], Lord Hartington (later 8th Duke of Devonshire)
*Daisy, Lady Warwick
*Lady Mayoress, Mrs. Benjamin Samuel Faudel-Phillips, 2nd Baronet,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-25|title=Faudel-Phillips baronets|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faudel-Phillips_baronets&amp;oldid=974879290|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;&quot;The Queen's Drawing Room&quot; ''Morning Post'' 25 February 1897 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 5a–7b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970225/047/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}}
*Mrs. J. E. Mellor, presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}}
=== Enemies ===
* Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough (at least, in 1901)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick &amp; Jackson, 1984.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|pp. 31–32}}
== Organizations ==

== Timeline ==
'''1852 July 22''', Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten and William Drogo Montagu married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1863, early, or late 1862''', Louise and Spencer Compton Cavendish began a relationship.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 26}}

'''1873 December 10''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu (daughter) and William Douglas-Hamilton married.

'''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and George Victor Drogo Montagu (son) married in Grace Church, New York City.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-24|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=974659520|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=969888488|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1876 August 10''', Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu (daughter) and Archibald Acheson married.

'''1889 January 5''', Alice Maude Olivia Montagu (daughter) and Edward Stanley married.

'''1890 March 22''', William Drogo Montagu (7th Duke) died.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10128.htm#i101274|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (grandson) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Helena Zimmerman.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p34555.htm#i345545|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1892 August 16''', Louise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu and Spencer Compton Cavendish, her second husband, married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise Cavendish (#18 on the list of attendees) hosted her famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball| fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London.

'''1897 July 20''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton and Robert Carnaby Foster married.

'''1900 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu and Helena Zimmerman married.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-17|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&amp;oldid=968067371|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1901 Spring''', Paris, Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, describes a meeting with Louise Cavendish in the spring following Queen Victoria's death at the horse racetrack, Longchamps:&lt;blockquote&gt;A renowned character and virtually dictator of what was known as the fast set as opposed to the Victorian, Her Grace was a German aristocrat by birth. She had first been married to the impoverished Duke of Manchester, and when he died had improved her status by marriage to the rich Duke of Devonshire, who waged an undisputed influence in politics. Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash and from it, when she saw me, issued a stream of abuse. How could I, she complained, pointing to my white gloves, show so little respect to the memory of a great Queen? What a carefree world we must have lived in, that etiquette even in such small matters could assume so much importance?&lt;ref&gt;Balsan, Consuelo Vanderbilt. ''The Glitter and the Gold: The American Duchess — In Her Own Words''. New York: St. Martin's, 1953.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 115}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Annual Events ===
Every year, as Duchess of Devonshire, Louise held a dance on the night after the Derby at Epsom Downs, which at this point was held on Wednesdays after Easter.

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==
[[File:Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.jpg|thumb|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|alt=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in costume as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra]]

At their fancy-dress ball, Louisa, Duchess of Devonshire sat at Table 1 during the first seating for supper, escorted in to the table by the Prince of Wales.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}}

Her costume was designed by M. Comelli (Attillo Giuseppe Comelli, 1858–1925, artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT207&amp;lpg=PT207&amp;dq=Attilio+Comelli&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=lFB0If7CwV&amp;sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&amp;q=Attilio%20Comelli&amp;f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.&lt;/ref&gt;)&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram.&quot; ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;&quot;By One Who Was There.&quot; “The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.&lt;/ref&gt; and constructed by the House of Worth. Comelli seems to have designed [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|the costumes of her retinue as well]]. According to Russell Harris,&lt;blockquote&gt;For her costume, the Duchess commissioned Monsieur Comelli (1858-1925), a well-known designer of opera costumes for the London theatre and opera stage, and then had the design made up by Worth of Paris. ''Munsey’s Magazine'' noted “it is safe to say that the Queen of Palmyra never owned such a sumptuous costume in her lifetime.”&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html|title=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, née Countess von Alten of Hanover (1832-1911), as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2022-05-05}} ''Narrated in Calm Prose: Photographs from the V&amp;A's Lafayette Archive of Guests in Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Ball, July 1897''. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Lafayette's portrait of &quot;Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester)&quot; in costume is photogravure #5 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker &amp; Boutall after various photographers.&quot; 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.&lt;/ref&gt; The printing on the portrait says, &quot;The Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia Queen of Palmyra,&quot; with a Long S in ''Duchess''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.&quot; Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158357/Louise-Frederica-Augusta-Cavendish-ne-von-Alten-Duchess-of-Devonshire-formerly-Duchess-of-Manchester-as-Zenobia-Queen-of-Palmyra.&lt;/ref&gt; Often, the V&amp;A Lafayette Archive contains more than one portrait of a sitter for this ball, but the uncropped portrait (above right), which shows the unfinished end of the balustrade in front of the Duchess and the edge of the painted flat behind it, seems to have been the only portrait taken by Lafayette of the Duchess in costume. The copy owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London and the copy included in the album are cropped so that those unfinished edges do not show, but they appear to be from the same photograph.

=== Newspaper Descriptions of the Duchess's Costume ===
These almost exactly identical descriptions suggest [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]] or a shared primary source:
* &quot;The Duchess of Devonshire was a dazzling vision, dressed as 'Zenobia,' in a glistening gold gauze gown, elaborately ornamented with suns and discs, wrought in purple and green gems outlined with gold, and having a large diamond as centre. The space between was fluted with fine silver spangles. This robe was open in front over an under dress of white crépe de chine, delicately worked in crystals, and at each side of the opening on the gold robe were large fan-shaped groups of peacock feathers, worked in multicoloured jewels. '''The corsage''' was to correspond, and had a magnificent girdle of jewels, the train of bright green velvet, hung like a fan, without folds, being fastened at each side of the shoulders by diamond brooches, and caught at the waist with a similar ornament. It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet, lotus flowers studded with tinted gems, and other devices in terra-cotta and electric blue velvet — all enriched with gold, diamond, and jewelled embroidery — and lined with pale blue satin. The crown worn with this was high, and of filigree gold, surmounted with two horns, each tipped with a large diamond. It was encrusted with large diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and long chains of pearls fell under the chin and about the head — one magnificent pear-shaped pearl resting on the forehead. Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses.&quot; London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}}
* &quot;The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume, supplied by Worth, of Paris. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels, outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine, hidden with a stomacher of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jewelled belt. A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end, and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls, with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}}
*&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crepe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crepe de chine, hidden with a stomacher of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jeweled belt. A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies with a diamond drop at each curved end and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}}
*&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks’ outspread tails. This opened to show an underdress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train, which was attached to the shoulders by two slender points and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament, was a green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, with four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of real diamonds, rubies and emeralds. Jewelled belt. A gold crown incrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the middle, and round the front festoons of pearls with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;&quot;Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1A–4C ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}}
*According to the article in ''The Graphic'', written by [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] though this caption to the Lafayette photograph seems to have been boilerplate and printed in other places, the Duchess of Devonshire wore a &quot;Skirt of gold tissue, embroidered all over with emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold. This opened to show an underdress of crème crêpe de chine, embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was green velvet, superbly embroidered in Oriental designs. The bodice was composed of gold tissue, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds. A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the middle, and round the front festoons of pearls with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Greville, Violet, Lady. &quot;Devonshire House Ball.&quot; The ''Graphic'' Saturday 10 July 1897: 15 [of 24]: Col. 1a–16, Col. 1c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000057/18970710/019/0015.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}}
*The ''Guernsey Star'' describes first [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire]] and then Louisa, Duchess: &quot;The host himself personated Charles V. of Germany in a costume copied from a celebrated picture by Titian, while the hostess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was tissue of silver in front [sic], wrought with jewels. The over-dress was cloth of gold magnificently wrought with jewels, and Her Grace wore a bandeau of gold round her head, studded with diamonds, turquoise, and emeralds, and surrounded by hanging chains of superb pearls.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle.&quot; The [Guernsey] ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}}
Gossipy newspaper reports before the ball reported on how costumes were being made. For example, according to the Edinburgh ''Evening News'' on 21 June 1897, less than two weeks before the party, &quot;The ball being a fancy dress one, men as well as women will be able in certain characters to wear jewels. The Duchess of Devonshire, who is to appear as Zenobia, is getting her jewels reset after the antique style.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” Edinburgh ''Evening News'' 21 June 1897, Monday: 4 [of 6], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000452/18970621/079/0004.&lt;/ref&gt; While almost all descriptions of her mention her jewels because they were sewn onto the costume itself, these emphasize her jewelry:

* &quot;The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032. &lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 32,  Cols. 1c–2a}}
* &quot;A wonderfully beautiful dress was that which was worn by the Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. It was of golden tissue, sewn with silver paillettes, and jewelled with diamonds and other precious stones. In front there were silk embroideries, in many vivid shades of colour, and here the golden draperies opened to show a petticoat of white crêpe de chine, embroidered with pearls and gold. The short train was of brilliant green velvet, exquisitely embroidered. One of the Duchess of Devonshire’s beautiful diamond and emerald tiaras had been taken to pieces to form a stomacher, the effect of which was dazzling in its brilliancy. Long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels were worn with this beautiful dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}}
* In the article about the ball in the ''Graphic'', [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] says, &quot;The Ducal hostess herself elected to appear as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with lavish magnificence, and wearing a corruscation of jewels which must have eclipsed the state of even the all-subduing majesty the Duchess impersonated.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 16, Col. 1a}}
*The Duchess was dressed &quot;as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, her dress a marvel of soft tissues and exquisite ornament, and her tiara a still greater marvel of the jeweller's art.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} &lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes.&quot; Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 11, 4a}}

== The Duchess and Her Entourage ==
Besides the Duke of Devonshire, the retinue of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire was dressed as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, included her grandson, [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drago Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester]], dressed as a Georgian courtier. According to a single source, the Belfast ''News-Letter''&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; (p. 5, Col. 9a), the rest of her entourage — all in costume — seems to have been made up of the following:

* Four children
* Four trumpeters
* Four fan-bearers

Three newspapers — The Belfast ''News-Letter'', the ''Man of Ross'' and the ''Westminster Gazette'' — say that the Duchess's entourage included three groups: children, trumpeters and fan-bearers. Only the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says that each group had four members. These three sources describe the Duchess's retinue and how the people in it were dressed:

*&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire was dazzingly [sic] magnificent as 'Zenobia,' arrayed in the glistening fabrics and massive jewels in which artists have delighted to depict the Warrior Queen, the costume in this case being specially designed by the clever French artist, M. Comelli, who was also responsible for the splendid attire of the Queen's suite. This was composed of four children in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls; four trumpeters in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel; and four fan-bearers attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold — a gloriously magnificent pageant.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}}
*&quot;The duchess was dressed as Zenobia, in gold cloth, gorgeously embroidered in gold, brilliants, and coloured stones, and opening over an under dress of white crêpe de Chine, worked finely in brilliants. The train of light green velvet was lined with blue, and sumptuously embroidered in jewels and gold, the colouring being particularly artistic. With this dress were worn splendid jewels, and a large horn crown, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. The duchess was attended by a suite of children, trumpeters, and fan-bearers, all picturesquely attired in Assyian [sic] costumes — the whole group being specially designed by M. Comelli.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
*&quot;The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

=== Details of the Costumes in the Entourage ===
The Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) has &quot;receipts&quot; or invoices that functioned as receipts for several commercial concerns that were involved in making costumes or accessories for costumes for this ball. They are the following:

* [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli]]
* [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#B. Burnet &amp; Co.|B. Burnet &amp; Co.]]
* [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller|Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller]]
* Liberty &amp; Co.
* Lafayette, Ltd.
* Goldsmith, Pearl &amp; Diamond Merchant, &amp; Silversmith
This list of commercial concerns almost certainly cannot be the complete list of all concerns that contributed to the costumes. These are the only receipts or invoices about expenses for the ball, however, that the Chatsworth Archive contains; similar documents were likely not even kept or were destroyed with other papers not retained at some point in time.

The business concerns listed above were specialized and likely used for different elements of the costumes. As a theatrical designer, Comelli would have depended on the suppliers he knew and arranged with them for the construction of these costumes.

The Chatsworth Archive calls these documents ''receipts'', which indeed they are because they were returned to Devonshire House as receipts for payment. From our perspective, though, they are invoices that contain specifics about what was used to make the costumes. The analysis of these invoices has led to an understanding of what the people who attended the Duchess in her entourage wore and a clearer sense, perhaps, of how many people walked in that entourage. This analysis is based on the items listed on the invoices and their pricing, most of which is included in the section for each invoice, below.

It is not always clear in the invoices which or how many costumes are being described. If each group contained four members (as the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;(p. 5, Col. 9a)), then other suppliers must have made some of these costumes or other invoices and receipts from these businesses must have existed at that time. The invoices, however, suggest that the Belfast ''News-Letter'' may have been wrong about the number of people in each group, which seem to have contained two rather than four members.

'''[Collier discussion?]'''

Besides providing welcome detail about the costumes of the people in the Duchess's entourage, which is available nowhere else, these invoices also raise at least as many questions as they answer.  

==== M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli ====
Attillo Giuseppe Comelli was a designer for opera, ballet and theatre in Europe, the UK and North America.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; The receipt in the Chatsworth Archive was sent from Covent Garden. The invoice lists £4 for &quot;Making six costumes,&quot; 3''s'' for &quot;Extras&quot; and 12s for &quot;Cab fares for men paid by the request of M. Comelli.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;M. Comelli, Covent Garden, to Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 13 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).&lt;/ref&gt;

Three other names are on this invoice and receipt:

* L. L[?] Collier [?], written under and perhaps as part of the direction to the Duchess of Devonshire
* Mr. Strong (&quot;Forwarded to Mr Strong. [sic] by the instructions of M. Comelli,&quot; written in the same hand as wrote the majority of the memo)
* Floyd [?] Collier [??] (&quot;Received with Thanks,&quot; presumably thanking for the payment, in a different hand)

==== B. Burnet &amp; Co. ====
An invoice and receipt from B. Burnet &amp; Co., held in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire, has specific information about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories purchased for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;B. Burnet &amp; Co. to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 2 and 6 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).&lt;/ref&gt;

Besides itemizing some costume or accessory elements that seem clearly to be for the groups, the invoice also lists items not easy to associate with particular costumes, like the following:

* 12 yards of White silk fringe 8in deep&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back left}}
* 12 1/2 yards of &quot;wht cloth&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back left}}
* 9 yards of &quot;Selesia&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back left}}
* 2 yards of Canvas&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back right}}
* 4 Tan Wool Tights&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back right}}
* 2 Tan Boys Tights&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|back right}}

At this time, we are not sure which costumes these elements were used for. Possibly the white silk fringe and the white cloth would have been used to construct the robes for the children and trumpeters in the entourage.

The number of tights suggests that the six costumes on this invoice all included tights. With other elements of the trumpeters' costumes, the Burnet invoice also lists &quot;6 prs Assyrian Buskins.&quot; Probably, to a late Victorian, buskins would have been &quot;defensive leggings&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Demmin, Auguste. An illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. George Bell, 1894. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ: 106.&lt;/ref&gt; laced together and covering the lower leg and often feet of a soldier. To a clothing and military historian, buskins (or greaves) were worn by people in a number of cultures over millennia and varied widely in style and construction. Buskins appear in Assyrian art held at the time by the British Museum. Listing six pairs of buskins suggests that every costume in the Duchess's entrourage included buskins, possibly worn over the tan tights.

The Burnet invoice lists &quot;4 Broad Belts,&quot; which may have held &quot;4 Skins Fleshers.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;(p. 1, front of invoice) (A skin flesher is a kind of knife used to separate the skin from the meat in animals.) If each group included only two members, then perhaps the belts and fleshers were worn not only by the trumpeters but also by the fan-bearers. The Millward invoice (specifics in the section on the Millward invoice below) lists &quot;8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts'&quot; with a drawing of an upright rectangle with a circle in the middle, which might have been a jewel. Double lines around the rectangle suggest that the plaques were not flat or the metal was not thin. The drawing does not give any ideas about how the plaques were attached to the belts, if they were. It is impossible to tell if the plaques were attached to the &quot;4 Broad Belts&quot; (likely for the trumpeters and fan-bearers), but unless they were quite tiny, &quot;8 Doz 'Plaques'&quot; would be far too many for the belts of only the two children.
A different hand, probably &quot;[L.??] L. Collier,&quot; wrote the following sentence at the end of the invoice and receipt, above the postmark:&lt;blockquote&gt;All the above named articles were used for the six [?] dresses made for the Devonshire Ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;(back right)&lt;/blockquote&gt;This same hand, signing what is possibly &quot;Floyd Collier,&quot; also signed the postmark of the Comelli invoice and receipt. On the Burnet document, this writer, possibly an assistant or employee of the Duchess of Devonshire, says that &quot;six dresses&quot; were made (if in fact, that word is ''six''). (No &quot;Collier&quot; is listed among the staff or servants of the Duke of Devonshire at the end of the 19th century.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Servants A-H.&quot; ''Historic Servants and Staff. Servants and Staff Database''. Retrieved 18 July 2022 https://www.chatsworth.org/media/11528/servants-a-h.pdf.&lt;/ref&gt;

The invoice appears to itemize materials used for six costumes: two children, two trumpeters and two fan-bearers.

==== Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller ====
An invoice and request for payment from Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, held in the Archives of Chatsworth House, has more specifics about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;Memorandum. Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 1 July 1897; date of request for payment(?) 27 August 1897. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).&lt;/ref&gt; This invoice lists the following, which could have been used in any of the costumes for the entourage:

* 8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts [discussed with the belts in the section on the Burnet invoice, above]
* 4 Large Armlets
* 4 Bracelets
* 8 Armlets&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;(2, back)

Because Millward was a Theatrical Jeweller, it seems likely that most (if not all) of the items listed on the invoice were made of metal and the jewels mentioned were artificial, made of glass or paste.

Other items on the invoice seem to belong to the costumes of the trumpeters, which the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says included helmets:

* 2 Helmets
* 2 Centre pieces

The Millward invoice shows tiny line drawings next to the words ''2 Helmets'' and ''2 Centre pieces''. These drawings suggest that the Centre pieces were attached to the helmets rather than being anything that would have been put on a table as decoration.

Other items seem to belong to the costumes of the fan-bearers:

* 2 Pearl &amp; Gold Headdresses
* 2 Fan properties with Feathers

The &quot;Pearl &amp; Gold Headdresses&quot; were likely the &quot;jewelled diadems&quot; mentioned in the Belfast ''News-Letter''. The &quot;Fan properties with Feathers&quot; are likely to have been the &quot;long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold&quot; mentioned in the newspaper report.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;(p. 5, Col. 9a)

At the end of the Millward invoice, a &quot;reduction as agreed with M [Mr?] Commelli [sic]&quot; of £1 10''s'' is subtracted from a total of £22 3''s''. No reason for this reduction is given.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;(2, back)

==== Details for the Children in the Entourage ====
According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four children were &quot;in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for &quot;White Cloth Dresses&quot;:&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 2, back left of invoice}}

* &quot;2 Terra Gown draperies with Stars 200 in all&quot;
* &quot;2 Cloth fronts embroidered with Square Medallions down centre&quot;
* &quot;2 do do [ditto ditto, that is, cloth fronts] embroidered double border down front each side and collar&quot;
* &quot;4 Sleeves embroidered Small Medallions&quot;

The Burnet &amp; Co. invoice lists 6 yards of &quot;Terra&quot; Silk Fringe, which perhaps was used to trim the &quot;terra draperies,&quot;  or shawls, made from 3 1/4 yards of &quot;Light Terra Satinette&quot; worn by the children?

==== Details for the Trumpeters in the Entourage ====
According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four trumpeters were &quot;in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} The trumpeters appear to have been dressed as soldiers or military men.

According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the trumpeters' costumes:&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}}

* 7 '''units (yards?)''' of purple silk [probably used for shawls]
* &quot;2 skirt fronts with border alround [sic]&quot;
* &quot;2 sets of Leather Cuarasses [sic] Embroidered front &amp; back&quot;
* &quot;4 Sleeves embroidered loop stitch&quot;

The Millward invoice lists

* 2 Helmets
* 2 Centre Pieces [probably for helmets rather than table decorations]

==== Details for the Fan-bearers in the Entourage ====
According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four fan-bearers were &quot;attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the fan bearers's costumes:&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|pp. 1–2, front and left-back of invoice}} 

* &quot;Embroidering 2 Crimson draperies with Stars 334 in all&quot;
* &quot;2 Top [?] fronts embroidered &amp; round necks&quot;
* &quot;4 Sleeves embroidered long stitch&quot;The Millward invoice lists

* 2 Pearl &amp; Gold Headdresses
* 2 Fan properties with Feathers&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;(2, back)

The Burnet &amp; Co. invoice lists 12 yards of &quot;Red Silk Fringe,&quot; which perhaps was used to trim the &quot;crimson shawls&quot; or &quot;Crimson draperies,&quot; which may have been made from the 5 yards of &quot;Red Satinette.&quot; Again, this list suggests two rather than four costumes.

=== The Historical Zenobia ===
Zenobia (240 – c. 274) was queen of the Syrian Palmyrene Empire, ruling as regent for her son after her husband's assassination.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-03|title=Zenobia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&amp;oldid=1086005949|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia.&lt;/ref&gt; She was the subject of much art in the 19th century, including literature, opera, sculpture, and paintings. Middle-eastern traveller Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) discussed Zenobia in her memoirs, published in 1847.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-07|title=Lady Hester Stanhope|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Hester_Stanhope&amp;oldid=1075838273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Demographics ==
*Nationality: born in Hanover, in what is now Germany&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&amp;oldid=969824214|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Residences ===

==== As Duchess of Manchester ====
*Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire
*Manchester House, London

==== As Duchess of Devonshire ====
*Devonshire House, London (mid-April until mid-July, for the Season)
*Compton Place, Eastbourne (mid-July until 12 August&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
*Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (12 August until the middle of September&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
*Chatsworth, Derbyshire (middle of September until early Spring&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
*Lismore Castle, County Waterford (early Spring until the middle of April&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 32}})
== Family ==
*Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester (15 October 1823 – 22 March 1890)&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-07|title=William Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_7th_Duke_of_Manchester&amp;oldid=977197445|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#George Victor Drogo Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)
#Mary Louise [Louisa?] Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton Forster (27 December 1854 – 10 February 1934)
#Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu Acheson (c. 1856 – 3 March 1944)
#Charles William Augustus Montagu (23 November 1860 – 10 November 1939)
#Alice Maude Olivia Montagu Stanley (15 August 1862 – 23 July 1957)
*[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908)

== Notes and Questions ==
#As Duchess of Manchester Luise was not invited to the wedding between Bertie and Alix, Victoria's punishment for Luise's having gotten the Duke of Derby to promise her the position of Mistress of the Robes (and then exacting that promise).&lt;ref&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|pp. 47–48}}
#&quot;As a young woman she was extremely beautiful; Princess Catherine Radziwill saw her at a reception given by the Empress of Germany and recalls on being introduced to her 'how she struck me as the loveliest creature I had ever set eyes upon. Indeed I have only met three women in my whole existence who could be compared to her.'&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 21}}

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}</text>
      <sha1>qpkxdm9391pzvocm4slvh9t96uyqnp3</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative androgen pathways</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>269289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409329</id>
      <parentid>2409056</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T23:50:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maneesh</username>
        <id>2723004</id>
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      <comment>/* 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways */ saving progress</comment>
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      <text bytes="139196" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The most potent 11-oxo androgens are 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

11-Oxygenated androgens were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom at position 11 forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the term &quot;11-keto&quot; for steroids, and favor the term &quot;11-oxo&quot;, because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached to the carbon at position 11, rather than a group with an additional carbon atom, therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by several 3α-oxidoreductases (AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes leading to the production of 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4)  also fall under our definition of the alternative androgen pathways. Broadly, there are 4 steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4, T) with a common 3 step route:  

1) 11β-hydroxylation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;  by CYP11B1/2 (&quot;11OH&quot; used in compound abbreviation)  

2) 5α-reduction of the double bond by SRD5A1/2 and  

3) 3α-reduction of the ketone to an alcohol by AKR1C4 (&quot;11K&quot; used in compound abbreviation) 

The last two transformations are duplicated in a parallel path corresponding to 11-oxo versions of the same intermediates. Transformations between the 11OH and 11K intermediates are all catalyzed by HSD11B2 (oxidation only) and HSD11B1 (reduction and oxidation). Specific transformations across the derivatives of the entry points are catalyzed by AKR1C3 (17-ketosteroid reductase activity) shown in Figure 4.  CYP17A1 also acts on a number of intermediates, mostly on  P4 derivatives to yield the corresponding 17OHP derivative. 

It is clear from Figure 4 that there are multiple routes to compounds with known androgenic activity. The relative importance of the difference catalytic paths is also a matter of debate. 

The relative importance of  the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. 11-oxygenated androgen activity has been shown for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT has been proposed as the primary androgen in women since it has higher circulating concentrations than T and comparable activity and levels do not decline with age.  11OHT has been found circulating in higher concentrations than 11KT.&lt;ref&gt;Personal communication of unpublished results from Amanda Swart.&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated derivatives of A4, i.e. 11OHA4 and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4, also known as adrenosterone), are not considered as active androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=189 |issue= |pages=116–126  |pmid=30825506 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|last1=Gent |first1=R. |last2=Du Toit |first2=T. |last3=Bloem |first3=L. M. |last4=Swart |first4=A. C. |year=2019 |s2cid=73490363 }}&lt;/ref&gt; While T can serve as a precursor for 11-oxygenated androgens, Figure 4 shows that T is not required for KDHT synthesis. 

The primary route to 11KDHT is the one that starts with 11β-hydroxylation of A4:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT → 11KDHT}}

The path from T as an entry point is also contributes to 11KDHT, but to a much lesser extent:{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}

Routes to 11KDHT with P4 or 17-OHP as entry points are only believed to occur under specific conditions such as CYP21A2 deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The two isozymes in the adrenal glad catalyse the production 11OHA4 from A4&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Haru | first1=Shibusawa | last2=Yumiko | first2=Sano | last3=Shoichi | first3=Okinaga | last4=Kiyoshi | first4=Arai | title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland | journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=13 | issue=8 | year=1980 | issn=0022-4731 | doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2 | pages=881–887| pmid=6970302 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt; and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) from T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt; These isozymes also catalyse the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes: 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone and 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt; and 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (21dF, since it is also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone and 21-deoxycortisol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

The production of 11KA4 and 11KT takes place in the periphery and the a lesser extent in the adrenal gland. These 11-oxygenated androgens may be converted by 5α-reductase which catalyses the production of 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione) and 11KDHT following a pathway similar to that of the canonical androgen steroidogenesis pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25542845&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11β-Hydroxyandrostenedione: Downstream metabolism by 11βHSD, 17βHSD and SRD5A produces novel substrates in familiar pathways |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=408 |issue= |pages=114–23  |pmid=25542845 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2014.12.009|last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Storbeck |first2=Karl-Heinz |year=2015 |s2cid=23860408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The predominant route in normal conditions consists of conversion of A4 to 11OHA4, then to 11KA4, and then to 11KT:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The initial 11β-hydroxylation of A4 and T to (respectively) 11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) via CYP11B1 and CYP11B2.  11OHA4 and 11OHT can then be converted (via HSD11B2) to their 11-oxo forms, 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (11KA4, since it is also known as 11-ketoandrostenedione) and 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione (11KT, since it is also known as 11-ketotestosterone). These four 11-oxygenated androgens, 11OHA4, 11OHT 11KA4, and 11KT can be ultimately converted to 11KDHT following the same metabolic route of A4 and T, however, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather then 11KDHT: at least in prostate cancer 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue |journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal |volume=164 |issue= |pages=642–652 |year=2019 |pmid=30472582 |doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035 |last1=Häkkinen |first1=Merja R. |last2=Murtola |first2=Teemu |last3=Voutilainen |first3=Raimo |last4=Poutanen |first4=Matti |last5=Linnanen |first5=Tero |last6=Koskivuori |first6=Johanna |last7=Lakka |first7=Timo |last8=Jääskeläinen |first8=Jarmo |last9=Auriola |first9=Seppo |s2cid=53729550 }}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD11B1 can catalyze the  reverse reaction of 11-oxo androgens back to the 11-hydroxy androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

Each of 11OHA4, 11KA4, 11OHT and 11KT can be reduced (via SRD5A1 and SRD5A2) 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (11OH-5αdione), 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione), 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one (11OHDHT, since it is also known as 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone) and 11KDHT, respectively. 

11OH-5αdione, 11K-5αdione, 11OHDHT and 11KDHT can be converted to the inactive forms of these 11-oxygenated androgens, 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (11OHAST, since it also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone), 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (11KAST, since it is also known as 11-ketoandrosterone), 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol (11OH-3αdiol) and 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one (11K-3αdiol) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 and AKR1C4.

These 11-oxygenated androgens are also converted by HSD17B3, AKR1C3 and by HSD17B2. The steroids 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST can be converted to 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol, respectively by HSD17B3 and AKR1C3. Given that the adrenal produces significantly more 11OHA4 than 11OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; it is much more likely that the majority of 11KT is produced as follows: 11OHA4 is converted to 11KA4 by HSD11B2; 11KA4 is then converted to 11KT by AKR1C3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; 11OHA4, 11OHAST and 11OH-5αdione are not converted to 11OHT, 11OHDHT or 11OH-3αdiol as these 11-hydroxy androgens and not substrates for HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. However, HSD17B2 converts 11OHT and 11OHDHT to 11OHA4 and 11OH-5αdione, respectively. HSD17B2 also converts 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol back to 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST. To be specific, given that 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt;, it requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2 before it can be further converted to potent androgens such as 11KT.

These complex pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from 11OHA4 and 11OHT set out above have been previously described in a 2021 review by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;/&gt; based on earlier ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; 

The reactions mentioned above can be outlined as shown in Figure 4.

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The 11β-hydroxylation of P4 yields 11β-hydroxyprogesterone (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;, and that of 17-OHP converted to 21-deoxycortisol (21dF)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt; — in both cases, by CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 respectively.

The 11-hydroxylated pregnanes, 11OHP4 and 21dF, catalysed by the CYP11B isozymes also require HSD11B2 in the production of the 11-oxo forms: 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketoprogesterone (11KP4)) and 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as 21-deoxycortisone (21dE)), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;/&gt; 

These four 11-oxygenated pregnanes, 11OHP4, 21dF, 11KP4 and 21dE are ultimately converted to 11KDHT following the same metabolic route of 17-OHP, consisting of five steps: 

The first step of this route is the conversion of 11OHP4, 11KP4, 21dF and 21dE by SRD5A1 and SRD5A2 to 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone (11OHDHP4), 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (11KDHP4, since it is also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone), 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (11OHPdione) and 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (11KPdione).

11OHDHP4, 11KDHP4, 11OHPdione and 11KPdione are then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (3,11diOH-DHP4), 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione known as alfaxalone (ALF), 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one (11OHPdiol) and 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione (11KPdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4).

3,11diOH-DHP4, ALF, 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are then converted to 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (11OHAST) and 5α-androstane-3α-ol-11,17-dione (11KAST) by CYP17A1. In these reactions 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are converted to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids by the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (androgen). In the conversion of 3,11diOH-DHP4 and ALF to androgens, these steroids first undergo the hydroxylase activity and then the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot; /&gt;

11OHAST is first converted to 11KAST by HSD11B2 since is not a substrate for HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 which are the enzymes that take part in the next step in the pathway. 11KAST is now either converted to 11K3α-diol by HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 (also known as AKR1C3) or it may be converted to 11K-5αdione by the 3α-oxidation activity of HSD11B6, depending on enzyme expression levels and steroidogenic tissue.

&lt;nowiki&gt;11KDHT is subsequently biosynthesised from both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one (11K3α-diol) and 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione). 11K3α-diol is converted by HSD11B6 and 11K-5αdione is converted by HSD11B3 and HSD11B5. In addition, 11KDHT can be converted to 11OHDHT by HSD11B1.}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

These pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from progesterone and 21-dF, also elucidated previously by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; in a 2021 review, can be outlined as shown on Figure 4.

The order of steps in metabolic routes of the 11-oxygenated pregnanes towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar, in part, to 17-OHP's conversion to DHT in a backdoor pathway – the same enzymes catalyze the reactions mostly in the same sequence.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; However, in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens and 11-oxygenated pregnanes, additional key enzymes for the initial reactions, are CYP11B1/CYP11B2 and HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt; – with CYP11B1/CYP11B2 expressed primarily in adrenals together with low levels of HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1182–8 |pmid=23386646 |pmc=3590473 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Satoh |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Morimoto |first4=Ryo |last5=Kennedy |first5=Michael R. |last6=Layman |first6=Lawrence C. |last7=Honma |first7=Seijiro |last8=Sasano |first8=Hironobu |last9=Rainey |first9=William E. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; which are more abundantly expressed in peripheral tissue. Once converted by 5α-reductase, the pathway followed is similar to that of the backdoor steroidogenesis pathway leading ultimately to 11KDHT.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt;

Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T, which further supports their adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens are regulated by ACTH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;  However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids: P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxyegenated strogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to with congenital adrenal hyperplasia or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to classical androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxyegenated strogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgen should be seriously considered in women patients. 

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzyme required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway to DHT that starts with the same way as in the pathway that starts with 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/CYP11B2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about case where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; A subsequent study reported 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, 5α-reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are reduced by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only reduced by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt;In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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      <text bytes="139394" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The most potent 11-oxo androgens are 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

11-Oxygenated androgens were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom at position 11 forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the term &quot;11-keto&quot; for steroids, and favor the term &quot;11-oxo&quot;, because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached to the carbon at position 11, rather than a group with an additional carbon atom, therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by several 3α-oxidoreductases (AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes leading to the production of 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4)  also fall under our definition of the alternative androgen pathways. Broadly, there are 4 steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4, T) with a common 3 step route:  

1) 11β-hydroxylation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;  by CYP11B1/2 (&quot;11OH&quot; used in compound abbreviation)  

2) 5α-reduction of the double bond by SRD5A1/2 and  

3) 3α-reduction of the ketone to an alcohol by AKR1C4 (&quot;11K&quot; used in compound abbreviation) 

The last two transformations are duplicated in a parallel path corresponding to 11-oxo versions of the same intermediates. Transformations between the 11OH and 11K intermediates are all catalyzed by HSD11B2 (oxidation only) and HSD11B1 (reduction and oxidation). Specific transformations across the derivatives of the entry points are catalyzed by AKR1C3 (17-ketosteroid reductase activity) shown in Figure 4.  CYP17A1 also acts on a number of intermediates, mostly on pregnanes to yield the corresponding 17α-OH derivative. 

The relative importance of  the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. Androgen activity has been shown for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT has been proposed as the primary androgen in women since it has been observed in higher circulating concentrations than T and comparable activity and levels do not decline with age.  11OHT has been found circulating in higher concentrations than 11KT.&lt;ref&gt;Personal communication of unpublished results from Amanda Swart.&lt;/ref&gt; There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 does not have any androgenic activity. 

It is clear from Figure 4 that there are many routes to the known 11-oxygenated androgens. The relative importance of the different catalytic paths is also the subject of current research.  

11-oxygenated derivatives of A4, i.e. 11OHA4 and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4, also known as adrenosterone), are not considered as active androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=189 |issue= |pages=116–126  |pmid=30825506 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|last1=Gent |first1=R. |last2=Du Toit |first2=T. |last3=Bloem |first3=L. M. |last4=Swart |first4=A. C. |year=2019 |s2cid=73490363 }}&lt;/ref&gt; While T can serve as a precursor for 11-oxygenated androgens, Figure 4 shows that T is not required for KDHT synthesis. 


The primary route to 11KDHT is the one that starts with 11β-hydroxylation of A4:


The path from T as an entry point is also contributes to 11KDHT, but to a much lesser extent:{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}

Routes to 11KDHT with P4 or 17-OHP as entry points are only believed to occur under specific conditions such as CYP21A2 deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The two isozymes in the adrenal glad catalyse the production 11OHA4 from A4&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Haru | first1=Shibusawa | last2=Yumiko | first2=Sano | last3=Shoichi | first3=Okinaga | last4=Kiyoshi | first4=Arai | title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland | journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=13 | issue=8 | year=1980 | issn=0022-4731 | doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2 | pages=881–887| pmid=6970302 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt; and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) from T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt; These isozymes also catalyse the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes: 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone and 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt; and 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (21dF, since it is also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone and 21-deoxycortisol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

The production of 11KA4 and 11KT takes place in the periphery and the a lesser extent in the adrenal gland. These 11-oxygenated androgens may be converted by 5α-reductase which catalyses the production of 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione) and 11KDHT following a pathway similar to that of the canonical androgen steroidogenesis pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25542845&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11β-Hydroxyandrostenedione: Downstream metabolism by 11βHSD, 17βHSD and SRD5A produces novel substrates in familiar pathways |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=408 |issue= |pages=114–23  |pmid=25542845 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2014.12.009|last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Storbeck |first2=Karl-Heinz |year=2015 |s2cid=23860408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The predominant routes in normal conditions in humans from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens are:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT → 11KDHT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}The path from T as an entry point is thought to contribute to a much lesser extent than A4.The initial 11β-hydroxylation of A4 and T to (respectively) 11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) via CYP11B1 and CYP11B2.  11OHA4 and 11OHT can then be converted (via HSD11B2) to their 11-oxo forms, 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (11KA4, since it is also known as 11-ketoandrostenedione) and 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione (11KT, since it is also known as 11-ketotestosterone). These four 11-oxygenated androgens, 11OHA4, 11OHT 11KA4, and 11KT can be ultimately converted to 11KDHT.  HSD11B1 can catalyze the  reverse reaction of 11-oxo androgens back to the 11-hydroxy androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

Each of 11OHA4, 11KA4, 11OHT and 11KT can be reduced (via SRD5A1 and SRD5A2) 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (11OH-5αdione), 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione), 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one (11OHDHT, since it is also known as 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone) and 11KDHT, respectively. 

11OH-5αdione, 11K-5αdione, 11OHDHT and 11KDHT can be converted to the inactive forms of these 11-oxygenated androgens, 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (11OHAST, since it also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone), 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (11KAST, since it is also known as 11-ketoandrosterone), 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol (11OH-3αdiol) and 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one (11K-3αdiol) via 3α-reduction by AKR1C2 and AKR1C4.

These 11-oxygenated androgens are also converted by HSD17B3, AKR1C3 and by HSD17B2. The steroids 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST can be converted to 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol, respectively by HSD17B3 and AKR1C3. Given that the adrenal produces significantly more 11OHA4 than 11OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; it is much more likely that the majority of 11KT is produced as follows: 11OHA4 is converted to 11KA4 by HSD11B2; 11KA4 is then converted to 11KT by AKR1C3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; 11OHA4, 11OHAST and 11OH-5αdione are not converted to 11OHT, 11OHDHT or 11OH-3αdiol as these 11-hydroxy androgens and not substrates for HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. However, HSD17B2 converts 11OHT and 11OHDHT to 11OHA4 and 11OH-5αdione, respectively. HSD17B2 also converts 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol back to 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST. To be specific, given that 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt;, it requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2 before it can be further converted to potent androgens such as 11KT.

These complex pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from 11OHA4 and 11OHT set out above have been previously described in a 2021 review by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;/&gt; based on earlier ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; 

The reactions mentioned above can be outlined as shown in Figure 4.

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The 11β-hydroxylation of P4 yields 11β-hydroxyprogesterone (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;, and that of 17-OHP converted to 21-deoxycortisol (21dF)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt; — in both cases, by CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 respectively.

The 11-hydroxylated pregnanes, 11OHP4 and 21dF, catalysed by the CYP11B isozymes also require HSD11B2 in the production of the 11-oxo forms: 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketoprogesterone (11KP4)) and 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as 21-deoxycortisone (21dE)), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;/&gt; 

These four 11-oxygenated pregnanes, 11OHP4, 21dF, 11KP4 and 21dE are ultimately converted to 11KDHT following the same metabolic route of 17-OHP, consisting of five steps: 

The first step of this route is the conversion of 11OHP4, 11KP4, 21dF and 21dE by SRD5A1 and SRD5A2 to 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone (11OHDHP4), 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (11KDHP4, since it is also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone), 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (11OHPdione) and 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (11KPdione).

11OHDHP4, 11KDHP4, 11OHPdione and 11KPdione are then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (3,11diOH-DHP4), 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione known as alfaxalone (ALF), 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one (11OHPdiol) and 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione (11KPdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4).

3,11diOH-DHP4, ALF, 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are then converted to 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (11OHAST) and 5α-androstane-3α-ol-11,17-dione (11KAST) by CYP17A1. In these reactions 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are converted to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids by the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (androgen). In the conversion of 3,11diOH-DHP4 and ALF to androgens, these steroids first undergo the hydroxylase activity and then the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot; /&gt;

11OHAST is first converted to 11KAST by HSD11B2 since is not a substrate for HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 which are the enzymes that take part in the next step in the pathway. 11KAST is now either converted to 11K3α-diol by HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 (also known as AKR1C3) or it may be converted to 11K-5αdione by the 3α-oxidation activity of HSD11B6, depending on enzyme expression levels and steroidogenic tissue.

&lt;nowiki&gt;11KDHT is subsequently biosynthesised from both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one (11K3α-diol) and 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione). 11K3α-diol is converted by HSD11B6 and 11K-5αdione is converted by HSD11B3 and HSD11B5. In addition, 11KDHT can be converted to 11OHDHT by HSD11B1.}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

These pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from progesterone and 21-dF, also elucidated previously by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; in a 2021 review, can be outlined as shown on Figure 4.

The order of steps in metabolic routes of the 11-oxygenated pregnanes towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar, in part, to 17-OHP's conversion to DHT in a backdoor pathway – the same enzymes catalyze the reactions mostly in the same sequence.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; However, in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens and 11-oxygenated pregnanes, additional key enzymes for the initial reactions, are CYP11B1/CYP11B2 and HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt; – with CYP11B1/CYP11B2 expressed primarily in adrenals together with low levels of HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1182–8 |pmid=23386646 |pmc=3590473 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Satoh |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Morimoto |first4=Ryo |last5=Kennedy |first5=Michael R. |last6=Layman |first6=Lawrence C. |last7=Honma |first7=Seijiro |last8=Sasano |first8=Hironobu |last9=Rainey |first9=William E. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; which are more abundantly expressed in peripheral tissue. Once converted by 5α-reductase, the pathway followed is similar to that of the backdoor steroidogenesis pathway leading ultimately to 11KDHT.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt;

Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T, which further supports their adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens are regulated by ACTH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;  However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids: P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxyegenated strogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to with congenital adrenal hyperplasia or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to classical androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxyegenated strogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgen should be seriously considered in women patients. 

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzyme required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway to DHT that starts with the same way as in the pathway that starts with 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/CYP11B2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about case where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; A subsequent study reported 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer ===
ollowing the same metabolic route of A4 and T, however, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather then 11KDHT: at least in prostate cancer 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, 5α-reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are reduced by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only reduced by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt;In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>k3gdv3n6xso4fn1bdviisj09os3t6cm</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409349</id>
      <parentid>2409345</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T02:16:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maneesh</username>
        <id>2723004</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens */ most of this is merely telling the reader what the figure says plainly</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="138024" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The most potent 11-oxo androgens are 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

11-Oxygenated androgens were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom at position 11 forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the term &quot;11-keto&quot; for steroids, and favor the term &quot;11-oxo&quot;, because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached to the carbon at position 11, rather than a group with an additional carbon atom, therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by several 3α-oxidoreductases (AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes leading to the production of 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4)  also fall under our definition of the alternative androgen pathways. Broadly, there are 4 steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4, T) with a common 3 step route:  

1) 11β-hydroxylation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;  by CYP11B1/2 (&quot;11OH&quot; used in compound abbreviation)  

2) 5α-reduction of the double bond by SRD5A1/2 and  

3) 3α-reduction of the ketone to an alcohol by AKR1C4 (&quot;11K&quot; used in compound abbreviation) 

The last two transformations are duplicated in a parallel path corresponding to 11-oxo versions of the same intermediates. Transformations between the 11OH and 11K intermediates are all catalyzed by HSD11B2 (oxidation only) and HSD11B1 (reduction and oxidation). Specific transformations across the derivatives of the entry points are catalyzed by AKR1C3 (17-ketosteroid reductase activity) shown in Figure 4.  CYP17A1 also acts on a number of intermediates, mostly on pregnanes to yield the corresponding 17α-OH derivative. 

The relative importance of  the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. Androgen activity has been shown for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT has been proposed as the primary androgen in women since it has been observed in higher circulating concentrations than T and comparable activity and levels do not decline with age.  11OHT has been found circulating in higher concentrations than 11KT.&lt;ref&gt;Personal communication of unpublished results from Amanda Swart.&lt;/ref&gt; There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 does not have any androgenic activity. 

It is clear from Figure 4 that there are many routes to the known 11-oxygenated androgens. The relative importance of the different catalytic paths is also the subject of current research.  

11-oxygenated derivatives of A4, i.e. 11OHA4 and 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4, also known as adrenosterone), are not considered as active androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=189 |issue= |pages=116–126  |pmid=30825506 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|last1=Gent |first1=R. |last2=Du Toit |first2=T. |last3=Bloem |first3=L. M. |last4=Swart |first4=A. C. |year=2019 |s2cid=73490363 }}&lt;/ref&gt; While T can serve as a precursor for 11-oxygenated androgens, Figure 4 shows that T is not required for KDHT synthesis. 


The primary route to 11KDHT is the one that starts with 11β-hydroxylation of A4:


The path from T as an entry point is also contributes to 11KDHT, but to a much lesser extent:{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}

Routes to 11KDHT with P4 or 17-OHP as entry points are only believed to occur under specific conditions such as CYP21A2 deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The two isozymes in the adrenal glad catalyse the production 11OHA4 from A4&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Haru | first1=Shibusawa | last2=Yumiko | first2=Sano | last3=Shoichi | first3=Okinaga | last4=Kiyoshi | first4=Arai | title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland | journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=13 | issue=8 | year=1980 | issn=0022-4731 | doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2 | pages=881–887| pmid=6970302 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt; and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) from T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt; These isozymes also catalyse the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes: 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone and 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt; and 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (21dF, since it is also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone and 21-deoxycortisol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

The production of 11KA4 and 11KT takes place in the periphery and the a lesser extent in the adrenal gland. These 11-oxygenated androgens may be converted by 5α-reductase which catalyses the production of 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione) and 11KDHT following a pathway similar to that of the canonical androgen steroidogenesis pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25542845&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11β-Hydroxyandrostenedione: Downstream metabolism by 11βHSD, 17βHSD and SRD5A produces novel substrates in familiar pathways |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=408 |issue= |pages=114–23  |pmid=25542845 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2014.12.009|last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Storbeck |first2=Karl-Heinz |year=2015 |s2cid=23860408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The predominant routes in normal conditions in humans from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens are:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT → 11KDHT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}The path from T as an entry point is thought to contribute to a much lesser extent than A4.

These 11-oxygenated androgens are also converted by HSD17B3, AKR1C3 and by HSD17B2. The steroids 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST can be converted to 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol, respectively by HSD17B3 and AKR1C3. Given that the adrenal produces significantly more 11OHA4 than 11OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; it is much more likely that the majority of 11KT is produced as follows: 11OHA4 is converted to 11KA4 by HSD11B2; 11KA4 is then converted to 11KT by AKR1C3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; 11OHA4, 11OHAST and 11OH-5αdione are not converted to 11OHT, 11OHDHT or 11OH-3αdiol as these 11-hydroxy androgens and not substrates for HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. However, HSD17B2 converts 11OHT and 11OHDHT to 11OHA4 and 11OH-5αdione, respectively. HSD17B2 also converts 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol back to 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST. To be specific, given that 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt;, it requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2 before it can be further converted to potent androgens such as 11KT.

These complex pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from 11OHA4 and 11OHT set out above have been previously described in a 2021 review by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;/&gt; based on earlier ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; 

The reactions mentioned above can be outlined as shown in Figure 4.

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The 11β-hydroxylation of P4 yields 11β-hydroxyprogesterone (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;, and that of 17-OHP converted to 21-deoxycortisol (21dF)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt; — in both cases, by CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 respectively.

The 11-hydroxylated pregnanes, 11OHP4 and 21dF, catalysed by the CYP11B isozymes also require HSD11B2 in the production of the 11-oxo forms: 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketoprogesterone (11KP4)) and 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as 21-deoxycortisone (21dE)), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;/&gt; 

These four 11-oxygenated pregnanes, 11OHP4, 21dF, 11KP4 and 21dE are ultimately converted to 11KDHT following the same metabolic route of 17-OHP, consisting of five steps: 

The first step of this route is the conversion of 11OHP4, 11KP4, 21dF and 21dE by SRD5A1 and SRD5A2 to 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone (11OHDHP4), 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (11KDHP4, since it is also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone), 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (11OHPdione) and 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (11KPdione).

11OHDHP4, 11KDHP4, 11OHPdione and 11KPdione are then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (3,11diOH-DHP4), 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione known as alfaxalone (ALF), 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one (11OHPdiol) and 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione (11KPdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4).

3,11diOH-DHP4, ALF, 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are then converted to 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (11OHAST) and 5α-androstane-3α-ol-11,17-dione (11KAST) by CYP17A1. In these reactions 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are converted to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids by the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (androgen). In the conversion of 3,11diOH-DHP4 and ALF to androgens, these steroids first undergo the hydroxylase activity and then the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot; /&gt;

11OHAST is first converted to 11KAST by HSD11B2 since is not a substrate for HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 which are the enzymes that take part in the next step in the pathway. 11KAST is now either converted to 11K3α-diol by HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 (also known as AKR1C3) or it may be converted to 11K-5αdione by the 3α-oxidation activity of HSD11B6, depending on enzyme expression levels and steroidogenic tissue.

&lt;nowiki&gt;11KDHT is subsequently biosynthesised from both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one (11K3α-diol) and 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione). 11K3α-diol is converted by HSD11B6 and 11K-5αdione is converted by HSD11B3 and HSD11B5. In addition, 11KDHT can be converted to 11OHDHT by HSD11B1.}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

These pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from progesterone and 21-dF, also elucidated previously by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; in a 2021 review, can be outlined as shown on Figure 4.

The order of steps in metabolic routes of the 11-oxygenated pregnanes towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar, in part, to 17-OHP's conversion to DHT in a backdoor pathway – the same enzymes catalyze the reactions mostly in the same sequence.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; However, in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens and 11-oxygenated pregnanes, additional key enzymes for the initial reactions, are CYP11B1/CYP11B2 and HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt; – with CYP11B1/CYP11B2 expressed primarily in adrenals together with low levels of HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1182–8 |pmid=23386646 |pmc=3590473 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Satoh |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Morimoto |first4=Ryo |last5=Kennedy |first5=Michael R. |last6=Layman |first6=Lawrence C. |last7=Honma |first7=Seijiro |last8=Sasano |first8=Hironobu |last9=Rainey |first9=William E. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; which are more abundantly expressed in peripheral tissue. Once converted by 5α-reductase, the pathway followed is similar to that of the backdoor steroidogenesis pathway leading ultimately to 11KDHT.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt;

Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T, which further supports their adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens are regulated by ACTH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;  However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids: P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxyegenated strogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to with congenital adrenal hyperplasia or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to classical androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxyegenated strogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgen should be seriously considered in women patients. 

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzyme required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway to DHT that starts with the same way as in the pathway that starts with 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/CYP11B2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about case where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; A subsequent study reported 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer ===
ollowing the same metabolic route of A4 and T, however, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather then 11KDHT: at least in prostate cancer 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, 5α-reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are reduced by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only reduced by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt;In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>gkuhozj7ty3whgicbwlzk1qpdmkkkve</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2409393</id>
      <parentid>2409349</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T06:27:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maneesh</username>
        <id>2723004</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways */ very very hard to follow the deleted material. I'm not sure what it says that the figure does not</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="134647" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The most potent 11-oxo androgens are 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

11-Oxygenated androgens were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom at position 11 forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the term &quot;11-keto&quot; for steroids, and favor the term &quot;11-oxo&quot;, because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached to the carbon at position 11, rather than a group with an additional carbon atom, therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by several 3α-oxidoreductases (AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes leading to the production of 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4)  also fall under our definition of the alternative androgen pathways. Broadly, there are 4 steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4, T) with a common 3 step route:  

1) 11β-hydroxylation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;  by CYP11B1/2 (&quot;11OH&quot; used in compound abbreviation)  

2) 5α-reduction of the double bond by SRD5A1/2 and  

3) 3α-reduction of the ketone to an alcohol by AKR1C4 (&quot;11K&quot; used in compound abbreviation) 

The last two transformations are duplicated in a parallel path corresponding to 11-oxo versions of the same intermediates. Transformations between the 11OH and 11K intermediates are all catalyzed by HSD11B2 (oxidation only) and HSD11B1 (reduction and oxidation). Specific transformations across the derivatives of the entry points are catalyzed by AKR1C3 (17-ketosteroid reductase activity) shown in Figure 4.  CYP17A1 also acts on a number of intermediates, mostly on pregnanes to yield the corresponding 17α-OH derivative. 

The relative importance of  the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity, but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT. Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT has been proposed as the primary androgen in women since it has been observed in higher circulating concentrations than T and comparable activity and levels do not decline with age.  11OHT has been found circulating in higher concentrations than 11KT.&lt;ref&gt;Personal communication of unpublished results from Amanda Swart.&lt;/ref&gt;  

It is clear from Figure 4 that there are many routes to the known 11-oxygenated androgens. The relative importance of the different catalytic paths is also the subject of current research.  

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The predominant routes in normal conditions in humans from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens are:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT → 11KDHT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}The production of 11KA4 and 11KT takes place in the periphery and the a lesser extent in the adrenal gland. The path from T as an entry point is thought to contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgen pool but to a much lesser extent than A4.

The A4 derived steroids 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST can be converted to 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol, respectively by HSD17B3 and AKR1C3. Given that the adrenal produces significantly more 11OHA4 than 11OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; it is much more likely that the majority of 11KT is produced as follows: {{unbulleted list|11OHA4→ 11KA4 →11KT}}These complex pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from 11OHA4 and 11OHT set out above have been previously described in a 2021 review by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; based on earlier ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt;

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The 11β-hydroxylation of P4 yields 11β-hydroxyprogesterone (11OHP4, also known as 21-deoxycorticosterone)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;, and that of 17-OHP converted to 21-deoxycortisol (21dF)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt; — in both cases, by CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 respectively.

The 11-hydroxylated pregnanes, 11OHP4 and 21dF, catalysed by the CYP11B isozymes also require HSD11B2 in the production of the 11-oxo forms: 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketoprogesterone (11KP4)) and 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as 21-deoxycortisone (21dE)), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;/&gt; 

These four 11-oxygenated pregnanes, 11OHP4, 21dF, 11KP4 and 21dE are ultimately converted to 11KDHT following the same metabolic route of 17-OHP, consisting of five steps: 

The first step of this route is the conversion of 11OHP4, 11KP4, 21dF and 21dE by SRD5A1 and SRD5A2 to 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone (11OHDHP4), 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (11KDHP4, since it is also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone), 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (11OHPdione) and 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (11KPdione).

11OHDHP4, 11KDHP4, 11OHPdione and 11KPdione are then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (3,11diOH-DHP4), 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione known as alfaxalone (ALF), 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one (11OHPdiol) and 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione (11KPdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4).

3,11diOH-DHP4, ALF, 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are then converted to 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (11OHAST) and 5α-androstane-3α-ol-11,17-dione (11KAST) by CYP17A1. In these reactions 11OHPdiol and 11KPdiol are converted to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids by the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (androgen). In the conversion of 3,11diOH-DHP4 and ALF to androgens, these steroids first undergo the hydroxylase activity and then the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot; /&gt;

11OHAST is first converted to 11KAST by HSD11B2 since is not a substrate for HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 which are the enzymes that take part in the next step in the pathway. 11KAST is now either converted to 11K3α-diol by HSD11B3 or HSD11B5 (also known as AKR1C3) or it may be converted to 11K-5αdione by the 3α-oxidation activity of HSD11B6, depending on enzyme expression levels and steroidogenic tissue.

&lt;nowiki&gt;11KDHT is subsequently biosynthesised from both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one (11K3α-diol) and 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (11K-5αdione). 11K3α-diol is converted by HSD11B6 and 11K-5αdione is converted by HSD11B3 and HSD11B5. In addition, 11KDHT can be converted to 11OHDHT by HSD11B1.}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

These pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from progesterone and 21-dF, also elucidated previously by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; in a 2021 review, can be outlined as shown on Figure 4.

The order of steps in metabolic routes of the 11-oxygenated pregnanes towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar, in part, to 17-OHP's conversion to DHT in a backdoor pathway – the same enzymes catalyze the reactions mostly in the same sequence.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; However, in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens and 11-oxygenated pregnanes, additional key enzymes for the initial reactions, are CYP11B1/CYP11B2 and HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt; – with CYP11B1/CYP11B2 expressed primarily in adrenals together with low levels of HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1182–8 |pmid=23386646 |pmc=3590473 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Satoh |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Morimoto |first4=Ryo |last5=Kennedy |first5=Michael R. |last6=Layman |first6=Lawrence C. |last7=Honma |first7=Seijiro |last8=Sasano |first8=Hironobu |last9=Rainey |first9=William E. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; which are more abundantly expressed in peripheral tissue. Once converted by 5α-reductase, the pathway followed is similar to that of the backdoor steroidogenesis pathway leading ultimately to 11KDHT.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt;

Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T, which further supports their adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens are regulated by ACTH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;  However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids: P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxyegenated strogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to with congenital adrenal hyperplasia or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to classical androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxyegenated strogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgen should be seriously considered in women patients. 

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzyme required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway to DHT that starts with the same way as in the pathway that starts with 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/CYP11B2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about case where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; A subsequent study reported 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer ===
ollowing the same metabolic route of A4 and T, however, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather then 11KDHT: at least in prostate cancer 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, 5α-reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are reduced by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only reduced by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt;In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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      <comment>/* From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens */ deleted paras were, again, very very difficult to follow. Is there a way to summarize the paths analogously to the last section? There is very little information here that is not in the diagram. We need to summarize what is happening in the diagram for the reader.</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="131524" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. The most potent 11-oxo androgens are 11-ketotestosterone (11KT) and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

11-Oxygenated androgens were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom at position 11 forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the term &quot;11-keto&quot; for steroids, and favor the term &quot;11-oxo&quot;, because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached to the carbon at position 11, rather than a group with an additional carbon atom, therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by several 3α-oxidoreductases (AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes leading to the production of 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4)  also fall under our definition of the alternative androgen pathways. Broadly, there are 4 steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4, T) with a common 3 step route:  

1) 11β-hydroxylation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;  by CYP11B1/2 (&quot;11OH&quot; used in compound abbreviation)  

2) 5α-reduction of the double bond by SRD5A1/2 and  

3) 3α-reduction of the ketone to an alcohol by AKR1C4 (&quot;11K&quot; used in compound abbreviation) 

The last two transformations are duplicated in a parallel path corresponding to 11-oxo versions of the same intermediates. Transformations between the 11OH and 11K intermediates are all catalyzed by HSD11B2 (oxidation only) and HSD11B1 (reduction and oxidation). Specific transformations across the derivatives of the entry points are catalyzed by AKR1C3 (17-ketosteroid reductase activity) shown in Figure 4.  CYP17A1 also acts on a number of intermediates, mostly on pregnanes to yield the corresponding 17α-OH derivative. 

The relative importance of  the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity, but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT. Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT has been proposed as the primary androgen in women since it has been observed in higher circulating concentrations than T and comparable activity and levels do not decline with age.  11OHT has been found circulating in higher concentrations than 11KT.&lt;ref&gt;Personal communication of unpublished results from Amanda Swart.&lt;/ref&gt;  

It is clear from Figure 4 that there are many routes to the known 11-oxygenated androgens. The relative importance of the different catalytic paths is also the subject of current research but known routes can be separated by entry points, A4/T and P4/17OHP   

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The predominant routes in normal conditions in humans from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens are:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT → 11KDHT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT → 11KDHT}}The production of 11KA4 and 11KT takes place in the periphery and the a lesser extent in the adrenal gland. The path from T as an entry point is thought to contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgen pool but to a much lesser extent than A4.

The A4 derived steroids 11KA4, 11K-5αdione and 11KAST can be converted to 11KT, 11KDHT and 11K-3αdiol, respectively by HSD17B3 and AKR1C3. Given that the adrenal produces significantly more 11OHA4 than 11OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; it is much more likely that the majority of 11KT is produced as follows: {{unbulleted list|11OHA4→ 11KA4 →11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The order of steps in metabolic routes of the 11-oxygenated pregnanes towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar, in part, to 17-OHP's conversion to DHT in a backdoor pathway – the same enzymes catalyze the reactions mostly in the same sequence.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; However, in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens and 11-oxygenated pregnanes, additional key enzymes for the initial reactions, are CYP11B1/CYP11B2 and HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt; – with CYP11B1/CYP11B2 expressed primarily in adrenals together with low levels of HSD11B1/HSD11B2&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=98 |issue=3 |pages=1182–8 |pmid=23386646 |pmc=3590473 |doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasuhiro |last3=Satoh |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Morimoto |first4=Ryo |last5=Kennedy |first5=Michael R. |last6=Layman |first6=Lawrence C. |last7=Honma |first7=Seijiro |last8=Sasano |first8=Hironobu |last9=Rainey |first9=William E. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; which are more abundantly expressed in peripheral tissue. Once converted by 5α-reductase, the pathway followed is similar to that of the backdoor steroidogenesis pathway leading ultimately to 11KDHT.

These complex pathways leading to the production of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT from 11OHA4 and 11OHT set out above have been previously described in a 2021 review by Barnard et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; based on earlier ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt;

Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T, which further supports their adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens are regulated by ACTH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;  However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids: P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxyegenated strogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to with congenital adrenal hyperplasia or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to classical androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxyegenated strogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgen should be seriously considered in women patients. 

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzyme required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway to DHT that starts with the same way as in the pathway that starts with 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/CYP11B2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/CYP11B2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about case where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; A subsequent study reported 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer ===
ollowing the same metabolic route of A4 and T, however, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather then 11KDHT: at least in prostate cancer 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, 5α-reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are reduced by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only reduced by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt;In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Perspectives on the social license of the forest products industry from the rural Midwestern United States</title>
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      <comment>/* Unpack social license */ MoS</comment>
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      <text bytes="69682" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Zoe
| last1 = Ketola
| orcid1 = 
| affiliation1 = Michigan Technological University
| first2 = William
| last2 = Lytle
| orcid2 = 
| affiliation2 = Evergreen International Sustainability Solutions; USA Dry Pea and Lentil Council
| correspondence2 = by [[Special:EmailUser/Wjlytle|online form]]
| first3 =  Chelsea 
| last3 = Schelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first4 =  Mark
| last4 = Rudnicki{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first5 =  Matthew 
| last5 = Kelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| license = 
| abstract = This research investigates the existing social license and the processes of achieving and articulating social license between a rural community in the northern Midwestern United States community and the forest products industry, based on interviews with both industry and community stakeholders. Perceptions of natural resource management and community relations are highly related to the community’s history with industries, relationships with place, and perspectives on valuable work. The results suggest that social license varies spatially, and it is the place-based context that allows local industry to have a higher degree of license than non-local industry actors. Thus, social license is spatially contingent, based on particular socio-spatial and historical contexts. In this paper, we articulate how these spatial and historical contextualization shapes perceptions of acceptable operating practices. This paper offers refinement of the concept of social license while also considering how natural resource based industries can successfully meet evolving management challenges.
}}

== Introduction ==
The term “social license” - generally, the acceptance a company has to engage in its operations - was introduced in 1997 and has since been applied in multiple resource extraction industries to describe changes in company-community interactions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Kieren |last1=Moffat |first2=Justine |last2=Lacey |first3=Airong |last3=Zhang |first4=Sina |last4=Leipold |url=https://academic.oup.com/forestry/article/89/5/477/2194485 |title=The social licence to operate: a critical review |journal=Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research |doi=10.1093/forestry/cpv044 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=477–488 |year=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; This use of social license has included an understanding of how acceptance levels impact resource development operations within these industries&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gunningham|first=Neil|last2=Kagan|first2=Robert A.|last3=Thornton|first3=Dorothy|date=2004-04|title=Social License and Environmental Protection: Why Businesses Go Beyond Compliance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|journal=Law &amp; Social Inquiry|volume=29|issue=2|pages=307–341|doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|issn=0897-6546}}&lt;/ref&gt; state corporations comply with their social license by operating within societal expectations and avoiding activities (or influential elements within them) considered unacceptable, and define social license it as “the demands on and expectations for a business enterprise that emerge from neighborhoods, environmental groups, local stakeholders, and other elements of the surrounding civil society”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

It seems that industries recognize the value or necessity of their social license and its impact on their operations. Some forecasts indicate that obtaining social license may become a requirement for obtaining a legal license from government agencies, although frameworks used to incorporate social license in government licensure are not well-defined and may turn out the be prohibitive to forming trust-based community relationships.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Anguelovski|first=Isabelle|date=2011-01-31|title=Understanding the Dynamics of Community Engagement of Corporations in Communities: The Iterative Relationship Between Dialogue Processes and Local Protest at the Tintaya Copper Mine in Peru|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920903339699|journal=Society &amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=4|pages=384–399|doi=10.1080/08941920903339699|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Lacey|first1= J.|last2= Parsons|first2= R.|last3= Moffat|first3= K.|date=2012|title=Exploring the concept of a Social Licence to Operate in the Australian minerals industry: Results from interviews with industry representatives|publisher= CSIRO|at= EP125553|doi=10.4225/08/5852dc54dc765}}&lt;/ref&gt; Issues related to the government’s measurement of corporations’ social license include its role in licensure processes, the penalties for non-compliance, or the community’s ability to halt a project if a corporation is not responsive to their concerns, are still subject to global concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Demuijnck|first=Geert|last2=Fasterling|first2=Björn|date=2016-01-15|title=The Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=136|issue=4|pages=675–685|doi=10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|issn=0167-4544}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019-06-20|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Regardless of government involvement, social license is achieved within and given by communities. Communities can be defined as “a social unit of any size that shares common values, or that is situated in a given geographical area”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|doi=10.1163/9789087901738_008|chapter=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: Industry Supported Professional Development in the Mineral Resource Sector|title=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: The Contribution of Science and Technology Education|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Brill|first1=Dan |last1=Churach|first2= Di |last2=Nichols|editor1-first= David B. |editor1-last=Zandvliet |editor2-first=Darrel L.|editor2-last= Fisher|pages=71–84|isbn=978-90-8790-173-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Communities are often viewed as people that fall in a certain geographic region, although even these geographic groups can contain multiple, smaller groups that include individuals with varied perspectives and values that shape the way they view industrial operations. Further, members of geographic communities may have different relationships with industry because they may be part of the workforce, product consumers, and potential project partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Local stakeholders may also differ in the extent to which they contribute to supplying infrastructure for industry, including access to resources and the ways they benefit from industrial activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/802343793|title=Sustainable communities, sustainable development: other paths for Papua New Guinea|first2=Albert|last1=James|first1= Paul Warren|last2=Age|date= 2012|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi|isbn=0-8248-3588-3|oclc=802343793|doi=10.21313/hawaii/9780824835880.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Communities carry social, spatial, and historical contexts; geographical spaces are socio-environmental places and communities are shaped by their shared climates and histories. Thus, the granting of social license is also based on perspectives and values developed within community context, and understanding the social licensing process arguably requires attentiveness to the spatial and historical context of any community.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Sen|date=2019-10|title=Managing forests for the greater good: The role of the social license to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=107|pages=101920|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|issn=1389-9341}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, how social license influences the relationships between local stakeholders and local industry is often unclear, leaving the portrait of its socio-environmental context incomplete. This work considers how the social license to operate for a local forest products industry is embedded in a local socio-environmental context within a rural community in Michigan, aiming to understand what that may mean for navigating the development of social license and potential conflicts that may threaten it.

== Unpack social license ==

Social license is often regarded as being synonymous with community approval, in part due to its deep historical roots in mining and forestry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Syn|first=Juliette|date=2014-07-31|title=The Social License: Empowering Communities and a Better Way Forward|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=318–339|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Boutilier|first1= R.|last2= Thomson|first2= I.|date= 2011|title= Modelling and measuring the social license to operate: Fruits of a dialogue between theory and practice|publisher= Social License|url=https://socialicense.com/publications/Modelling%20and%20Measuring%20the%20SLO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Parsons|first=Richard|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Moffat|first3=Kieren|date=2014-09|title=Maintaining legitimacy of a contested practice: How the minerals industry understands its 'social licence to operate'|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=41|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt;  References to the concept of social license go back to 1996, when W. Henson Moore refers to mills as needing a “social license to operate” from the public.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|last1=Moore|first1=W.H.|date=October 1996|title= The social license to operate|work= PIMA Magazine|pages= 22–23|volume=78|issue=10|issn=1046-4352}}&lt;/ref&gt;  However, given the dynamic nature of relationships, community approval fails to describe all of the essential elements of social license, such as how different stakeholder groups perceive individual nodes of the supply chain in the forest products industry and especially how the industry can achieve and maintain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Citing our previous definition of the term from Gunningham et al., it would be most productive to view social license not as a linear relationship that directly binds industry with the community, but as a continuum, spectrum, or even web of relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dare|first=Melanie (Lain)|last2=Schirmer|first2=Jacki|last3=Vanclay|first3=Frank|date=2014-06-18|title=Community engagement and social licence to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal|volume=32|issue=3|pages=188–197|doi=10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|issn=1461-5517}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|date=2014-07-31|title=Can’t Climb the Trees Anymore: Social Licence to Operate, Bioenergy and Whole Stump Removal in Sweden|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=239–257|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gehman|first=Joel|last2=Lefsrud|first2=Lianne M.|last3=Fast|first3=Stewart|date=2017-06|title=Social license to operate: Legitimacy by another name?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/capa.12218|journal=Canadian Public Administration|volume=60|issue=2|pages=293–317|doi=10.1111/capa.12218|issn=0008-4840}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; outline three important facets to an industry involved in community engagement: “trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, [and] ability of organizations to respond to changing expectations” (pp. 191-192). Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; argue that these three elements form a vehicle that allows a corporation to increase its social license. 

Traditionally, industries have used community engagement or public relations strategies and personnel to reach out to local stakeholders. The effectiveness of these methods is influenced by the nature of the industry operations, education provided to communities, and the relationship that can be formed during engagement, which occurs at both the strategic and operational levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Strategic engagement includes proactively reaching out to community leaders and finding key influencers with whom to form relationships. Operational engagement exists at the work site and includes efforts to shape how people experience an operation through one-on-one conversations and by minimizing negative environmental and aesthetic impacts. However, operational engagement is often limited by poor access to the work site, particularly in rural areas with difficult terrain, large open spaces, and lackluster road networks. When site access is limited, local stakeholders may rely on other sources, such as the media, to help them form their opinions of industrial operations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lester|first=Libby|date=2016-02-29|title=Media and social licence: on being publicly useful in the Tasmanian forests conflict|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw015|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=542–551|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw015|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Previous research suggests that operational engagement has limitations due to communities not trusting local managers, a failure to reach the full body of stakeholders, and the inability of organizations to adapt operations to fit with changing social norms.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

The forest products industry is characterized by both stationary operations (i.e., mills) and transient operations (i.e., timber harvests) that occur across a wide expanse of the landscape. In this way, forest products industries commonly cross geographic communities, thereby complicating operations level engagement. Despite the limitations, strategic engagement and operational engagement are presumed to be an important part of a corporation’s achieving social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prno|first=Jason|last2=Scott Slocombe|first2=D.|date=2012-09|title=Exploring the origins of ‘social license to operate’ in the mining sector: Perspectives from governance and sustainability theories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=37|issue=3|pages=346–357|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt; Combined, these factors influence what level of social license a community may grant industry. We hope to understand the extent to which the community in our case study grants their forest products industry its social license and how the concepts of strategic and operational engagement factor into social license to operate. 

Effective community engagement should focus on building legitimacy, credibility and trust; these are the three key relationship components for understanding the continuum of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Trust is particularly important for unlocking more effective community-industry relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stern|first=Marc J.|last2=Baird|first2=Timothy D.|date=2015|title=Trust ecology and the resilience of natural resource management institutions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/es-07248-200214|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=20|issue=2|doi=10.5751/es-07248-200214|issn=1708-3087}}&lt;/ref&gt; The “trust ecology” includes prior behavior and performance, personal histories, positive direct interactions and equitable procedures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; Building multiple forms of trust allows for greater institutional resilience, in that if one type of trust becomes jeopardized, the other forms will help retain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;

One element of trust is reputation, which illustrates how different stakeholder groups can influence the formation of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; The reputation of a corporation has also been defined as organizational legitimacy, and represents how stakeholders perceive the identity and values of an organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/964759813|title=The social license: How to keep your organization legitimate|first=John|last=Morrison|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-137-37072-6|oclc=964759813}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, operational legitimacy is based on the action or production of services provided to stakeholders by the organization. &lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Lacey (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; suggests that social license can take a long time for a corporation or industry to achieve, but social license can be lost very quickly for a variety of factors, including changes in stakeholder expectations, technology, or other disturbances. Gunningham et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; argue that meeting and exceeding regulations to build reputational capital is economically vital, saying: “in certain circumstances, [natural resource based industries] cannot afford to do otherwise” (p. 321). 

The concept of social license as currently articulated is not without weaknesses. The terms often used to describe social license (e.g., legitimate, credible, support, accept, permit, approve, consent) can overlap in meaning, leading to ambiguity in their interpretation).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017-01|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, social license becomes more opaque when held next to terms like corporate social responsibility, sustainable development, and corporate citizenship, which all seek to call attention to the same general concept of striving for an industry that balances economic, social, and environmental goals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Elkington|first1= J.|date= 2004|chapter= Enter the triple bottom line|editor1-last= Henriques|editor1-first= A.|editor2-last=Richardson|editor2-first= J.|title= The Triple Bottom Line: Does It All Add up? Assessing the Sustainability of Business and CSR|pages=1–16|isbn=9781849773348|publisher=Routledge}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Amin U.|date=1998-09|title=Sustainability, sustainable development and forest resources|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509809469980|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development &amp;amp; World Ecology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=164–171|doi=10.1080/13504509809469980|issn=1350-4509}}&lt;/ref&gt; There has even been some specific disapproval for the term social license, such as when the term was adopted by industry and then used in conversation with the local community; stakeholders and media felt that the term was being used against them as propaganda and that it was difficult to fully comprehend.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, many natural resource based industries have become interested in analyzing their social license in hopes of cultivating more effective partnerships with local communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; This study examined the social license of the forest products industry based on the perspective of both industry members and community stakeholders in a rural community located in the northern Midwestern United States. We hope that our findings will allow some refinement of the social license concept such that it can be better applied to current and future projects involving industrial activities using local natural environments.

== Case Study Background ==
This research centers on how the public grants social license to the forest products industry within a rural county in Michigan, located in the northern Midwestern United States. This county has about 1,000 square miles of mostly forested land and has a history of involvement with the forest products industry (United States Census Bureau). For this research, the forest products industry is defined as all the lands owned and the operations that take place involving the management of forests or the processing of wood within the county. Participants in the forest products industry include public and private landowners, developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists, the media, and more, within the geographic boundaries of the county. Individuals representing each of these groups were interviewed as part of this study. Industry participants and community stakeholders were interviewed separately with question sets aimed at understanding their roles surrounding the social license of the forest products industry.

== Methods ==
This study was based around three primary research questions, as informed by the preceding background on social license literature and gaps in its theory. These questions are as follows.

# How does social license align with articulations of the relationships among the industry and the local community? 
# What current level of social license is the community granting the industry? 
# In what ways can the concept of social license be further refined based on this work’s context?

The interview protocol was developed following a thorough review of existing social license literature and existing knowledge regarding the local market, its actors, and their dynamics. It was designed to elicit responses from participants about the human dimensions of the local forest products industry and asked questions about topics shaping the local forest products industry’s social license. This was done to develop an understanding of the processes and practices of engagement among sectors of the forest products industry, as well as between the local industry and influential stakeholders in the community. As the interview progressed, participants were encouraged to express their personal views of their industry and their community with a strong focus on relationships, responsibilities, values and disturbances.

Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling methodology to better understand the social license continuum by receiving names of key informants that could be difficult to identify from outside the industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heckathorn|first=Douglas D.|date=2011-08|title=Comment: Snowball versus Respondent-Driven Sampling|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|journal=Sociological Methodology|volume=41|issue=1|pages=355–366|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|issn=0081-1750}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two separate sampling frames were used for each group of respondents, industry actors and community stakeholders. An initial assessment of the sectors of the forest products industry was performed using the Michigan Department of Natural Resources: Forest Products Industry Directory searchable database. Thirty-three corporate profiles were retrieved using the directory. These profiles were utilized for developing basic classifications of the industry as well as providing an initial point of contact for the interviews. Expansion of the sectors and classification system was necessary to accurately include the operations of corporations that were referred to participate in interviews through the snowball sampling method. A database on community leaders in government, nonprofit organizations, and the local media was created to initially identify community participants. These participants were then contacted for interviews and, if interviewed, were asked for additional potential participants. The snowball sampling method provides a means of determining when research is approaching saturation and occurs when names are referred multiple times and very few new names are added.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Charmaz|first1= K.|date=2003|chapter=Grounded theory|editor1-first= J. A.|editor1-last= Smith|title= Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods |pages= 81–110|publisher=Sage|isbn=0761972307 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Referrals from outside the county were not contacted for an interview.

Fourteen interviews were conducted with individuals from industry, representing 42.4% of the identified corporate profiles. Industry was considered to be the collection of all corporations and sectors involved with forest products. Each participant was given a primary classification based on the operations of the corporation (referred to as businesses and companies in some interview responses) and the individual position of the participant. Six of the companies were given secondary classifications based on their organization spanning more than one class. Interview questions are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 1. Interview Questions - Industry'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt''
!''Social License Subpart''
|-
|Q1: What makes your job or industry unique? 
P1: What level of responsibility, do you feel, is associated with your work? 

P2: Are there any parts of your job that you especially enjoy?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: Could you tell me about relationships with landowners/clients? 
P1: How long do these relationships usually last? 

P2: Do they understand what you do?
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|-
|Q3: Could you tell me about relationships with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with them?

P2: Who do you perceive, has more power in these interactions?

P3: Can you help me understand that better? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities 
|-
|Q4: Has there been a major external change- cultural, technological, social, economic- that has affected your clients or the public’s satisfaction with your products or services? 
P1: Are there segments of your company that have had trouble adapting? ie. equipment, personnel, facilities, R+D
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Social License in Community Context 
|-
|Q5: Do you feel that you have the ability to communicate effectively with landowners and the public? 
P1: What are the factors that limit your communication?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q6: The forest products industry seems to be very complex. What strategies have you developed to help you survive? 
P1: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q7: What was your industry like 10 years ago?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q8: When was the best time to be in your industry? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q9: Where do you see your industry in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories 
|-
|Q10: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about these topics? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 2. Interview Questions - Stakeholders'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt'' 
!'''''Social License Subpart''''' 
|-
|Q1: Could you tell me your job title and describe what your job entails? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: How long have you lived/worked in [County]? 
P1: What do you like about forests in this area?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q3: Do you own land? 
A. How many acres?  

B. Permanent residence?  

C. For land that is not a permanent residence, what is your purpose for owning it? (recreation, investment, been in the family)  

D. How did you acquire your land (purchase vs inherit)  

E. Is the land forested? Does it have a home  

F. Is the land have you ever harvested trees either commercially (timber sale) or for personal use (firewood)?  

G. Do you have a forest management plan?  

H. Do you consult with a professional forester? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q4: When I use the term forest products industry, who do you think of? 
P1: Why is that? 

P2: How would you define the forest products industry for [County]? 

P3: Would you say that you have a high, medium or low understanding of the forest products industry? {Define the forest products industry for our research}
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q5: What types of responsibilities, do you feel, are placed on the forest products industry? 
P1: How do you expect the actions of businesses in the industry to reflect these responsibilities? 

P2: Do you trust local members of the forest products industry to be stewards of our resources? {prompt with economic responsibilities (taxes, commerce) social (jobs, community involvement, recreation), environmental}
|Social License in Community Context/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q6: Could you tell me about the relationships the forest products industry has with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with the industry? 

P2: Who do you perceive, has more influence on the outcomes of these interactions? 

P3: Do you feel the industry understands the community’s needs?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q7: Has there been a major change-environmental, social, economic- that has affected your satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the forest products industry? 
P1: How does the forest products industry accommodate or address complaints?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q8: Do you feel that the forest products industry communicates effectively? 
P1: How does the industry show that? 

P2: What are the factors that limit their communication?
|Social Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q9: What are the difficulties associated with running a business in [County]? 
P1: Do the strategies of the forest products industry help them survive in your opinion? 

P2: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities/Social License in Community Context
|-
|Q10: What was your community like 10 years ago?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q11: When was the best time to be in your community? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q12: Where do you see your community in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q13: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about how the forest products industry relates to the community in [County]?
|Relationships &amp; Trust
|}
Six community participants were interviewed, representing positions later classified based on categories of significance identified via the snowball sampling method. Each of the participants represented a larger interest group including developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists and the media. These groups were referred to be interviewed because they reflect the diversity of natural resource stakeholders and they are inclusive of influential persons and decision-makers who may shape public opinion of the forest products industry. Interview questions for community participants can be found in Appendix B.

This research is based on a total of 20 in-depth interviews. Each participant agreed to the interview, consented to being digitally recorded, and was assured confidentiality. The interview protocol was reviewed by Michigan Technological University’s Institutional Review Board and given Exempt status because the research posed minimal risk to participants. Information associated with individual participants was assigned a numerical value to ensure confidentiality and ensure accuracy in data processing. Each interview was transcribed verbatim. Personal information and private stories unrelated to the research were deleted from transcripts to help maintain the confidentiality of the participants. Interview participants were given the opportunity to review themes and presentations that included their data for accuracy before publication.

An iterative process was applied to the coding and analysis of the interviews. Each interview transcript was coded using a grounded theory approach, where open codes were initially used to identify themes, and codes were further refined as data analysis developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; Key themes from literature and overarching themes from interview responses were used as initial codes, after extensive review of the conceptual frameworks that could be best applied to the data.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Gery W.|last2=Bernard|first2=H. Russell|date=2003-02|title=Techniques to Identify Themes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1525822x02239569|journal=Field Methods|volume=15|issue=1|pages=85–109|doi=10.1177/1525822x02239569|issn=1525-822X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the interviews were designed around concepts of community engagement,&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; there appeared to be very little evidence of direct community engagement. Morrison’s (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; descriptions of organizational and operational legitimacy were added to the axial coding to more accurately represent the relative weights of themes seen in the responses.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Bryman|first1= A.|date= 2015|title=Social research methods|publisher= Oxford University Press|edition=5th|isbn=9780199689453 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ultimately, responses were coded as falling into one or more of three themes: trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, and ability to respond to changing expectations of stakeholders. For industry member responses, these classifications were then further analyzed to determine how the industry engaged the community, either with its organization or its operation. The influence of organizational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: relationships, ethics and responsibilities. These divisions were used to understand how the long memories and deep, interpersonal connections people in this rural, isolated community may be related to the level of social license they permit. The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses to three divisions: specialization, sustainability and resource management. These divisions were used to understand how local industry actors respond to external, local pressures regarding their social license. Participants were not asked about these topics directly, however, their responses to other interview questions may be indicative of the broader market dynamics at play in this local industry. Although responses were given a binary coding for the purpose of analysis, they are not intended to represent the overarching measure of social license, which is widely accepted as beyond binary.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Results ==
Data analysis via iterative coding processes revealed several themes related to, but not perfectly corresponding to, existing perspectives on social license and our original research objectives. The influence of organizational legitimacy were grouped into the following themes uncovered in interview responses: relationships, ethics, and responsibilities between industry and community. In terms of operational dimensions, dominant themes related to specialization, sustainability, and resource management were noted.

Regarding organizational legitimacy, relationships included the personal and professional interactions of individuals within the industry and with other stakeholders. An example quotation tallied for relationships is as follows: “the time that we spent together- designing, figuring and their business to the shop usually take that relationship deeper.” The ethics division denoted responses that could be categorized as being part of a moral code or standard beyond what is required by the profession. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for ethics: “as a Christian [there are] guidelines as to what is right and what’s wrong.” The final division under organizational legitimacy is responsibilities. Responsibilities were the obligations or duties assigned to a person by themselves or other stakeholders such as family, neighbors, and corporations. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for responsibilities: “I have to make sure we buy the proper material to give us the greatest yield for the least amount of money.”

The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: specialization, sustainability, and resource management. Specialization included changes in operational procedure or machinery to better meet market demands and improve efficiency. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for specialization: “equipment to manufacture [a product] has undergone a lot of changes, before it was a very hands on, labor intensive, and dangerous.” The sustainability division denoted responses about operations that balanced social, economic and most often environmental goals. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for sustainability: “We do culvert permits whenever a stream needs to be crossed or bridge permits- that is very common now.” The final division under operational legitimacy is resource management, which included the inputs and outputs of manufacturing and the methods by which forests were managed in the region, often including comments about granting public access to private forest lands. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for resource management: “Thinning a hardwood stand is very extensive. Clear cutting aspen, not particularly intensive. It regenerates so quickly.” Responses tallied in these divisions were not counted mutually exclusively, meaning some comments bridge several divisions that were relevant for assessing social license.

Coding also revealed a major theme, articulated by members of both groups, regarding the relationship between the history of natural resource based industrial activities in the area and perspectives of and expectations for current industry activities. We begin the presentation of the results with a brief history of resource extraction in the county and how participants associated this with shaping current discussions of natural resource based industry. This is followed by data on relationships, trust, and engagement within the county. The last sections build upon the previous sections to review the current social license dynamics as described by interview participants.

=== Industry histories and community identities ===
The long history of logging and copper mining in the county continues to shape the attitudes and identities of industry participants today. The economic cycles of the last decade have left only the most fit forest products industry corporations intact. The community as a whole and the individuals working for the forest products industry in particular value continued commitment to hard work in the face of structural challenges. Several industry participants talked with pride about the importance of hard work, saying things like, “I have always made sure that we are cutting all the time. If you sit you are going backwards,” and, “Work harder than the next guy out there, do a better job.” The industry here takes a stoic stance toward surviving macroeconomic cycles: “Our long term focus has been helpful. You can make a lot of bad decisions if you are thinking short term. We have been around 100 years. You have got to keep reminding yourself of the long term goals.” Several participants represented companies that have generations of experience operating in the region, which may provide continuity on issues that impact social license.

The data suggests that the forest products industry may receive social license through the channels that were originally established by mining corporations. Several community participants mentioned that the local culture is accepting of the presence of industry, saying, “collectively, the culture still reflects that this was a mining region and that the mining companies were the giver,” and, “people were used to depending on the company store, not challenging the father mine figure and that carried over so that the people are looking to somebody to give them the job or someone to fix it.”

Further, comparisons to mining operations seem to have a positive effect on perceptions of the forest products industry. One community member, comparing the impacts of logging and mining, said, “The legacy mining thing is worse.” Rather than anything attributed to industry responsibility, though, participants discussed the differences between mining and logging activities in terms of the biophysical characteristics, the resiliency of local ecosystems and the natural regeneration of many tree species, which allowed the industry to remain intact. According to another community member, the forest resource was “poorly managed for 80 years and it survived or came back.”

An industry member similarly focused on the positive aspects of wood products, arguing, “one of the things about our industry is that the trees that we grow are renewable. A lot of industries are extractive type industries. Ours is a renewable industry. So that is a really neat thing. And the other thing is that our industry can go very well hand in hand with other interests that folks have and we have. For instance, recreation, biodiversity, hunting, you name it.” The renewable nature of forest resources and the ability to manage the forest for multiple uses were elements that local stakeholders and industry representatives alike described as important for granting social license.

=== Relationships and trust ===
Relationships built through formal channels of communication or industry engagement through activities such as community event sponsorships are perceived as key for social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019-06-20|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, according to participants in this project, relationships exist both within the industry and informally among members of the industry and the community due to the multi-dimensional nature of human identity and social life which corresponds with understanding of variable stakeholder relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; It was not primarily through formal networks of communication or industry support but through informal relationships, engagement, and shared activities and interests that the forest products industry was able to achieve and maintain local license via community relationships that built and maintained trust.

One industry member talked at length about the responsibility for the environment that accompanies their position, saying, “Protecting water quality, protecting threatened and endangered species, make sure wildlife habitat is conserved, making sure the neighbors are treated correctly. Those things are common to everybody and those things are what we really got to focus on. Particularly water quality. I think as an industry in general we have come a hell of a long ways in improving what we do around water. Both in road construction and skidding wood and harvesting.” In the interviews with the industry, it was widely acknowledged that the wellbeing of their industry was directly linked to the wellbeing of the environment. There were a range of comments made by industry members related to ensuring that the forest would be sustained into the future, including: “Our responsibility is, we are obviously utilizing today, we want to make sure that future generations can utilize as well.” Another industry member said, “I am responsible for achieving that budget in terms of the amount of wood we harvest and the amount of money we make off of that. We have to do that in an environmentally sustainable manner that means that we can keep doing it for a long time in the future.”

The forest products industry relied on their organizations’ or participants’ ethics to build trust with the public. The organizations also relied on their relationships within the industry and community as well as their perceived responsibilities to help form trust. The forest products industry responded that operationally, sustainability had the largest impact on whether the public would trust the organization. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

Industry members talked about the importance of positive communication efforts while developing relationships with others, saying, “It’s all about people skills, you can’t go in there be a know-it-all. It's all about listening and talking. Being friendly, being open, being honest, being empathetic.” Another industry participant said, “Most people are pretty understanding of what we do. They realize. Once in a while they ask when you do something that seems to be out of the norm, I usually get called on it. There are lots of people around- I know just about everybody in the community. They kind of trust you and if they see something, they want to know why too.” These comments are illustrative of how participants from industry discussed developing trust with local stakeholders.

The developer, city official and media participants indicated a high level of trust in the forest products industry. As one of these local stakeholders said, “I think that our forest industry people are stewards of our forest, stewards of our earth of which all of us actually should be, but especially in that industry and I think that they are.” While less common among the participants associated with conservation and environmental activism, all community participants made some comments about trust that indicate the existence of a social license. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

=== Engagement through community identities ===
Among research participants, relationships that built trust were described as occurring not through formal activities or corporate sponsorships but through shared community identities that created a sense of shared purpose among industry actors and local stakeholders. Of the comments made concerning community engagement, 57% focused on relationships, as the avenue through which members of the forest product industry thought that their organizations engaged stakeholders. Most of the relationships described by industry members were personal or involved other members of the industry. As one participant said, “I know many of the consulting foresters, timber managers. We catch up at community events and sessions.” Local industry members are often also local stakeholders and could serve to inform others about the operations of the industry through their informal social networks. Outside of several specific instances, engaging stakeholders was not part of the practice of corporations within the industry operating in this community. Portions of their resource management or specialization (such as design) could have been used to develop conversations with the local community, but were largely absent. The forest products industry seemed to withdraw from many formal activities that would engage stakeholders because of perceived possibility of negative responses. As one industry member said, “We can be blamed for some of that for not protecting our turf long, long ago. Or for some of our bad behavior as an industry may be long, long ago. We haven't tooted our horn on what’s changed, instead we try to stay out of that limelight.” See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

However, community participants suggested that engagement from the industry was largely positive. A majority of the comments about industry engagement suggested industry had been successful in those interactions. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

There were very few responses made by local stakeholders specifically about direct or formal engagement with the forest products industry. Only two references were made to direct engagement efforts initiated by the forest products industry, both having been far enough in the past where local stakeholders were unable to recall details. One community member stated, “I do remember TV commercials educating people on the industry and what it means to your economy and your environment, but I can’t recall anything particular.” Another recalled, “That program where they put the signs out and the kids can go out and learn about different types of forest cover. That was started when there was a real strong backlash against the industry.” For both industry and community participants, direct or formal engagement was described as happening rarely and reactively. The kinds of informal engagement that were taking place, and were arguably contributing to the local license granted by the community to industry activities, were based on informal community networks. Participants had gone to school together, been coworkers, or had similar hobbies. These networks were the foundation for shared relationships, the building of trust, and the maintenance of informal engagement.

=== Social license in the community context ===
While the forest products industry may be somewhat embedded in the community, the lack of recognized formal engagement and feeling of invisibility or persecution experienced by some industry participants indicates its social license is inadequate. One industry participant said they felt “demonized” and that as a member of the industry, “You are almost best to stay out of the limelight,” although this is contrary to responses from community participants and may be a factor currently limiting effective communication between the groups. This lack of communication between the groups also shows that the social license may be lacking between this community and the local forest products industry. While respondents may not have directly used the term “social license” or some variation, their responses allude to the greater themes and impacts of social license to operate.

One potential reason for the continued dynamic of perceived conflict is that the industry is not proactively communicating about operational changes that do address the potential environmental harms of logging activities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Of the local stakeholders, all six participants indicated that they had at least a mid-level understanding of the forest products industry. This is despite the lack of coordinated education by the industry and other identified possible partners from university, extension, and government agencies. Further, based upon the responses from community participants, much of the community would be receptive to direct and formal engagement, but said things like, “I think unless you are related, you don’t really know loggers” and “I would bet that nine of ten, if people have a complaint they are not going to know where to go.”

Multiple participants indicated that they relied on local representatives of state agencies and a local university for information about logging practices and the forest products industry. local stakeholders expected these institutions to maintain relations with individual industry actors and provide information to the community. However, The public’s utilization of state government and university expertise was not part of the direct line of questioning in the interviews, but this potentially provides another perspective on community industry relations. Although the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was seen as an asset to the industry and community, there were responses that indicated that community engagement on behalf of the forest products industry was not the DNR’s primary role. local stakeholders recognized the tensions faced by the DNR; as one interviewee said, “Our DNR is underfunded. We are ranked top three in natural resources but we are in the bottom three in state investment.” Given the community’s social context of having the resources of a local university and local agents from state offices, there is less pressure on the industry to maintain direct communications to facilitate community support. However, this indirect line of communication may strain the limited resources of existing groups (i.e., universities, DNR staff, members of the industry who conduct operations in the public view) in ways that may impede the communication necessary to sustain community support for the forest products industry.

== Discussion &amp; limitations ==
Past research on how natural resource based industries achieve social license focuses on formal means of engagement and communication as well as schematics of social license formation assumed to apply across an entire industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Wyatt|first3=Stephen|last4=Williams|first4=Kathryn J. H.|date=2016-09|title=Social licence to operate and forestry – an introduction|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw036|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=473–476|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw036|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; This research instead looks at how local stakeholders and industry actors perceive the processes shaping communication, engagement, and change without explicit reference to social license and demonstrates how social perspectives of industry activities are embedded in real socio-environmental contexts and histories. Via interrogation of the processes involved in real relationships between the forest products industry and the local community and the extent to which the industry is achieving social license, this research demonstrates that social license is highly contingent on socio-historical and spatially variable community identities.

Given the long history of natural resource based industries in this community, natural resource economic dependency is an integral part of community identity and shapes community support for forest product activities. local stakeholders are also aware of the macro-economic forces, largely out of the hands of local industry actors, which shape operational practices. They are critical of how these larger systemic economic systems impact their community while recognizing that local industry actors are largely responsive to forces they cannot control. Forest dependent communities are often interested in balancing forest health with employment and wood production but are also often unable to pay for expanded conservation,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kangas|first=Jyrki|last2=Niemeläinen|first2=Pasi|date=1996-01|title=Opinion of forest owners and the public on forests and their use in Finland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02827589609382936|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research|volume=11|issue=1-4|pages=269–280|doi=10.1080/02827589609382936|issn=0282-7581}}&lt;/ref&gt; and community participants in this study also recognized the limits on local industry actors to make decisions about how the industry utilizes natural resources.

However, histories of natural resource extraction can also be problematic for communities as they face economic dependencies that shape their willingness to accept industry activities. Gunningham, Thornton, and Kagan et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; found that industry actors felt location and visibility had a very strong connection to social license, even claiming that, “an economically dependent local community would be likely to have a more relaxed social license” (p. 324).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; In communities with a diverse economy, the processes of achieving social license are often much more complex.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Communities may exert low pressure on the industry due to economic dependence; however, the industry arguably requires more than just local consent in order to operate.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Considering the relationship between this community and the natural resource industries in the community, local stakeholders and local industry operators have shared history and experience as having limited power to control the larger economic forces acting upon them. This shared experience shapes the process of acquiring social license, and our data analysis highlights the importance of local histories and relationships in shaping social license. Nonlocal actors are likely to experience a much lesser degree of social license than local actors based on our findings. This can be at least partially explained by considering the importance of shared values, local history, and long standing relationships within the community. Local actors are more likely to have similar values to stakeholders, have established some history in the area, and have had the time to establish meaningful relationships within the community. As such, social license varies spatially and local actors are likely to carry a greater social license to operate than nonlocal actors.

Baines and Edwards (2018)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Baines|first=James|last2=Edwards|first2=Peter|date=2018-02|title=The role of relationships in achieving and maintaining a social licence in the New Zealand aquaculture sector|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|journal=Aquaculture|volume=485|pages=140–146|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|issn=0044-8486}}&lt;/ref&gt; shared similar findings in New Zealand’s aquaculture sector regarding the importance of relationships and communication between industry and local stakeholders. They find that social license depends on relationships and building trust. Smaller, local companies tend towards relationships that are relational as opposed to transactional, possibly due to their on-going community presences and communication abilities, which are better for fostering these relationships and trust building. This is consistent with our findings regarding the importance of long-standing relationships, as well as the need for better communication between the local industry and stakeholders cited by interviewees.

A corporate strategy employed to maximize shareholder profit has been to vertically integrate or divest of certain sectors. Vertical integration is when a corporation is invested or owns more than one segment of the supply chain. Vertical integration can help to increase profit margins, secure access to a resource, and add resilience to the expansion and contraction of the industry based on economic cycles. Still, vertical integration can also remove autonomy, flexibility, or opportunities for advancement in local communities. The way that industry arranges and presents its sectors to the local community could influence social license. Thus, issues of scale matter for shaping the process of acquiring social license.

This case study also suggests that informal relationships through shared social networks and shared community identities (as hunters, fishers, or snowmobilers) build trust for the local forest products industry. Trust in industry was not based on knowing the specifics of operational practice; rather, trust was developed and maintained through informal relationships. If formal and informal relationships predicating trust are absent social license may not develop, leading to the collapse of otherwise viable projects.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017-01|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; For environmentally oriented actors, this means seeing industry actors as people who also use the environment. For industry actors, this means acknowledging their interest in an environment that can sustain both economic activities and the recreational activities they want as humans who also live in the community.

However, the research suggests that these informal networks are not serving as a means to communicate about improvements to industry operations that promote environmental sustainability through best management practices (BMPs) and sustainability certification programs. Although adherence to regulations or voluntary participation in sustainability certifications is standard to the forest products industry, it is unclear if the details of the industry performance are being communicated with the public effectively. This represents an opportunity for the industry to improve development of community relationships through communication about operational practices focused on sustainability efforts, especially if ways are found to do this that leverage the informal communication and relational networks that seem to matter most to local stakeholders.

Many of the resources affected by forest management are held in the public trust,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fujisawa|first=Hideo|date=2004-02|title=The forest planning system in relation to the forest resource and forestry policies|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|journal=Journal of Forest Research|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|issn=1341-6979}}&lt;/ref&gt; so it is important for both industry actors and community stakeholders to feel engaged and involved in decisions regarding local natural resource management. As Krogman (2002)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krogman|first=Naomi|last2=Beckley|first2=Tom|date=2002-02|title=Corporate 'Bail-Outs' and Local 'Buyouts': Pathways to Community Forestry?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/089419202753403300|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=15|issue=2|pages=109–127|doi=10.1080/089419202753403300|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; described, the possible range of co-management of community forests and industries is a broad spectrum. Yet Moon’s (2011)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Moon|first=Seong-Gin|last2=Bae|first2=Suho|date=2011-11|title=State-Level Institutional Pressure, Firms' Organizational Attributes, and Corporate Voluntary Environmental Behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=11|pages=1189–1204|doi=10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; findings on voluntary environmental behavior by corporations suggest that corporations are less concerned with regulatory disciplinary measures than with maintaining economic stability. The current research project suggests that local stakeholders recognize the pressures facing industry actors. It also indicates interest from both industry and local groups in managing natural resource uses for the long term. The findings suggest ways that natural resource based industries can leverage informal relationships, shared ethics commitments, and shared localized sense of responsibility to shape their organizational tendencies. This also informs the extent to which specialization, sustainability, and resource management impact operational possibilities, and relates themes in both groups that suggest more commonality than division among participant perspectives.

Study limitations include a relatively small sample size and the discrepancy between how many interviews were conducted with industry representatives versus general local stakeholders. Responses from community stakeholder interviews indicate that community members understand and recognize industry issues and barriers to success, a fact that industry members themselves recognize, however, additional research is required to adequately characterize these similarities. In addition, our use of snowball sampling creates an opportunity to miss certain local populations and their ideas. Further interviews aimed at capturing these populations are necessary to form a more complete image of social license in this community.

== Conclusion ==
Industry in this community has experienced a long history shaped by their natural resource use and the public’s opinion of it. At present, the forest products industry in this county renews and maintains its social license through personal relationships and shared values between industry members and local stakeholders, despite the absence of direct community engagement efforts. This gives direct benefit to local actors, who are more likely to hold these shared values and to have developed these personal relationships than an actor external to the community. Industry operations have improved with global innovations in technology, best management practices, sustainability certifications and health and safety regulations, and the industry might strengthen its social license by engaging local stakeholders in conversation about the shared values associated with the management of natural resources. A strengthened social license would benefit the industry if it tries to grow or navigate disturbances.

In this research, the concept of social license helps to explain the ways that operational and organizational dimensions of a natural resource based industry achieve social support from local stakeholders. Further, this research suggests that local stakeholders and industry participants have more commonalities than divisions in terms of key elements shaping social license, including commitments to a shared sense of value ethics and responsible resource management. Finally, this research suggests ways of expanding the concept of social license to consider the impact of local socio-environmental context, informal social relationships, and localized values as well as suggesting that natural resource based industries can leverage direct or mediated dialogue with local communities to communicate changes to operations and organization related to both large scale economic forces and localized environmental management.

== Appendix A ==
''Expanded Data Tables''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Trust in Organizations
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''46%'''
|'''351'''
|'''89%'''
|'''84'''
|'''46%'''
|'''277'''
|'''22%'''
|'''160'''
|'''59%'''
|'''158'''
|'''43%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|39%
|138
|87%
|23
|38%
|93
|23%
|22
|51%
|53
|34%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|29%
|35
|83%
|6
|41%
|37
|20%
|15
|44%
|18
|41%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|44% 
|45
|71% 
|14
|43%
|30
|14% 
|35
|46% 
|28
|45%
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|44%
|9
|100%
|3
|53%
|15
|20% 
|5
|100%
|8
|100%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|57% 
|28
|83%
|6
|40% 
|30
|29%
|7
|67%
|15
|47%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|50% 
|56
|100%
|23
|63%
|52
|26%
|38
|78% 
|32
|65%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|73% 
|40
|100%
|9
|60% 
|20
|24% 
|38
|75%
|4
|33%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Engaging Stakeholders
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''57%'''
|'''351'''
|'''30%'''
|'''84'''
|'''23%''' 
|'''277'''
|'''24%'''
|'''160'''
|'''16%'''
|'''158'''
|'''17%'''
|'''15'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|48%
|138
|22%
|23
|18% 
|93
|18% 
|22
|11% 
|53
|14%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|49%
|35
|17%
|6
|22%
|37
|7% 
|15
|6%
|18
|14%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|62%
|45
|29%
|14
|30% 
|30
|26% 
|35
|25% 
|28
|32% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|56%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|40%
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|82%
|28
|33% 
|6
|17%
|30
|29% 
|7
|7% 
|15
|11%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|54%
|56
|48%
|23
|35%
|52
|16%
|38
|28% 
|32
|18%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|75%
|40
|22%
|9
|35%
|20
|37%
|38
|25%
|4
|0%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Response to changing expectation
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''15%'''
|'''351'''
|'''17%'''
|'''84'''
|'''21%'''
|'''277'''
|'''60%''' 
|'''160'''
|'''35%''' 
|'''158'''
|'''27%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|13%
|138
|13%
|23
|15% 
|93
|64%
|22
|30%
|53
|24% 
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|6% 
|35
|17%
|6
|16% 
|37
|27%
|15
|39%
|18
|18%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|20%
|45
|14%
|14
|37% 
|30
|51%
|35
|36%
|28
|35% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|22%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|60% 
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|4%
|28
|0%
|6
|13%
|30
|57%
|7
|33%
|15
|26%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|23%
|56
|35%
|23
|37% 
|52
|68%
|38
|50%
|32
|24%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|20%
|40
|0%
|9
|20% 
|20
|71%
|38
|25%
|4
|67% 
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Trust in Organizations
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Engaging Stakeholders
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Response to Expectations
|-
!Community (agg. n-6) 
!67% 
!n=189
!33%
!66% 
!n=180 
!34% 
!66%
!n=169
!34% 
|-
|Developer (n-1) 
|88%
|n=24
|13%
|80%
|n=25
|20%
|83%
|n=23
|17%
|-
|City Official (n-1)
|77%
|n=44
|23%
|78%
|n=41
|22%
|77% 
|n=43
|23%
|-
|Media (n-1) 
|98%
|n=42
|2%
|71%
|n=42
|29%
|83%
|n=30 
|17%
|-
|Conservationist (n-2) 
|37%
|n=67 
|63%
|50%
|n=52
|50%
|37% 
|n=59
|63%
|-
|Environ. Activist (n-1)
|50% 
|n=12 
|50%
|50%
|n=20
|50%
|86% 
|n=14 
|14%
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
      <sha1>r7mray606p6ofwfij6gk5tbkykhvrmw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409293</id>
      <parentid>2409292</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:47:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OhanaUnited</username>
        <id>18921</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Unpack social license */ - space</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="69681" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Zoe
| last1 = Ketola
| orcid1 = 
| affiliation1 = Michigan Technological University
| first2 = William
| last2 = Lytle
| orcid2 = 
| affiliation2 = Evergreen International Sustainability Solutions; USA Dry Pea and Lentil Council
| correspondence2 = by [[Special:EmailUser/Wjlytle|online form]]
| first3 =  Chelsea 
| last3 = Schelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first4 =  Mark
| last4 = Rudnicki{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first5 =  Matthew 
| last5 = Kelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| license = 
| abstract = This research investigates the existing social license and the processes of achieving and articulating social license between a rural community in the northern Midwestern United States community and the forest products industry, based on interviews with both industry and community stakeholders. Perceptions of natural resource management and community relations are highly related to the community’s history with industries, relationships with place, and perspectives on valuable work. The results suggest that social license varies spatially, and it is the place-based context that allows local industry to have a higher degree of license than non-local industry actors. Thus, social license is spatially contingent, based on particular socio-spatial and historical contexts. In this paper, we articulate how these spatial and historical contextualization shapes perceptions of acceptable operating practices. This paper offers refinement of the concept of social license while also considering how natural resource based industries can successfully meet evolving management challenges.
}}

== Introduction ==
The term “social license” - generally, the acceptance a company has to engage in its operations - was introduced in 1997 and has since been applied in multiple resource extraction industries to describe changes in company-community interactions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Kieren |last1=Moffat |first2=Justine |last2=Lacey |first3=Airong |last3=Zhang |first4=Sina |last4=Leipold |url=https://academic.oup.com/forestry/article/89/5/477/2194485 |title=The social licence to operate: a critical review |journal=Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research |doi=10.1093/forestry/cpv044 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=477–488 |year=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; This use of social license has included an understanding of how acceptance levels impact resource development operations within these industries&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gunningham|first=Neil|last2=Kagan|first2=Robert A.|last3=Thornton|first3=Dorothy|date=2004-04|title=Social License and Environmental Protection: Why Businesses Go Beyond Compliance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|journal=Law &amp; Social Inquiry|volume=29|issue=2|pages=307–341|doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|issn=0897-6546}}&lt;/ref&gt; state corporations comply with their social license by operating within societal expectations and avoiding activities (or influential elements within them) considered unacceptable, and define social license it as “the demands on and expectations for a business enterprise that emerge from neighborhoods, environmental groups, local stakeholders, and other elements of the surrounding civil society”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

It seems that industries recognize the value or necessity of their social license and its impact on their operations. Some forecasts indicate that obtaining social license may become a requirement for obtaining a legal license from government agencies, although frameworks used to incorporate social license in government licensure are not well-defined and may turn out the be prohibitive to forming trust-based community relationships.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Anguelovski|first=Isabelle|date=2011-01-31|title=Understanding the Dynamics of Community Engagement of Corporations in Communities: The Iterative Relationship Between Dialogue Processes and Local Protest at the Tintaya Copper Mine in Peru|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920903339699|journal=Society &amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=4|pages=384–399|doi=10.1080/08941920903339699|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Lacey|first1= J.|last2= Parsons|first2= R.|last3= Moffat|first3= K.|date=2012|title=Exploring the concept of a Social Licence to Operate in the Australian minerals industry: Results from interviews with industry representatives|publisher= CSIRO|at= EP125553|doi=10.4225/08/5852dc54dc765}}&lt;/ref&gt; Issues related to the government’s measurement of corporations’ social license include its role in licensure processes, the penalties for non-compliance, or the community’s ability to halt a project if a corporation is not responsive to their concerns, are still subject to global concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Demuijnck|first=Geert|last2=Fasterling|first2=Björn|date=2016-01-15|title=The Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=136|issue=4|pages=675–685|doi=10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|issn=0167-4544}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019-06-20|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Regardless of government involvement, social license is achieved within and given by communities. Communities can be defined as “a social unit of any size that shares common values, or that is situated in a given geographical area”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|doi=10.1163/9789087901738_008|chapter=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: Industry Supported Professional Development in the Mineral Resource Sector|title=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: The Contribution of Science and Technology Education|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Brill|first1=Dan |last1=Churach|first2= Di |last2=Nichols|editor1-first= David B. |editor1-last=Zandvliet |editor2-first=Darrel L.|editor2-last= Fisher|pages=71–84|isbn=978-90-8790-173-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Communities are often viewed as people that fall in a certain geographic region, although even these geographic groups can contain multiple, smaller groups that include individuals with varied perspectives and values that shape the way they view industrial operations. Further, members of geographic communities may have different relationships with industry because they may be part of the workforce, product consumers, and potential project partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Local stakeholders may also differ in the extent to which they contribute to supplying infrastructure for industry, including access to resources and the ways they benefit from industrial activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/802343793|title=Sustainable communities, sustainable development: other paths for Papua New Guinea|first2=Albert|last1=James|first1= Paul Warren|last2=Age|date= 2012|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi|isbn=0-8248-3588-3|oclc=802343793|doi=10.21313/hawaii/9780824835880.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Communities carry social, spatial, and historical contexts; geographical spaces are socio-environmental places and communities are shaped by their shared climates and histories. Thus, the granting of social license is also based on perspectives and values developed within community context, and understanding the social licensing process arguably requires attentiveness to the spatial and historical context of any community.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Sen|date=2019-10|title=Managing forests for the greater good: The role of the social license to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=107|pages=101920|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|issn=1389-9341}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, how social license influences the relationships between local stakeholders and local industry is often unclear, leaving the portrait of its socio-environmental context incomplete. This work considers how the social license to operate for a local forest products industry is embedded in a local socio-environmental context within a rural community in Michigan, aiming to understand what that may mean for navigating the development of social license and potential conflicts that may threaten it.

== Unpack social license ==

Social license is often regarded as being synonymous with community approval, in part due to its deep historical roots in mining and forestry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Syn|first=Juliette|date=2014-07-31|title=The Social License: Empowering Communities and a Better Way Forward|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=318–339|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Boutilier|first1= R.|last2= Thomson|first2= I.|date= 2011|title= Modelling and measuring the social license to operate: Fruits of a dialogue between theory and practice|publisher= Social License|url=https://socialicense.com/publications/Modelling%20and%20Measuring%20the%20SLO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Parsons|first=Richard|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Moffat|first3=Kieren|date=2014-09|title=Maintaining legitimacy of a contested practice: How the minerals industry understands its 'social licence to operate'|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=41|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt;  References to the concept of social license go back to 1996, when W. Henson Moore refers to mills as needing a “social license to operate” from the public.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|last1=Moore|first1=W.H.|date=October 1996|title= The social license to operate|work= PIMA Magazine|pages= 22–23|volume=78|issue=10|issn=1046-4352}}&lt;/ref&gt;  However, given the dynamic nature of relationships, community approval fails to describe all of the essential elements of social license, such as how different stakeholder groups perceive individual nodes of the supply chain in the forest products industry and especially how the industry can achieve and maintain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Citing our previous definition of the term from Gunningham et al., it would be most productive to view social license not as a linear relationship that directly binds industry with the community, but as a continuum, spectrum, or even web of relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dare|first=Melanie (Lain)|last2=Schirmer|first2=Jacki|last3=Vanclay|first3=Frank|date=2014-06-18|title=Community engagement and social licence to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal|volume=32|issue=3|pages=188–197|doi=10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|issn=1461-5517}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|date=2014-07-31|title=Can’t Climb the Trees Anymore: Social Licence to Operate, Bioenergy and Whole Stump Removal in Sweden|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=239–257|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gehman|first=Joel|last2=Lefsrud|first2=Lianne M.|last3=Fast|first3=Stewart|date=2017-06|title=Social license to operate: Legitimacy by another name?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/capa.12218|journal=Canadian Public Administration|volume=60|issue=2|pages=293–317|doi=10.1111/capa.12218|issn=0008-4840}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; outline three important facets to an industry involved in community engagement: “trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, [and] ability of organizations to respond to changing expectations” (pp. 191-192). Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; argue that these three elements form a vehicle that allows a corporation to increase its social license. 

Traditionally, industries have used community engagement or public relations strategies and personnel to reach out to local stakeholders. The effectiveness of these methods is influenced by the nature of the industry operations, education provided to communities, and the relationship that can be formed during engagement, which occurs at both the strategic and operational levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Strategic engagement includes proactively reaching out to community leaders and finding key influencers with whom to form relationships. Operational engagement exists at the work site and includes efforts to shape how people experience an operation through one-on-one conversations and by minimizing negative environmental and aesthetic impacts. However, operational engagement is often limited by poor access to the work site, particularly in rural areas with difficult terrain, large open spaces, and lackluster road networks. When site access is limited, local stakeholders may rely on other sources, such as the media, to help them form their opinions of industrial operations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lester|first=Libby|date=2016-02-29|title=Media and social licence: on being publicly useful in the Tasmanian forests conflict|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw015|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=542–551|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw015|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Previous research suggests that operational engagement has limitations due to communities not trusting local managers, a failure to reach the full body of stakeholders, and the inability of organizations to adapt operations to fit with changing social norms.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

The forest products industry is characterized by both stationary operations (i.e., mills) and transient operations (i.e., timber harvests) that occur across a wide expanse of the landscape. In this way, forest products industries commonly cross geographic communities, thereby complicating operations level engagement. Despite the limitations, strategic engagement and operational engagement are presumed to be an important part of a corporation’s achieving social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prno|first=Jason|last2=Scott Slocombe|first2=D.|date=2012-09|title=Exploring the origins of ‘social license to operate’ in the mining sector: Perspectives from governance and sustainability theories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=37|issue=3|pages=346–357|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt; Combined, these factors influence what level of social license a community may grant industry. We hope to understand the extent to which the community in our case study grants their forest products industry its social license and how the concepts of strategic and operational engagement factor into social license to operate. 

Effective community engagement should focus on building legitimacy, credibility and trust; these are the three key relationship components for understanding the continuum of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Trust is particularly important for unlocking more effective community-industry relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stern|first=Marc J.|last2=Baird|first2=Timothy D.|date=2015|title=Trust ecology and the resilience of natural resource management institutions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/es-07248-200214|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=20|issue=2|doi=10.5751/es-07248-200214|issn=1708-3087}}&lt;/ref&gt; The “trust ecology” includes prior behavior and performance, personal histories, positive direct interactions and equitable procedures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; Building multiple forms of trust allows for greater institutional resilience, in that if one type of trust becomes jeopardized, the other forms will help retain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;

One element of trust is reputation, which illustrates how different stakeholder groups can influence the formation of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; The reputation of a corporation has also been defined as organizational legitimacy, and represents how stakeholders perceive the identity and values of an organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/964759813|title=The social license: How to keep your organization legitimate|first=John|last=Morrison|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-137-37072-6|oclc=964759813}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, operational legitimacy is based on the action or production of services provided to stakeholders by the organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Lacey (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; suggests that social license can take a long time for a corporation or industry to achieve, but social license can be lost very quickly for a variety of factors, including changes in stakeholder expectations, technology, or other disturbances. Gunningham et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; argue that meeting and exceeding regulations to build reputational capital is economically vital, saying: “in certain circumstances, [natural resource based industries] cannot afford to do otherwise” (p. 321). 

The concept of social license as currently articulated is not without weaknesses. The terms often used to describe social license (e.g., legitimate, credible, support, accept, permit, approve, consent) can overlap in meaning, leading to ambiguity in their interpretation).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017-01|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, social license becomes more opaque when held next to terms like corporate social responsibility, sustainable development, and corporate citizenship, which all seek to call attention to the same general concept of striving for an industry that balances economic, social, and environmental goals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Elkington|first1= J.|date= 2004|chapter= Enter the triple bottom line|editor1-last= Henriques|editor1-first= A.|editor2-last=Richardson|editor2-first= J.|title= The Triple Bottom Line: Does It All Add up? Assessing the Sustainability of Business and CSR|pages=1–16|isbn=9781849773348|publisher=Routledge}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Amin U.|date=1998-09|title=Sustainability, sustainable development and forest resources|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509809469980|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development &amp;amp; World Ecology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=164–171|doi=10.1080/13504509809469980|issn=1350-4509}}&lt;/ref&gt; There has even been some specific disapproval for the term social license, such as when the term was adopted by industry and then used in conversation with the local community; stakeholders and media felt that the term was being used against them as propaganda and that it was difficult to fully comprehend.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, many natural resource based industries have become interested in analyzing their social license in hopes of cultivating more effective partnerships with local communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; This study examined the social license of the forest products industry based on the perspective of both industry members and community stakeholders in a rural community located in the northern Midwestern United States. We hope that our findings will allow some refinement of the social license concept such that it can be better applied to current and future projects involving industrial activities using local natural environments.

== Case Study Background ==
This research centers on how the public grants social license to the forest products industry within a rural county in Michigan, located in the northern Midwestern United States. This county has about 1,000 square miles of mostly forested land and has a history of involvement with the forest products industry (United States Census Bureau). For this research, the forest products industry is defined as all the lands owned and the operations that take place involving the management of forests or the processing of wood within the county. Participants in the forest products industry include public and private landowners, developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists, the media, and more, within the geographic boundaries of the county. Individuals representing each of these groups were interviewed as part of this study. Industry participants and community stakeholders were interviewed separately with question sets aimed at understanding their roles surrounding the social license of the forest products industry.

== Methods ==
This study was based around three primary research questions, as informed by the preceding background on social license literature and gaps in its theory. These questions are as follows.

# How does social license align with articulations of the relationships among the industry and the local community? 
# What current level of social license is the community granting the industry? 
# In what ways can the concept of social license be further refined based on this work’s context?

The interview protocol was developed following a thorough review of existing social license literature and existing knowledge regarding the local market, its actors, and their dynamics. It was designed to elicit responses from participants about the human dimensions of the local forest products industry and asked questions about topics shaping the local forest products industry’s social license. This was done to develop an understanding of the processes and practices of engagement among sectors of the forest products industry, as well as between the local industry and influential stakeholders in the community. As the interview progressed, participants were encouraged to express their personal views of their industry and their community with a strong focus on relationships, responsibilities, values and disturbances.

Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling methodology to better understand the social license continuum by receiving names of key informants that could be difficult to identify from outside the industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heckathorn|first=Douglas D.|date=2011-08|title=Comment: Snowball versus Respondent-Driven Sampling|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|journal=Sociological Methodology|volume=41|issue=1|pages=355–366|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|issn=0081-1750}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two separate sampling frames were used for each group of respondents, industry actors and community stakeholders. An initial assessment of the sectors of the forest products industry was performed using the Michigan Department of Natural Resources: Forest Products Industry Directory searchable database. Thirty-three corporate profiles were retrieved using the directory. These profiles were utilized for developing basic classifications of the industry as well as providing an initial point of contact for the interviews. Expansion of the sectors and classification system was necessary to accurately include the operations of corporations that were referred to participate in interviews through the snowball sampling method. A database on community leaders in government, nonprofit organizations, and the local media was created to initially identify community participants. These participants were then contacted for interviews and, if interviewed, were asked for additional potential participants. The snowball sampling method provides a means of determining when research is approaching saturation and occurs when names are referred multiple times and very few new names are added.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Charmaz|first1= K.|date=2003|chapter=Grounded theory|editor1-first= J. A.|editor1-last= Smith|title= Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods |pages= 81–110|publisher=Sage|isbn=0761972307 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Referrals from outside the county were not contacted for an interview.

Fourteen interviews were conducted with individuals from industry, representing 42.4% of the identified corporate profiles. Industry was considered to be the collection of all corporations and sectors involved with forest products. Each participant was given a primary classification based on the operations of the corporation (referred to as businesses and companies in some interview responses) and the individual position of the participant. Six of the companies were given secondary classifications based on their organization spanning more than one class. Interview questions are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 1. Interview Questions - Industry'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt''
!''Social License Subpart''
|-
|Q1: What makes your job or industry unique? 
P1: What level of responsibility, do you feel, is associated with your work? 

P2: Are there any parts of your job that you especially enjoy?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: Could you tell me about relationships with landowners/clients? 
P1: How long do these relationships usually last? 

P2: Do they understand what you do?
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|-
|Q3: Could you tell me about relationships with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with them?

P2: Who do you perceive, has more power in these interactions?

P3: Can you help me understand that better? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities 
|-
|Q4: Has there been a major external change- cultural, technological, social, economic- that has affected your clients or the public’s satisfaction with your products or services? 
P1: Are there segments of your company that have had trouble adapting? ie. equipment, personnel, facilities, R+D
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Social License in Community Context 
|-
|Q5: Do you feel that you have the ability to communicate effectively with landowners and the public? 
P1: What are the factors that limit your communication?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q6: The forest products industry seems to be very complex. What strategies have you developed to help you survive? 
P1: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q7: What was your industry like 10 years ago?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q8: When was the best time to be in your industry? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q9: Where do you see your industry in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories 
|-
|Q10: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about these topics? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 2. Interview Questions - Stakeholders'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt'' 
!'''''Social License Subpart''''' 
|-
|Q1: Could you tell me your job title and describe what your job entails? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: How long have you lived/worked in [County]? 
P1: What do you like about forests in this area?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q3: Do you own land? 
A. How many acres?  

B. Permanent residence?  

C. For land that is not a permanent residence, what is your purpose for owning it? (recreation, investment, been in the family)  

D. How did you acquire your land (purchase vs inherit)  

E. Is the land forested? Does it have a home  

F. Is the land have you ever harvested trees either commercially (timber sale) or for personal use (firewood)?  

G. Do you have a forest management plan?  

H. Do you consult with a professional forester? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q4: When I use the term forest products industry, who do you think of? 
P1: Why is that? 

P2: How would you define the forest products industry for [County]? 

P3: Would you say that you have a high, medium or low understanding of the forest products industry? {Define the forest products industry for our research}
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q5: What types of responsibilities, do you feel, are placed on the forest products industry? 
P1: How do you expect the actions of businesses in the industry to reflect these responsibilities? 

P2: Do you trust local members of the forest products industry to be stewards of our resources? {prompt with economic responsibilities (taxes, commerce) social (jobs, community involvement, recreation), environmental}
|Social License in Community Context/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q6: Could you tell me about the relationships the forest products industry has with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with the industry? 

P2: Who do you perceive, has more influence on the outcomes of these interactions? 

P3: Do you feel the industry understands the community’s needs?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q7: Has there been a major change-environmental, social, economic- that has affected your satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the forest products industry? 
P1: How does the forest products industry accommodate or address complaints?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q8: Do you feel that the forest products industry communicates effectively? 
P1: How does the industry show that? 

P2: What are the factors that limit their communication?
|Social Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q9: What are the difficulties associated with running a business in [County]? 
P1: Do the strategies of the forest products industry help them survive in your opinion? 

P2: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities/Social License in Community Context
|-
|Q10: What was your community like 10 years ago?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q11: When was the best time to be in your community? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q12: Where do you see your community in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q13: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about how the forest products industry relates to the community in [County]?
|Relationships &amp; Trust
|}
Six community participants were interviewed, representing positions later classified based on categories of significance identified via the snowball sampling method. Each of the participants represented a larger interest group including developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists and the media. These groups were referred to be interviewed because they reflect the diversity of natural resource stakeholders and they are inclusive of influential persons and decision-makers who may shape public opinion of the forest products industry. Interview questions for community participants can be found in Appendix B.

This research is based on a total of 20 in-depth interviews. Each participant agreed to the interview, consented to being digitally recorded, and was assured confidentiality. The interview protocol was reviewed by Michigan Technological University’s Institutional Review Board and given Exempt status because the research posed minimal risk to participants. Information associated with individual participants was assigned a numerical value to ensure confidentiality and ensure accuracy in data processing. Each interview was transcribed verbatim. Personal information and private stories unrelated to the research were deleted from transcripts to help maintain the confidentiality of the participants. Interview participants were given the opportunity to review themes and presentations that included their data for accuracy before publication.

An iterative process was applied to the coding and analysis of the interviews. Each interview transcript was coded using a grounded theory approach, where open codes were initially used to identify themes, and codes were further refined as data analysis developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; Key themes from literature and overarching themes from interview responses were used as initial codes, after extensive review of the conceptual frameworks that could be best applied to the data.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Gery W.|last2=Bernard|first2=H. Russell|date=2003-02|title=Techniques to Identify Themes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1525822x02239569|journal=Field Methods|volume=15|issue=1|pages=85–109|doi=10.1177/1525822x02239569|issn=1525-822X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the interviews were designed around concepts of community engagement,&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; there appeared to be very little evidence of direct community engagement. Morrison’s (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; descriptions of organizational and operational legitimacy were added to the axial coding to more accurately represent the relative weights of themes seen in the responses.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Bryman|first1= A.|date= 2015|title=Social research methods|publisher= Oxford University Press|edition=5th|isbn=9780199689453 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ultimately, responses were coded as falling into one or more of three themes: trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, and ability to respond to changing expectations of stakeholders. For industry member responses, these classifications were then further analyzed to determine how the industry engaged the community, either with its organization or its operation. The influence of organizational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: relationships, ethics and responsibilities. These divisions were used to understand how the long memories and deep, interpersonal connections people in this rural, isolated community may be related to the level of social license they permit. The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses to three divisions: specialization, sustainability and resource management. These divisions were used to understand how local industry actors respond to external, local pressures regarding their social license. Participants were not asked about these topics directly, however, their responses to other interview questions may be indicative of the broader market dynamics at play in this local industry. Although responses were given a binary coding for the purpose of analysis, they are not intended to represent the overarching measure of social license, which is widely accepted as beyond binary.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Results ==
Data analysis via iterative coding processes revealed several themes related to, but not perfectly corresponding to, existing perspectives on social license and our original research objectives. The influence of organizational legitimacy were grouped into the following themes uncovered in interview responses: relationships, ethics, and responsibilities between industry and community. In terms of operational dimensions, dominant themes related to specialization, sustainability, and resource management were noted.

Regarding organizational legitimacy, relationships included the personal and professional interactions of individuals within the industry and with other stakeholders. An example quotation tallied for relationships is as follows: “the time that we spent together- designing, figuring and their business to the shop usually take that relationship deeper.” The ethics division denoted responses that could be categorized as being part of a moral code or standard beyond what is required by the profession. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for ethics: “as a Christian [there are] guidelines as to what is right and what’s wrong.” The final division under organizational legitimacy is responsibilities. Responsibilities were the obligations or duties assigned to a person by themselves or other stakeholders such as family, neighbors, and corporations. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for responsibilities: “I have to make sure we buy the proper material to give us the greatest yield for the least amount of money.”

The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: specialization, sustainability, and resource management. Specialization included changes in operational procedure or machinery to better meet market demands and improve efficiency. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for specialization: “equipment to manufacture [a product] has undergone a lot of changes, before it was a very hands on, labor intensive, and dangerous.” The sustainability division denoted responses about operations that balanced social, economic and most often environmental goals. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for sustainability: “We do culvert permits whenever a stream needs to be crossed or bridge permits- that is very common now.” The final division under operational legitimacy is resource management, which included the inputs and outputs of manufacturing and the methods by which forests were managed in the region, often including comments about granting public access to private forest lands. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for resource management: “Thinning a hardwood stand is very extensive. Clear cutting aspen, not particularly intensive. It regenerates so quickly.” Responses tallied in these divisions were not counted mutually exclusively, meaning some comments bridge several divisions that were relevant for assessing social license.

Coding also revealed a major theme, articulated by members of both groups, regarding the relationship between the history of natural resource based industrial activities in the area and perspectives of and expectations for current industry activities. We begin the presentation of the results with a brief history of resource extraction in the county and how participants associated this with shaping current discussions of natural resource based industry. This is followed by data on relationships, trust, and engagement within the county. The last sections build upon the previous sections to review the current social license dynamics as described by interview participants.

=== Industry histories and community identities ===
The long history of logging and copper mining in the county continues to shape the attitudes and identities of industry participants today. The economic cycles of the last decade have left only the most fit forest products industry corporations intact. The community as a whole and the individuals working for the forest products industry in particular value continued commitment to hard work in the face of structural challenges. Several industry participants talked with pride about the importance of hard work, saying things like, “I have always made sure that we are cutting all the time. If you sit you are going backwards,” and, “Work harder than the next guy out there, do a better job.” The industry here takes a stoic stance toward surviving macroeconomic cycles: “Our long term focus has been helpful. You can make a lot of bad decisions if you are thinking short term. We have been around 100 years. You have got to keep reminding yourself of the long term goals.” Several participants represented companies that have generations of experience operating in the region, which may provide continuity on issues that impact social license.

The data suggests that the forest products industry may receive social license through the channels that were originally established by mining corporations. Several community participants mentioned that the local culture is accepting of the presence of industry, saying, “collectively, the culture still reflects that this was a mining region and that the mining companies were the giver,” and, “people were used to depending on the company store, not challenging the father mine figure and that carried over so that the people are looking to somebody to give them the job or someone to fix it.”

Further, comparisons to mining operations seem to have a positive effect on perceptions of the forest products industry. One community member, comparing the impacts of logging and mining, said, “The legacy mining thing is worse.” Rather than anything attributed to industry responsibility, though, participants discussed the differences between mining and logging activities in terms of the biophysical characteristics, the resiliency of local ecosystems and the natural regeneration of many tree species, which allowed the industry to remain intact. According to another community member, the forest resource was “poorly managed for 80 years and it survived or came back.”

An industry member similarly focused on the positive aspects of wood products, arguing, “one of the things about our industry is that the trees that we grow are renewable. A lot of industries are extractive type industries. Ours is a renewable industry. So that is a really neat thing. And the other thing is that our industry can go very well hand in hand with other interests that folks have and we have. For instance, recreation, biodiversity, hunting, you name it.” The renewable nature of forest resources and the ability to manage the forest for multiple uses were elements that local stakeholders and industry representatives alike described as important for granting social license.

=== Relationships and trust ===
Relationships built through formal channels of communication or industry engagement through activities such as community event sponsorships are perceived as key for social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019-06-20|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, according to participants in this project, relationships exist both within the industry and informally among members of the industry and the community due to the multi-dimensional nature of human identity and social life which corresponds with understanding of variable stakeholder relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; It was not primarily through formal networks of communication or industry support but through informal relationships, engagement, and shared activities and interests that the forest products industry was able to achieve and maintain local license via community relationships that built and maintained trust.

One industry member talked at length about the responsibility for the environment that accompanies their position, saying, “Protecting water quality, protecting threatened and endangered species, make sure wildlife habitat is conserved, making sure the neighbors are treated correctly. Those things are common to everybody and those things are what we really got to focus on. Particularly water quality. I think as an industry in general we have come a hell of a long ways in improving what we do around water. Both in road construction and skidding wood and harvesting.” In the interviews with the industry, it was widely acknowledged that the wellbeing of their industry was directly linked to the wellbeing of the environment. There were a range of comments made by industry members related to ensuring that the forest would be sustained into the future, including: “Our responsibility is, we are obviously utilizing today, we want to make sure that future generations can utilize as well.” Another industry member said, “I am responsible for achieving that budget in terms of the amount of wood we harvest and the amount of money we make off of that. We have to do that in an environmentally sustainable manner that means that we can keep doing it for a long time in the future.”

The forest products industry relied on their organizations’ or participants’ ethics to build trust with the public. The organizations also relied on their relationships within the industry and community as well as their perceived responsibilities to help form trust. The forest products industry responded that operationally, sustainability had the largest impact on whether the public would trust the organization. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

Industry members talked about the importance of positive communication efforts while developing relationships with others, saying, “It’s all about people skills, you can’t go in there be a know-it-all. It's all about listening and talking. Being friendly, being open, being honest, being empathetic.” Another industry participant said, “Most people are pretty understanding of what we do. They realize. Once in a while they ask when you do something that seems to be out of the norm, I usually get called on it. There are lots of people around- I know just about everybody in the community. They kind of trust you and if they see something, they want to know why too.” These comments are illustrative of how participants from industry discussed developing trust with local stakeholders.

The developer, city official and media participants indicated a high level of trust in the forest products industry. As one of these local stakeholders said, “I think that our forest industry people are stewards of our forest, stewards of our earth of which all of us actually should be, but especially in that industry and I think that they are.” While less common among the participants associated with conservation and environmental activism, all community participants made some comments about trust that indicate the existence of a social license. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

=== Engagement through community identities ===
Among research participants, relationships that built trust were described as occurring not through formal activities or corporate sponsorships but through shared community identities that created a sense of shared purpose among industry actors and local stakeholders. Of the comments made concerning community engagement, 57% focused on relationships, as the avenue through which members of the forest product industry thought that their organizations engaged stakeholders. Most of the relationships described by industry members were personal or involved other members of the industry. As one participant said, “I know many of the consulting foresters, timber managers. We catch up at community events and sessions.” Local industry members are often also local stakeholders and could serve to inform others about the operations of the industry through their informal social networks. Outside of several specific instances, engaging stakeholders was not part of the practice of corporations within the industry operating in this community. Portions of their resource management or specialization (such as design) could have been used to develop conversations with the local community, but were largely absent. The forest products industry seemed to withdraw from many formal activities that would engage stakeholders because of perceived possibility of negative responses. As one industry member said, “We can be blamed for some of that for not protecting our turf long, long ago. Or for some of our bad behavior as an industry may be long, long ago. We haven't tooted our horn on what’s changed, instead we try to stay out of that limelight.” See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

However, community participants suggested that engagement from the industry was largely positive. A majority of the comments about industry engagement suggested industry had been successful in those interactions. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

There were very few responses made by local stakeholders specifically about direct or formal engagement with the forest products industry. Only two references were made to direct engagement efforts initiated by the forest products industry, both having been far enough in the past where local stakeholders were unable to recall details. One community member stated, “I do remember TV commercials educating people on the industry and what it means to your economy and your environment, but I can’t recall anything particular.” Another recalled, “That program where they put the signs out and the kids can go out and learn about different types of forest cover. That was started when there was a real strong backlash against the industry.” For both industry and community participants, direct or formal engagement was described as happening rarely and reactively. The kinds of informal engagement that were taking place, and were arguably contributing to the local license granted by the community to industry activities, were based on informal community networks. Participants had gone to school together, been coworkers, or had similar hobbies. These networks were the foundation for shared relationships, the building of trust, and the maintenance of informal engagement.

=== Social license in the community context ===
While the forest products industry may be somewhat embedded in the community, the lack of recognized formal engagement and feeling of invisibility or persecution experienced by some industry participants indicates its social license is inadequate. One industry participant said they felt “demonized” and that as a member of the industry, “You are almost best to stay out of the limelight,” although this is contrary to responses from community participants and may be a factor currently limiting effective communication between the groups. This lack of communication between the groups also shows that the social license may be lacking between this community and the local forest products industry. While respondents may not have directly used the term “social license” or some variation, their responses allude to the greater themes and impacts of social license to operate.

One potential reason for the continued dynamic of perceived conflict is that the industry is not proactively communicating about operational changes that do address the potential environmental harms of logging activities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Of the local stakeholders, all six participants indicated that they had at least a mid-level understanding of the forest products industry. This is despite the lack of coordinated education by the industry and other identified possible partners from university, extension, and government agencies. Further, based upon the responses from community participants, much of the community would be receptive to direct and formal engagement, but said things like, “I think unless you are related, you don’t really know loggers” and “I would bet that nine of ten, if people have a complaint they are not going to know where to go.”

Multiple participants indicated that they relied on local representatives of state agencies and a local university for information about logging practices and the forest products industry. local stakeholders expected these institutions to maintain relations with individual industry actors and provide information to the community. However, The public’s utilization of state government and university expertise was not part of the direct line of questioning in the interviews, but this potentially provides another perspective on community industry relations. Although the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was seen as an asset to the industry and community, there were responses that indicated that community engagement on behalf of the forest products industry was not the DNR’s primary role. local stakeholders recognized the tensions faced by the DNR; as one interviewee said, “Our DNR is underfunded. We are ranked top three in natural resources but we are in the bottom three in state investment.” Given the community’s social context of having the resources of a local university and local agents from state offices, there is less pressure on the industry to maintain direct communications to facilitate community support. However, this indirect line of communication may strain the limited resources of existing groups (i.e., universities, DNR staff, members of the industry who conduct operations in the public view) in ways that may impede the communication necessary to sustain community support for the forest products industry.

== Discussion &amp; limitations ==
Past research on how natural resource based industries achieve social license focuses on formal means of engagement and communication as well as schematics of social license formation assumed to apply across an entire industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Wyatt|first3=Stephen|last4=Williams|first4=Kathryn J. H.|date=2016-09|title=Social licence to operate and forestry – an introduction|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw036|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=473–476|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw036|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; This research instead looks at how local stakeholders and industry actors perceive the processes shaping communication, engagement, and change without explicit reference to social license and demonstrates how social perspectives of industry activities are embedded in real socio-environmental contexts and histories. Via interrogation of the processes involved in real relationships between the forest products industry and the local community and the extent to which the industry is achieving social license, this research demonstrates that social license is highly contingent on socio-historical and spatially variable community identities.

Given the long history of natural resource based industries in this community, natural resource economic dependency is an integral part of community identity and shapes community support for forest product activities. local stakeholders are also aware of the macro-economic forces, largely out of the hands of local industry actors, which shape operational practices. They are critical of how these larger systemic economic systems impact their community while recognizing that local industry actors are largely responsive to forces they cannot control. Forest dependent communities are often interested in balancing forest health with employment and wood production but are also often unable to pay for expanded conservation,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kangas|first=Jyrki|last2=Niemeläinen|first2=Pasi|date=1996-01|title=Opinion of forest owners and the public on forests and their use in Finland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02827589609382936|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research|volume=11|issue=1-4|pages=269–280|doi=10.1080/02827589609382936|issn=0282-7581}}&lt;/ref&gt; and community participants in this study also recognized the limits on local industry actors to make decisions about how the industry utilizes natural resources.

However, histories of natural resource extraction can also be problematic for communities as they face economic dependencies that shape their willingness to accept industry activities. Gunningham, Thornton, and Kagan et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; found that industry actors felt location and visibility had a very strong connection to social license, even claiming that, “an economically dependent local community would be likely to have a more relaxed social license” (p. 324).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; In communities with a diverse economy, the processes of achieving social license are often much more complex.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Communities may exert low pressure on the industry due to economic dependence; however, the industry arguably requires more than just local consent in order to operate.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Considering the relationship between this community and the natural resource industries in the community, local stakeholders and local industry operators have shared history and experience as having limited power to control the larger economic forces acting upon them. This shared experience shapes the process of acquiring social license, and our data analysis highlights the importance of local histories and relationships in shaping social license. Nonlocal actors are likely to experience a much lesser degree of social license than local actors based on our findings. This can be at least partially explained by considering the importance of shared values, local history, and long standing relationships within the community. Local actors are more likely to have similar values to stakeholders, have established some history in the area, and have had the time to establish meaningful relationships within the community. As such, social license varies spatially and local actors are likely to carry a greater social license to operate than nonlocal actors.

Baines and Edwards (2018)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Baines|first=James|last2=Edwards|first2=Peter|date=2018-02|title=The role of relationships in achieving and maintaining a social licence in the New Zealand aquaculture sector|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|journal=Aquaculture|volume=485|pages=140–146|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|issn=0044-8486}}&lt;/ref&gt; shared similar findings in New Zealand’s aquaculture sector regarding the importance of relationships and communication between industry and local stakeholders. They find that social license depends on relationships and building trust. Smaller, local companies tend towards relationships that are relational as opposed to transactional, possibly due to their on-going community presences and communication abilities, which are better for fostering these relationships and trust building. This is consistent with our findings regarding the importance of long-standing relationships, as well as the need for better communication between the local industry and stakeholders cited by interviewees.

A corporate strategy employed to maximize shareholder profit has been to vertically integrate or divest of certain sectors. Vertical integration is when a corporation is invested or owns more than one segment of the supply chain. Vertical integration can help to increase profit margins, secure access to a resource, and add resilience to the expansion and contraction of the industry based on economic cycles. Still, vertical integration can also remove autonomy, flexibility, or opportunities for advancement in local communities. The way that industry arranges and presents its sectors to the local community could influence social license. Thus, issues of scale matter for shaping the process of acquiring social license.

This case study also suggests that informal relationships through shared social networks and shared community identities (as hunters, fishers, or snowmobilers) build trust for the local forest products industry. Trust in industry was not based on knowing the specifics of operational practice; rather, trust was developed and maintained through informal relationships. If formal and informal relationships predicating trust are absent social license may not develop, leading to the collapse of otherwise viable projects.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017-01|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; For environmentally oriented actors, this means seeing industry actors as people who also use the environment. For industry actors, this means acknowledging their interest in an environment that can sustain both economic activities and the recreational activities they want as humans who also live in the community.

However, the research suggests that these informal networks are not serving as a means to communicate about improvements to industry operations that promote environmental sustainability through best management practices (BMPs) and sustainability certification programs. Although adherence to regulations or voluntary participation in sustainability certifications is standard to the forest products industry, it is unclear if the details of the industry performance are being communicated with the public effectively. This represents an opportunity for the industry to improve development of community relationships through communication about operational practices focused on sustainability efforts, especially if ways are found to do this that leverage the informal communication and relational networks that seem to matter most to local stakeholders.

Many of the resources affected by forest management are held in the public trust,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fujisawa|first=Hideo|date=2004-02|title=The forest planning system in relation to the forest resource and forestry policies|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|journal=Journal of Forest Research|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|issn=1341-6979}}&lt;/ref&gt; so it is important for both industry actors and community stakeholders to feel engaged and involved in decisions regarding local natural resource management. As Krogman (2002)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krogman|first=Naomi|last2=Beckley|first2=Tom|date=2002-02|title=Corporate 'Bail-Outs' and Local 'Buyouts': Pathways to Community Forestry?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/089419202753403300|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=15|issue=2|pages=109–127|doi=10.1080/089419202753403300|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; described, the possible range of co-management of community forests and industries is a broad spectrum. Yet Moon’s (2011)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Moon|first=Seong-Gin|last2=Bae|first2=Suho|date=2011-11|title=State-Level Institutional Pressure, Firms' Organizational Attributes, and Corporate Voluntary Environmental Behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=11|pages=1189–1204|doi=10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; findings on voluntary environmental behavior by corporations suggest that corporations are less concerned with regulatory disciplinary measures than with maintaining economic stability. The current research project suggests that local stakeholders recognize the pressures facing industry actors. It also indicates interest from both industry and local groups in managing natural resource uses for the long term. The findings suggest ways that natural resource based industries can leverage informal relationships, shared ethics commitments, and shared localized sense of responsibility to shape their organizational tendencies. This also informs the extent to which specialization, sustainability, and resource management impact operational possibilities, and relates themes in both groups that suggest more commonality than division among participant perspectives.

Study limitations include a relatively small sample size and the discrepancy between how many interviews were conducted with industry representatives versus general local stakeholders. Responses from community stakeholder interviews indicate that community members understand and recognize industry issues and barriers to success, a fact that industry members themselves recognize, however, additional research is required to adequately characterize these similarities. In addition, our use of snowball sampling creates an opportunity to miss certain local populations and their ideas. Further interviews aimed at capturing these populations are necessary to form a more complete image of social license in this community.

== Conclusion ==
Industry in this community has experienced a long history shaped by their natural resource use and the public’s opinion of it. At present, the forest products industry in this county renews and maintains its social license through personal relationships and shared values between industry members and local stakeholders, despite the absence of direct community engagement efforts. This gives direct benefit to local actors, who are more likely to hold these shared values and to have developed these personal relationships than an actor external to the community. Industry operations have improved with global innovations in technology, best management practices, sustainability certifications and health and safety regulations, and the industry might strengthen its social license by engaging local stakeholders in conversation about the shared values associated with the management of natural resources. A strengthened social license would benefit the industry if it tries to grow or navigate disturbances.

In this research, the concept of social license helps to explain the ways that operational and organizational dimensions of a natural resource based industry achieve social support from local stakeholders. Further, this research suggests that local stakeholders and industry participants have more commonalities than divisions in terms of key elements shaping social license, including commitments to a shared sense of value ethics and responsible resource management. Finally, this research suggests ways of expanding the concept of social license to consider the impact of local socio-environmental context, informal social relationships, and localized values as well as suggesting that natural resource based industries can leverage direct or mediated dialogue with local communities to communicate changes to operations and organization related to both large scale economic forces and localized environmental management.

== Appendix A ==
''Expanded Data Tables''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Trust in Organizations
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''46%'''
|'''351'''
|'''89%'''
|'''84'''
|'''46%'''
|'''277'''
|'''22%'''
|'''160'''
|'''59%'''
|'''158'''
|'''43%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|39%
|138
|87%
|23
|38%
|93
|23%
|22
|51%
|53
|34%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|29%
|35
|83%
|6
|41%
|37
|20%
|15
|44%
|18
|41%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|44% 
|45
|71% 
|14
|43%
|30
|14% 
|35
|46% 
|28
|45%
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|44%
|9
|100%
|3
|53%
|15
|20% 
|5
|100%
|8
|100%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|57% 
|28
|83%
|6
|40% 
|30
|29%
|7
|67%
|15
|47%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|50% 
|56
|100%
|23
|63%
|52
|26%
|38
|78% 
|32
|65%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|73% 
|40
|100%
|9
|60% 
|20
|24% 
|38
|75%
|4
|33%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Engaging Stakeholders
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''57%'''
|'''351'''
|'''30%'''
|'''84'''
|'''23%''' 
|'''277'''
|'''24%'''
|'''160'''
|'''16%'''
|'''158'''
|'''17%'''
|'''15'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|48%
|138
|22%
|23
|18% 
|93
|18% 
|22
|11% 
|53
|14%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|49%
|35
|17%
|6
|22%
|37
|7% 
|15
|6%
|18
|14%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|62%
|45
|29%
|14
|30% 
|30
|26% 
|35
|25% 
|28
|32% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|56%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|40%
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|82%
|28
|33% 
|6
|17%
|30
|29% 
|7
|7% 
|15
|11%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|54%
|56
|48%
|23
|35%
|52
|16%
|38
|28% 
|32
|18%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|75%
|40
|22%
|9
|35%
|20
|37%
|38
|25%
|4
|0%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Response to changing expectation
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''15%'''
|'''351'''
|'''17%'''
|'''84'''
|'''21%'''
|'''277'''
|'''60%''' 
|'''160'''
|'''35%''' 
|'''158'''
|'''27%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|13%
|138
|13%
|23
|15% 
|93
|64%
|22
|30%
|53
|24% 
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|6% 
|35
|17%
|6
|16% 
|37
|27%
|15
|39%
|18
|18%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|20%
|45
|14%
|14
|37% 
|30
|51%
|35
|36%
|28
|35% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|22%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|60% 
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|4%
|28
|0%
|6
|13%
|30
|57%
|7
|33%
|15
|26%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|23%
|56
|35%
|23
|37% 
|52
|68%
|38
|50%
|32
|24%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|20%
|40
|0%
|9
|20% 
|20
|71%
|38
|25%
|4
|67% 
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Trust in Organizations
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Engaging Stakeholders
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Response to Expectations
|-
!Community (agg. n-6) 
!67% 
!n=189
!33%
!66% 
!n=180 
!34% 
!66%
!n=169
!34% 
|-
|Developer (n-1) 
|88%
|n=24
|13%
|80%
|n=25
|20%
|83%
|n=23
|17%
|-
|City Official (n-1)
|77%
|n=44
|23%
|78%
|n=41
|22%
|77% 
|n=43
|23%
|-
|Media (n-1) 
|98%
|n=42
|2%
|71%
|n=42
|29%
|83%
|n=30 
|17%
|-
|Conservationist (n-2) 
|37%
|n=67 
|63%
|50%
|n=52
|50%
|37% 
|n=59
|63%
|-
|Environ. Activist (n-1)
|50% 
|n=12 
|50%
|50%
|n=20
|50%
|86% 
|n=14 
|14%
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
      <sha1>gr57eo395sp9mmg9xlfo296ecdzr3w6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409296</id>
      <parentid>2409293</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T20:06:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OhanaUnited</username>
        <id>18921</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Case Study Background */ reference for Census data</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="70029" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Zoe
| last1 = Ketola
| orcid1 = 
| affiliation1 = Michigan Technological University
| first2 = William
| last2 = Lytle
| orcid2 = 
| affiliation2 = Evergreen International Sustainability Solutions; USA Dry Pea and Lentil Council
| correspondence2 = by [[Special:EmailUser/Wjlytle|online form]]
| first3 =  Chelsea 
| last3 = Schelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first4 =  Mark
| last4 = Rudnicki{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first5 =  Matthew 
| last5 = Kelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| license = 
| abstract = This research investigates the existing social license and the processes of achieving and articulating social license between a rural community in the northern Midwestern United States community and the forest products industry, based on interviews with both industry and community stakeholders. Perceptions of natural resource management and community relations are highly related to the community’s history with industries, relationships with place, and perspectives on valuable work. The results suggest that social license varies spatially, and it is the place-based context that allows local industry to have a higher degree of license than non-local industry actors. Thus, social license is spatially contingent, based on particular socio-spatial and historical contexts. In this paper, we articulate how these spatial and historical contextualization shapes perceptions of acceptable operating practices. This paper offers refinement of the concept of social license while also considering how natural resource based industries can successfully meet evolving management challenges.
}}

== Introduction ==
The term “social license” - generally, the acceptance a company has to engage in its operations - was introduced in 1997 and has since been applied in multiple resource extraction industries to describe changes in company-community interactions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Kieren |last1=Moffat |first2=Justine |last2=Lacey |first3=Airong |last3=Zhang |first4=Sina |last4=Leipold |url=https://academic.oup.com/forestry/article/89/5/477/2194485 |title=The social licence to operate: a critical review |journal=Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research |doi=10.1093/forestry/cpv044 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=477–488 |year=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; This use of social license has included an understanding of how acceptance levels impact resource development operations within these industries&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gunningham|first=Neil|last2=Kagan|first2=Robert A.|last3=Thornton|first3=Dorothy|date=2004-04|title=Social License and Environmental Protection: Why Businesses Go Beyond Compliance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|journal=Law &amp; Social Inquiry|volume=29|issue=2|pages=307–341|doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|issn=0897-6546}}&lt;/ref&gt; state corporations comply with their social license by operating within societal expectations and avoiding activities (or influential elements within them) considered unacceptable, and define social license it as “the demands on and expectations for a business enterprise that emerge from neighborhoods, environmental groups, local stakeholders, and other elements of the surrounding civil society”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

It seems that industries recognize the value or necessity of their social license and its impact on their operations. Some forecasts indicate that obtaining social license may become a requirement for obtaining a legal license from government agencies, although frameworks used to incorporate social license in government licensure are not well-defined and may turn out the be prohibitive to forming trust-based community relationships.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Anguelovski|first=Isabelle|date=2011-01-31|title=Understanding the Dynamics of Community Engagement of Corporations in Communities: The Iterative Relationship Between Dialogue Processes and Local Protest at the Tintaya Copper Mine in Peru|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920903339699|journal=Society &amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=4|pages=384–399|doi=10.1080/08941920903339699|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Lacey|first1= J.|last2= Parsons|first2= R.|last3= Moffat|first3= K.|date=2012|title=Exploring the concept of a Social Licence to Operate in the Australian minerals industry: Results from interviews with industry representatives|publisher= CSIRO|at= EP125553|doi=10.4225/08/5852dc54dc765}}&lt;/ref&gt; Issues related to the government’s measurement of corporations’ social license include its role in licensure processes, the penalties for non-compliance, or the community’s ability to halt a project if a corporation is not responsive to their concerns, are still subject to global concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Demuijnck|first=Geert|last2=Fasterling|first2=Björn|date=2016-01-15|title=The Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=136|issue=4|pages=675–685|doi=10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|issn=0167-4544}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019-06-20|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Regardless of government involvement, social license is achieved within and given by communities. Communities can be defined as “a social unit of any size that shares common values, or that is situated in a given geographical area”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|doi=10.1163/9789087901738_008|chapter=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: Industry Supported Professional Development in the Mineral Resource Sector|title=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: The Contribution of Science and Technology Education|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Brill|first1=Dan |last1=Churach|first2= Di |last2=Nichols|editor1-first= David B. |editor1-last=Zandvliet |editor2-first=Darrel L.|editor2-last= Fisher|pages=71–84|isbn=978-90-8790-173-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Communities are often viewed as people that fall in a certain geographic region, although even these geographic groups can contain multiple, smaller groups that include individuals with varied perspectives and values that shape the way they view industrial operations. Further, members of geographic communities may have different relationships with industry because they may be part of the workforce, product consumers, and potential project partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Local stakeholders may also differ in the extent to which they contribute to supplying infrastructure for industry, including access to resources and the ways they benefit from industrial activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/802343793|title=Sustainable communities, sustainable development: other paths for Papua New Guinea|first2=Albert|last1=James|first1= Paul Warren|last2=Age|date= 2012|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi|isbn=0-8248-3588-3|oclc=802343793|doi=10.21313/hawaii/9780824835880.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Communities carry social, spatial, and historical contexts; geographical spaces are socio-environmental places and communities are shaped by their shared climates and histories. Thus, the granting of social license is also based on perspectives and values developed within community context, and understanding the social licensing process arguably requires attentiveness to the spatial and historical context of any community.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Sen|date=2019-10|title=Managing forests for the greater good: The role of the social license to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=107|pages=101920|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|issn=1389-9341}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, how social license influences the relationships between local stakeholders and local industry is often unclear, leaving the portrait of its socio-environmental context incomplete. This work considers how the social license to operate for a local forest products industry is embedded in a local socio-environmental context within a rural community in Michigan, aiming to understand what that may mean for navigating the development of social license and potential conflicts that may threaten it.

== Unpack social license ==

Social license is often regarded as being synonymous with community approval, in part due to its deep historical roots in mining and forestry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Syn|first=Juliette|date=2014-07-31|title=The Social License: Empowering Communities and a Better Way Forward|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=318–339|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Boutilier|first1= R.|last2= Thomson|first2= I.|date= 2011|title= Modelling and measuring the social license to operate: Fruits of a dialogue between theory and practice|publisher= Social License|url=https://socialicense.com/publications/Modelling%20and%20Measuring%20the%20SLO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Parsons|first=Richard|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Moffat|first3=Kieren|date=2014-09|title=Maintaining legitimacy of a contested practice: How the minerals industry understands its 'social licence to operate'|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=41|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt;  References to the concept of social license go back to 1996, when W. Henson Moore refers to mills as needing a “social license to operate” from the public.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|last1=Moore|first1=W.H.|date=October 1996|title= The social license to operate|work= PIMA Magazine|pages= 22–23|volume=78|issue=10|issn=1046-4352}}&lt;/ref&gt;  However, given the dynamic nature of relationships, community approval fails to describe all of the essential elements of social license, such as how different stakeholder groups perceive individual nodes of the supply chain in the forest products industry and especially how the industry can achieve and maintain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Citing our previous definition of the term from Gunningham et al., it would be most productive to view social license not as a linear relationship that directly binds industry with the community, but as a continuum, spectrum, or even web of relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dare|first=Melanie (Lain)|last2=Schirmer|first2=Jacki|last3=Vanclay|first3=Frank|date=2014-06-18|title=Community engagement and social licence to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal|volume=32|issue=3|pages=188–197|doi=10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|issn=1461-5517}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|date=2014-07-31|title=Can’t Climb the Trees Anymore: Social Licence to Operate, Bioenergy and Whole Stump Removal in Sweden|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=239–257|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gehman|first=Joel|last2=Lefsrud|first2=Lianne M.|last3=Fast|first3=Stewart|date=2017-06|title=Social license to operate: Legitimacy by another name?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/capa.12218|journal=Canadian Public Administration|volume=60|issue=2|pages=293–317|doi=10.1111/capa.12218|issn=0008-4840}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; outline three important facets to an industry involved in community engagement: “trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, [and] ability of organizations to respond to changing expectations” (pp. 191-192). Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; argue that these three elements form a vehicle that allows a corporation to increase its social license. 

Traditionally, industries have used community engagement or public relations strategies and personnel to reach out to local stakeholders. The effectiveness of these methods is influenced by the nature of the industry operations, education provided to communities, and the relationship that can be formed during engagement, which occurs at both the strategic and operational levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Strategic engagement includes proactively reaching out to community leaders and finding key influencers with whom to form relationships. Operational engagement exists at the work site and includes efforts to shape how people experience an operation through one-on-one conversations and by minimizing negative environmental and aesthetic impacts. However, operational engagement is often limited by poor access to the work site, particularly in rural areas with difficult terrain, large open spaces, and lackluster road networks. When site access is limited, local stakeholders may rely on other sources, such as the media, to help them form their opinions of industrial operations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lester|first=Libby|date=2016-02-29|title=Media and social licence: on being publicly useful in the Tasmanian forests conflict|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw015|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=542–551|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw015|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Previous research suggests that operational engagement has limitations due to communities not trusting local managers, a failure to reach the full body of stakeholders, and the inability of organizations to adapt operations to fit with changing social norms.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

The forest products industry is characterized by both stationary operations (i.e., mills) and transient operations (i.e., timber harvests) that occur across a wide expanse of the landscape. In this way, forest products industries commonly cross geographic communities, thereby complicating operations level engagement. Despite the limitations, strategic engagement and operational engagement are presumed to be an important part of a corporation’s achieving social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prno|first=Jason|last2=Scott Slocombe|first2=D.|date=2012-09|title=Exploring the origins of ‘social license to operate’ in the mining sector: Perspectives from governance and sustainability theories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=37|issue=3|pages=346–357|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt; Combined, these factors influence what level of social license a community may grant industry. We hope to understand the extent to which the community in our case study grants their forest products industry its social license and how the concepts of strategic and operational engagement factor into social license to operate. 

Effective community engagement should focus on building legitimacy, credibility and trust; these are the three key relationship components for understanding the continuum of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Trust is particularly important for unlocking more effective community-industry relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stern|first=Marc J.|last2=Baird|first2=Timothy D.|date=2015|title=Trust ecology and the resilience of natural resource management institutions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/es-07248-200214|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=20|issue=2|doi=10.5751/es-07248-200214|issn=1708-3087}}&lt;/ref&gt; The “trust ecology” includes prior behavior and performance, personal histories, positive direct interactions and equitable procedures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; Building multiple forms of trust allows for greater institutional resilience, in that if one type of trust becomes jeopardized, the other forms will help retain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;

One element of trust is reputation, which illustrates how different stakeholder groups can influence the formation of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; The reputation of a corporation has also been defined as organizational legitimacy, and represents how stakeholders perceive the identity and values of an organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/964759813|title=The social license: How to keep your organization legitimate|first=John|last=Morrison|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-137-37072-6|oclc=964759813}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, operational legitimacy is based on the action or production of services provided to stakeholders by the organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Lacey (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; suggests that social license can take a long time for a corporation or industry to achieve, but social license can be lost very quickly for a variety of factors, including changes in stakeholder expectations, technology, or other disturbances. Gunningham et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; argue that meeting and exceeding regulations to build reputational capital is economically vital, saying: “in certain circumstances, [natural resource based industries] cannot afford to do otherwise” (p. 321). 

The concept of social license as currently articulated is not without weaknesses. The terms often used to describe social license (e.g., legitimate, credible, support, accept, permit, approve, consent) can overlap in meaning, leading to ambiguity in their interpretation).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017-01|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, social license becomes more opaque when held next to terms like corporate social responsibility, sustainable development, and corporate citizenship, which all seek to call attention to the same general concept of striving for an industry that balances economic, social, and environmental goals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Elkington|first1= J.|date= 2004|chapter= Enter the triple bottom line|editor1-last= Henriques|editor1-first= A.|editor2-last=Richardson|editor2-first= J.|title= The Triple Bottom Line: Does It All Add up? Assessing the Sustainability of Business and CSR|pages=1–16|isbn=9781849773348|publisher=Routledge}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Amin U.|date=1998-09|title=Sustainability, sustainable development and forest resources|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509809469980|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development &amp;amp; World Ecology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=164–171|doi=10.1080/13504509809469980|issn=1350-4509}}&lt;/ref&gt; There has even been some specific disapproval for the term social license, such as when the term was adopted by industry and then used in conversation with the local community; stakeholders and media felt that the term was being used against them as propaganda and that it was difficult to fully comprehend.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, many natural resource based industries have become interested in analyzing their social license in hopes of cultivating more effective partnerships with local communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; This study examined the social license of the forest products industry based on the perspective of both industry members and community stakeholders in a rural community located in the northern Midwestern United States. We hope that our findings will allow some refinement of the social license concept such that it can be better applied to current and future projects involving industrial activities using local natural environments.

== Case Study Background ==
This research centers on how the public grants social license to the forest products industry within a rural county in Michigan, located in the northern Midwestern United States. This county has about 1,000 square miles of mostly forested land and has a history of involvement with the forest products industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties_list_26.txt |title=2010 Census Gazetteer Files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113024015/http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties_list_26.txt |archive-date=2013-11-13 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |date=2012 |access-date=October 15, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; For this research, the forest products industry is defined as all the lands owned and the operations that take place involving the management of forests or the processing of wood within the county. Participants in the forest products industry include public and private landowners, developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists, the media, and more, within the geographic boundaries of the county. Individuals representing each of these groups were interviewed as part of this study. Industry participants and community stakeholders were interviewed separately with question sets aimed at understanding their roles surrounding the social license of the forest products industry.

== Methods ==
This study was based around three primary research questions, as informed by the preceding background on social license literature and gaps in its theory. These questions are as follows.

# How does social license align with articulations of the relationships among the industry and the local community? 
# What current level of social license is the community granting the industry? 
# In what ways can the concept of social license be further refined based on this work’s context?

The interview protocol was developed following a thorough review of existing social license literature and existing knowledge regarding the local market, its actors, and their dynamics. It was designed to elicit responses from participants about the human dimensions of the local forest products industry and asked questions about topics shaping the local forest products industry’s social license. This was done to develop an understanding of the processes and practices of engagement among sectors of the forest products industry, as well as between the local industry and influential stakeholders in the community. As the interview progressed, participants were encouraged to express their personal views of their industry and their community with a strong focus on relationships, responsibilities, values and disturbances.

Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling methodology to better understand the social license continuum by receiving names of key informants that could be difficult to identify from outside the industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heckathorn|first=Douglas D.|date=2011-08|title=Comment: Snowball versus Respondent-Driven Sampling|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|journal=Sociological Methodology|volume=41|issue=1|pages=355–366|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|issn=0081-1750}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two separate sampling frames were used for each group of respondents, industry actors and community stakeholders. An initial assessment of the sectors of the forest products industry was performed using the Michigan Department of Natural Resources: Forest Products Industry Directory searchable database. Thirty-three corporate profiles were retrieved using the directory. These profiles were utilized for developing basic classifications of the industry as well as providing an initial point of contact for the interviews. Expansion of the sectors and classification system was necessary to accurately include the operations of corporations that were referred to participate in interviews through the snowball sampling method. A database on community leaders in government, nonprofit organizations, and the local media was created to initially identify community participants. These participants were then contacted for interviews and, if interviewed, were asked for additional potential participants. The snowball sampling method provides a means of determining when research is approaching saturation and occurs when names are referred multiple times and very few new names are added.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Charmaz|first1= K.|date=2003|chapter=Grounded theory|editor1-first= J. A.|editor1-last= Smith|title= Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods |pages= 81–110|publisher=Sage|isbn=0761972307 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Referrals from outside the county were not contacted for an interview.

Fourteen interviews were conducted with individuals from industry, representing 42.4% of the identified corporate profiles. Industry was considered to be the collection of all corporations and sectors involved with forest products. Each participant was given a primary classification based on the operations of the corporation (referred to as businesses and companies in some interview responses) and the individual position of the participant. Six of the companies were given secondary classifications based on their organization spanning more than one class. Interview questions are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 1. Interview Questions - Industry'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt''
!''Social License Subpart''
|-
|Q1: What makes your job or industry unique? 
P1: What level of responsibility, do you feel, is associated with your work? 

P2: Are there any parts of your job that you especially enjoy?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: Could you tell me about relationships with landowners/clients? 
P1: How long do these relationships usually last? 

P2: Do they understand what you do?
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|-
|Q3: Could you tell me about relationships with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with them?

P2: Who do you perceive, has more power in these interactions?

P3: Can you help me understand that better? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities 
|-
|Q4: Has there been a major external change- cultural, technological, social, economic- that has affected your clients or the public’s satisfaction with your products or services? 
P1: Are there segments of your company that have had trouble adapting? ie. equipment, personnel, facilities, R+D
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Social License in Community Context 
|-
|Q5: Do you feel that you have the ability to communicate effectively with landowners and the public? 
P1: What are the factors that limit your communication?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q6: The forest products industry seems to be very complex. What strategies have you developed to help you survive? 
P1: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q7: What was your industry like 10 years ago?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q8: When was the best time to be in your industry? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q9: Where do you see your industry in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories 
|-
|Q10: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about these topics? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 2. Interview Questions - Stakeholders'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt'' 
!'''''Social License Subpart''''' 
|-
|Q1: Could you tell me your job title and describe what your job entails? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: How long have you lived/worked in [County]? 
P1: What do you like about forests in this area?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q3: Do you own land? 
A. How many acres?  

B. Permanent residence?  

C. For land that is not a permanent residence, what is your purpose for owning it? (recreation, investment, been in the family)  

D. How did you acquire your land (purchase vs inherit)  

E. Is the land forested? Does it have a home  

F. Is the land have you ever harvested trees either commercially (timber sale) or for personal use (firewood)?  

G. Do you have a forest management plan?  

H. Do you consult with a professional forester? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q4: When I use the term forest products industry, who do you think of? 
P1: Why is that? 

P2: How would you define the forest products industry for [County]? 

P3: Would you say that you have a high, medium or low understanding of the forest products industry? {Define the forest products industry for our research}
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q5: What types of responsibilities, do you feel, are placed on the forest products industry? 
P1: How do you expect the actions of businesses in the industry to reflect these responsibilities? 

P2: Do you trust local members of the forest products industry to be stewards of our resources? {prompt with economic responsibilities (taxes, commerce) social (jobs, community involvement, recreation), environmental}
|Social License in Community Context/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q6: Could you tell me about the relationships the forest products industry has with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with the industry? 

P2: Who do you perceive, has more influence on the outcomes of these interactions? 

P3: Do you feel the industry understands the community’s needs?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q7: Has there been a major change-environmental, social, economic- that has affected your satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the forest products industry? 
P1: How does the forest products industry accommodate or address complaints?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q8: Do you feel that the forest products industry communicates effectively? 
P1: How does the industry show that? 

P2: What are the factors that limit their communication?
|Social Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q9: What are the difficulties associated with running a business in [County]? 
P1: Do the strategies of the forest products industry help them survive in your opinion? 

P2: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities/Social License in Community Context
|-
|Q10: What was your community like 10 years ago?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q11: When was the best time to be in your community? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q12: Where do you see your community in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q13: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about how the forest products industry relates to the community in [County]?
|Relationships &amp; Trust
|}
Six community participants were interviewed, representing positions later classified based on categories of significance identified via the snowball sampling method. Each of the participants represented a larger interest group including developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists and the media. These groups were referred to be interviewed because they reflect the diversity of natural resource stakeholders and they are inclusive of influential persons and decision-makers who may shape public opinion of the forest products industry. Interview questions for community participants can be found in Appendix B.

This research is based on a total of 20 in-depth interviews. Each participant agreed to the interview, consented to being digitally recorded, and was assured confidentiality. The interview protocol was reviewed by Michigan Technological University’s Institutional Review Board and given Exempt status because the research posed minimal risk to participants. Information associated with individual participants was assigned a numerical value to ensure confidentiality and ensure accuracy in data processing. Each interview was transcribed verbatim. Personal information and private stories unrelated to the research were deleted from transcripts to help maintain the confidentiality of the participants. Interview participants were given the opportunity to review themes and presentations that included their data for accuracy before publication.

An iterative process was applied to the coding and analysis of the interviews. Each interview transcript was coded using a grounded theory approach, where open codes were initially used to identify themes, and codes were further refined as data analysis developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; Key themes from literature and overarching themes from interview responses were used as initial codes, after extensive review of the conceptual frameworks that could be best applied to the data.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Gery W.|last2=Bernard|first2=H. Russell|date=2003-02|title=Techniques to Identify Themes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1525822x02239569|journal=Field Methods|volume=15|issue=1|pages=85–109|doi=10.1177/1525822x02239569|issn=1525-822X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the interviews were designed around concepts of community engagement,&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; there appeared to be very little evidence of direct community engagement. Morrison’s (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; descriptions of organizational and operational legitimacy were added to the axial coding to more accurately represent the relative weights of themes seen in the responses.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Bryman|first1= A.|date= 2015|title=Social research methods|publisher= Oxford University Press|edition=5th|isbn=9780199689453 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ultimately, responses were coded as falling into one or more of three themes: trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, and ability to respond to changing expectations of stakeholders. For industry member responses, these classifications were then further analyzed to determine how the industry engaged the community, either with its organization or its operation. The influence of organizational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: relationships, ethics and responsibilities. These divisions were used to understand how the long memories and deep, interpersonal connections people in this rural, isolated community may be related to the level of social license they permit. The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses to three divisions: specialization, sustainability and resource management. These divisions were used to understand how local industry actors respond to external, local pressures regarding their social license. Participants were not asked about these topics directly, however, their responses to other interview questions may be indicative of the broader market dynamics at play in this local industry. Although responses were given a binary coding for the purpose of analysis, they are not intended to represent the overarching measure of social license, which is widely accepted as beyond binary.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Results ==
Data analysis via iterative coding processes revealed several themes related to, but not perfectly corresponding to, existing perspectives on social license and our original research objectives. The influence of organizational legitimacy were grouped into the following themes uncovered in interview responses: relationships, ethics, and responsibilities between industry and community. In terms of operational dimensions, dominant themes related to specialization, sustainability, and resource management were noted.

Regarding organizational legitimacy, relationships included the personal and professional interactions of individuals within the industry and with other stakeholders. An example quotation tallied for relationships is as follows: “the time that we spent together- designing, figuring and their business to the shop usually take that relationship deeper.” The ethics division denoted responses that could be categorized as being part of a moral code or standard beyond what is required by the profession. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for ethics: “as a Christian [there are] guidelines as to what is right and what’s wrong.” The final division under organizational legitimacy is responsibilities. Responsibilities were the obligations or duties assigned to a person by themselves or other stakeholders such as family, neighbors, and corporations. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for responsibilities: “I have to make sure we buy the proper material to give us the greatest yield for the least amount of money.”

The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: specialization, sustainability, and resource management. Specialization included changes in operational procedure or machinery to better meet market demands and improve efficiency. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for specialization: “equipment to manufacture [a product] has undergone a lot of changes, before it was a very hands on, labor intensive, and dangerous.” The sustainability division denoted responses about operations that balanced social, economic and most often environmental goals. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for sustainability: “We do culvert permits whenever a stream needs to be crossed or bridge permits- that is very common now.” The final division under operational legitimacy is resource management, which included the inputs and outputs of manufacturing and the methods by which forests were managed in the region, often including comments about granting public access to private forest lands. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for resource management: “Thinning a hardwood stand is very extensive. Clear cutting aspen, not particularly intensive. It regenerates so quickly.” Responses tallied in these divisions were not counted mutually exclusively, meaning some comments bridge several divisions that were relevant for assessing social license.

Coding also revealed a major theme, articulated by members of both groups, regarding the relationship between the history of natural resource based industrial activities in the area and perspectives of and expectations for current industry activities. We begin the presentation of the results with a brief history of resource extraction in the county and how participants associated this with shaping current discussions of natural resource based industry. This is followed by data on relationships, trust, and engagement within the county. The last sections build upon the previous sections to review the current social license dynamics as described by interview participants.

=== Industry histories and community identities ===
The long history of logging and copper mining in the county continues to shape the attitudes and identities of industry participants today. The economic cycles of the last decade have left only the most fit forest products industry corporations intact. The community as a whole and the individuals working for the forest products industry in particular value continued commitment to hard work in the face of structural challenges. Several industry participants talked with pride about the importance of hard work, saying things like, “I have always made sure that we are cutting all the time. If you sit you are going backwards,” and, “Work harder than the next guy out there, do a better job.” The industry here takes a stoic stance toward surviving macroeconomic cycles: “Our long term focus has been helpful. You can make a lot of bad decisions if you are thinking short term. We have been around 100 years. You have got to keep reminding yourself of the long term goals.” Several participants represented companies that have generations of experience operating in the region, which may provide continuity on issues that impact social license.

The data suggests that the forest products industry may receive social license through the channels that were originally established by mining corporations. Several community participants mentioned that the local culture is accepting of the presence of industry, saying, “collectively, the culture still reflects that this was a mining region and that the mining companies were the giver,” and, “people were used to depending on the company store, not challenging the father mine figure and that carried over so that the people are looking to somebody to give them the job or someone to fix it.”

Further, comparisons to mining operations seem to have a positive effect on perceptions of the forest products industry. One community member, comparing the impacts of logging and mining, said, “The legacy mining thing is worse.” Rather than anything attributed to industry responsibility, though, participants discussed the differences between mining and logging activities in terms of the biophysical characteristics, the resiliency of local ecosystems and the natural regeneration of many tree species, which allowed the industry to remain intact. According to another community member, the forest resource was “poorly managed for 80 years and it survived or came back.”

An industry member similarly focused on the positive aspects of wood products, arguing, “one of the things about our industry is that the trees that we grow are renewable. A lot of industries are extractive type industries. Ours is a renewable industry. So that is a really neat thing. And the other thing is that our industry can go very well hand in hand with other interests that folks have and we have. For instance, recreation, biodiversity, hunting, you name it.” The renewable nature of forest resources and the ability to manage the forest for multiple uses were elements that local stakeholders and industry representatives alike described as important for granting social license.

=== Relationships and trust ===
Relationships built through formal channels of communication or industry engagement through activities such as community event sponsorships are perceived as key for social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019-06-20|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, according to participants in this project, relationships exist both within the industry and informally among members of the industry and the community due to the multi-dimensional nature of human identity and social life which corresponds with understanding of variable stakeholder relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; It was not primarily through formal networks of communication or industry support but through informal relationships, engagement, and shared activities and interests that the forest products industry was able to achieve and maintain local license via community relationships that built and maintained trust.

One industry member talked at length about the responsibility for the environment that accompanies their position, saying, “Protecting water quality, protecting threatened and endangered species, make sure wildlife habitat is conserved, making sure the neighbors are treated correctly. Those things are common to everybody and those things are what we really got to focus on. Particularly water quality. I think as an industry in general we have come a hell of a long ways in improving what we do around water. Both in road construction and skidding wood and harvesting.” In the interviews with the industry, it was widely acknowledged that the wellbeing of their industry was directly linked to the wellbeing of the environment. There were a range of comments made by industry members related to ensuring that the forest would be sustained into the future, including: “Our responsibility is, we are obviously utilizing today, we want to make sure that future generations can utilize as well.” Another industry member said, “I am responsible for achieving that budget in terms of the amount of wood we harvest and the amount of money we make off of that. We have to do that in an environmentally sustainable manner that means that we can keep doing it for a long time in the future.”

The forest products industry relied on their organizations’ or participants’ ethics to build trust with the public. The organizations also relied on their relationships within the industry and community as well as their perceived responsibilities to help form trust. The forest products industry responded that operationally, sustainability had the largest impact on whether the public would trust the organization. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

Industry members talked about the importance of positive communication efforts while developing relationships with others, saying, “It’s all about people skills, you can’t go in there be a know-it-all. It's all about listening and talking. Being friendly, being open, being honest, being empathetic.” Another industry participant said, “Most people are pretty understanding of what we do. They realize. Once in a while they ask when you do something that seems to be out of the norm, I usually get called on it. There are lots of people around- I know just about everybody in the community. They kind of trust you and if they see something, they want to know why too.” These comments are illustrative of how participants from industry discussed developing trust with local stakeholders.

The developer, city official and media participants indicated a high level of trust in the forest products industry. As one of these local stakeholders said, “I think that our forest industry people are stewards of our forest, stewards of our earth of which all of us actually should be, but especially in that industry and I think that they are.” While less common among the participants associated with conservation and environmental activism, all community participants made some comments about trust that indicate the existence of a social license. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

=== Engagement through community identities ===
Among research participants, relationships that built trust were described as occurring not through formal activities or corporate sponsorships but through shared community identities that created a sense of shared purpose among industry actors and local stakeholders. Of the comments made concerning community engagement, 57% focused on relationships, as the avenue through which members of the forest product industry thought that their organizations engaged stakeholders. Most of the relationships described by industry members were personal or involved other members of the industry. As one participant said, “I know many of the consulting foresters, timber managers. We catch up at community events and sessions.” Local industry members are often also local stakeholders and could serve to inform others about the operations of the industry through their informal social networks. Outside of several specific instances, engaging stakeholders was not part of the practice of corporations within the industry operating in this community. Portions of their resource management or specialization (such as design) could have been used to develop conversations with the local community, but were largely absent. The forest products industry seemed to withdraw from many formal activities that would engage stakeholders because of perceived possibility of negative responses. As one industry member said, “We can be blamed for some of that for not protecting our turf long, long ago. Or for some of our bad behavior as an industry may be long, long ago. We haven't tooted our horn on what’s changed, instead we try to stay out of that limelight.” See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

However, community participants suggested that engagement from the industry was largely positive. A majority of the comments about industry engagement suggested industry had been successful in those interactions. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

There were very few responses made by local stakeholders specifically about direct or formal engagement with the forest products industry. Only two references were made to direct engagement efforts initiated by the forest products industry, both having been far enough in the past where local stakeholders were unable to recall details. One community member stated, “I do remember TV commercials educating people on the industry and what it means to your economy and your environment, but I can’t recall anything particular.” Another recalled, “That program where they put the signs out and the kids can go out and learn about different types of forest cover. That was started when there was a real strong backlash against the industry.” For both industry and community participants, direct or formal engagement was described as happening rarely and reactively. The kinds of informal engagement that were taking place, and were arguably contributing to the local license granted by the community to industry activities, were based on informal community networks. Participants had gone to school together, been coworkers, or had similar hobbies. These networks were the foundation for shared relationships, the building of trust, and the maintenance of informal engagement.

=== Social license in the community context ===
While the forest products industry may be somewhat embedded in the community, the lack of recognized formal engagement and feeling of invisibility or persecution experienced by some industry participants indicates its social license is inadequate. One industry participant said they felt “demonized” and that as a member of the industry, “You are almost best to stay out of the limelight,” although this is contrary to responses from community participants and may be a factor currently limiting effective communication between the groups. This lack of communication between the groups also shows that the social license may be lacking between this community and the local forest products industry. While respondents may not have directly used the term “social license” or some variation, their responses allude to the greater themes and impacts of social license to operate.

One potential reason for the continued dynamic of perceived conflict is that the industry is not proactively communicating about operational changes that do address the potential environmental harms of logging activities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Of the local stakeholders, all six participants indicated that they had at least a mid-level understanding of the forest products industry. This is despite the lack of coordinated education by the industry and other identified possible partners from university, extension, and government agencies. Further, based upon the responses from community participants, much of the community would be receptive to direct and formal engagement, but said things like, “I think unless you are related, you don’t really know loggers” and “I would bet that nine of ten, if people have a complaint they are not going to know where to go.”

Multiple participants indicated that they relied on local representatives of state agencies and a local university for information about logging practices and the forest products industry. local stakeholders expected these institutions to maintain relations with individual industry actors and provide information to the community. However, The public’s utilization of state government and university expertise was not part of the direct line of questioning in the interviews, but this potentially provides another perspective on community industry relations. Although the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was seen as an asset to the industry and community, there were responses that indicated that community engagement on behalf of the forest products industry was not the DNR’s primary role. local stakeholders recognized the tensions faced by the DNR; as one interviewee said, “Our DNR is underfunded. We are ranked top three in natural resources but we are in the bottom three in state investment.” Given the community’s social context of having the resources of a local university and local agents from state offices, there is less pressure on the industry to maintain direct communications to facilitate community support. However, this indirect line of communication may strain the limited resources of existing groups (i.e., universities, DNR staff, members of the industry who conduct operations in the public view) in ways that may impede the communication necessary to sustain community support for the forest products industry.

== Discussion &amp; limitations ==
Past research on how natural resource based industries achieve social license focuses on formal means of engagement and communication as well as schematics of social license formation assumed to apply across an entire industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Wyatt|first3=Stephen|last4=Williams|first4=Kathryn J. H.|date=2016-09|title=Social licence to operate and forestry – an introduction|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw036|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=473–476|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw036|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; This research instead looks at how local stakeholders and industry actors perceive the processes shaping communication, engagement, and change without explicit reference to social license and demonstrates how social perspectives of industry activities are embedded in real socio-environmental contexts and histories. Via interrogation of the processes involved in real relationships between the forest products industry and the local community and the extent to which the industry is achieving social license, this research demonstrates that social license is highly contingent on socio-historical and spatially variable community identities.

Given the long history of natural resource based industries in this community, natural resource economic dependency is an integral part of community identity and shapes community support for forest product activities. local stakeholders are also aware of the macro-economic forces, largely out of the hands of local industry actors, which shape operational practices. They are critical of how these larger systemic economic systems impact their community while recognizing that local industry actors are largely responsive to forces they cannot control. Forest dependent communities are often interested in balancing forest health with employment and wood production but are also often unable to pay for expanded conservation,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kangas|first=Jyrki|last2=Niemeläinen|first2=Pasi|date=1996-01|title=Opinion of forest owners and the public on forests and their use in Finland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02827589609382936|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research|volume=11|issue=1-4|pages=269–280|doi=10.1080/02827589609382936|issn=0282-7581}}&lt;/ref&gt; and community participants in this study also recognized the limits on local industry actors to make decisions about how the industry utilizes natural resources.

However, histories of natural resource extraction can also be problematic for communities as they face economic dependencies that shape their willingness to accept industry activities. Gunningham, Thornton, and Kagan et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; found that industry actors felt location and visibility had a very strong connection to social license, even claiming that, “an economically dependent local community would be likely to have a more relaxed social license” (p. 324).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; In communities with a diverse economy, the processes of achieving social license are often much more complex.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Communities may exert low pressure on the industry due to economic dependence; however, the industry arguably requires more than just local consent in order to operate.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Considering the relationship between this community and the natural resource industries in the community, local stakeholders and local industry operators have shared history and experience as having limited power to control the larger economic forces acting upon them. This shared experience shapes the process of acquiring social license, and our data analysis highlights the importance of local histories and relationships in shaping social license. Nonlocal actors are likely to experience a much lesser degree of social license than local actors based on our findings. This can be at least partially explained by considering the importance of shared values, local history, and long standing relationships within the community. Local actors are more likely to have similar values to stakeholders, have established some history in the area, and have had the time to establish meaningful relationships within the community. As such, social license varies spatially and local actors are likely to carry a greater social license to operate than nonlocal actors.

Baines and Edwards (2018)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Baines|first=James|last2=Edwards|first2=Peter|date=2018-02|title=The role of relationships in achieving and maintaining a social licence in the New Zealand aquaculture sector|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|journal=Aquaculture|volume=485|pages=140–146|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|issn=0044-8486}}&lt;/ref&gt; shared similar findings in New Zealand’s aquaculture sector regarding the importance of relationships and communication between industry and local stakeholders. They find that social license depends on relationships and building trust. Smaller, local companies tend towards relationships that are relational as opposed to transactional, possibly due to their on-going community presences and communication abilities, which are better for fostering these relationships and trust building. This is consistent with our findings regarding the importance of long-standing relationships, as well as the need for better communication between the local industry and stakeholders cited by interviewees.

A corporate strategy employed to maximize shareholder profit has been to vertically integrate or divest of certain sectors. Vertical integration is when a corporation is invested or owns more than one segment of the supply chain. Vertical integration can help to increase profit margins, secure access to a resource, and add resilience to the expansion and contraction of the industry based on economic cycles. Still, vertical integration can also remove autonomy, flexibility, or opportunities for advancement in local communities. The way that industry arranges and presents its sectors to the local community could influence social license. Thus, issues of scale matter for shaping the process of acquiring social license.

This case study also suggests that informal relationships through shared social networks and shared community identities (as hunters, fishers, or snowmobilers) build trust for the local forest products industry. Trust in industry was not based on knowing the specifics of operational practice; rather, trust was developed and maintained through informal relationships. If formal and informal relationships predicating trust are absent social license may not develop, leading to the collapse of otherwise viable projects.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017-01|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; For environmentally oriented actors, this means seeing industry actors as people who also use the environment. For industry actors, this means acknowledging their interest in an environment that can sustain both economic activities and the recreational activities they want as humans who also live in the community.

However, the research suggests that these informal networks are not serving as a means to communicate about improvements to industry operations that promote environmental sustainability through best management practices (BMPs) and sustainability certification programs. Although adherence to regulations or voluntary participation in sustainability certifications is standard to the forest products industry, it is unclear if the details of the industry performance are being communicated with the public effectively. This represents an opportunity for the industry to improve development of community relationships through communication about operational practices focused on sustainability efforts, especially if ways are found to do this that leverage the informal communication and relational networks that seem to matter most to local stakeholders.

Many of the resources affected by forest management are held in the public trust,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fujisawa|first=Hideo|date=2004-02|title=The forest planning system in relation to the forest resource and forestry policies|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|journal=Journal of Forest Research|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|issn=1341-6979}}&lt;/ref&gt; so it is important for both industry actors and community stakeholders to feel engaged and involved in decisions regarding local natural resource management. As Krogman (2002)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krogman|first=Naomi|last2=Beckley|first2=Tom|date=2002-02|title=Corporate 'Bail-Outs' and Local 'Buyouts': Pathways to Community Forestry?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/089419202753403300|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=15|issue=2|pages=109–127|doi=10.1080/089419202753403300|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; described, the possible range of co-management of community forests and industries is a broad spectrum. Yet Moon’s (2011)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Moon|first=Seong-Gin|last2=Bae|first2=Suho|date=2011-11|title=State-Level Institutional Pressure, Firms' Organizational Attributes, and Corporate Voluntary Environmental Behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=11|pages=1189–1204|doi=10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; findings on voluntary environmental behavior by corporations suggest that corporations are less concerned with regulatory disciplinary measures than with maintaining economic stability. The current research project suggests that local stakeholders recognize the pressures facing industry actors. It also indicates interest from both industry and local groups in managing natural resource uses for the long term. The findings suggest ways that natural resource based industries can leverage informal relationships, shared ethics commitments, and shared localized sense of responsibility to shape their organizational tendencies. This also informs the extent to which specialization, sustainability, and resource management impact operational possibilities, and relates themes in both groups that suggest more commonality than division among participant perspectives.

Study limitations include a relatively small sample size and the discrepancy between how many interviews were conducted with industry representatives versus general local stakeholders. Responses from community stakeholder interviews indicate that community members understand and recognize industry issues and barriers to success, a fact that industry members themselves recognize, however, additional research is required to adequately characterize these similarities. In addition, our use of snowball sampling creates an opportunity to miss certain local populations and their ideas. Further interviews aimed at capturing these populations are necessary to form a more complete image of social license in this community.

== Conclusion ==
Industry in this community has experienced a long history shaped by their natural resource use and the public’s opinion of it. At present, the forest products industry in this county renews and maintains its social license through personal relationships and shared values between industry members and local stakeholders, despite the absence of direct community engagement efforts. This gives direct benefit to local actors, who are more likely to hold these shared values and to have developed these personal relationships than an actor external to the community. Industry operations have improved with global innovations in technology, best management practices, sustainability certifications and health and safety regulations, and the industry might strengthen its social license by engaging local stakeholders in conversation about the shared values associated with the management of natural resources. A strengthened social license would benefit the industry if it tries to grow or navigate disturbances.

In this research, the concept of social license helps to explain the ways that operational and organizational dimensions of a natural resource based industry achieve social support from local stakeholders. Further, this research suggests that local stakeholders and industry participants have more commonalities than divisions in terms of key elements shaping social license, including commitments to a shared sense of value ethics and responsible resource management. Finally, this research suggests ways of expanding the concept of social license to consider the impact of local socio-environmental context, informal social relationships, and localized values as well as suggesting that natural resource based industries can leverage direct or mediated dialogue with local communities to communicate changes to operations and organization related to both large scale economic forces and localized environmental management.

== Appendix A ==
''Expanded Data Tables''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Trust in Organizations
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''46%'''
|'''351'''
|'''89%'''
|'''84'''
|'''46%'''
|'''277'''
|'''22%'''
|'''160'''
|'''59%'''
|'''158'''
|'''43%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|39%
|138
|87%
|23
|38%
|93
|23%
|22
|51%
|53
|34%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|29%
|35
|83%
|6
|41%
|37
|20%
|15
|44%
|18
|41%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|44% 
|45
|71% 
|14
|43%
|30
|14% 
|35
|46% 
|28
|45%
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|44%
|9
|100%
|3
|53%
|15
|20% 
|5
|100%
|8
|100%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|57% 
|28
|83%
|6
|40% 
|30
|29%
|7
|67%
|15
|47%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|50% 
|56
|100%
|23
|63%
|52
|26%
|38
|78% 
|32
|65%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|73% 
|40
|100%
|9
|60% 
|20
|24% 
|38
|75%
|4
|33%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Engaging Stakeholders
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''57%'''
|'''351'''
|'''30%'''
|'''84'''
|'''23%''' 
|'''277'''
|'''24%'''
|'''160'''
|'''16%'''
|'''158'''
|'''17%'''
|'''15'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|48%
|138
|22%
|23
|18% 
|93
|18% 
|22
|11% 
|53
|14%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|49%
|35
|17%
|6
|22%
|37
|7% 
|15
|6%
|18
|14%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|62%
|45
|29%
|14
|30% 
|30
|26% 
|35
|25% 
|28
|32% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|56%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|40%
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|82%
|28
|33% 
|6
|17%
|30
|29% 
|7
|7% 
|15
|11%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|54%
|56
|48%
|23
|35%
|52
|16%
|38
|28% 
|32
|18%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|75%
|40
|22%
|9
|35%
|20
|37%
|38
|25%
|4
|0%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Response to changing expectation
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''15%'''
|'''351'''
|'''17%'''
|'''84'''
|'''21%'''
|'''277'''
|'''60%''' 
|'''160'''
|'''35%''' 
|'''158'''
|'''27%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|13%
|138
|13%
|23
|15% 
|93
|64%
|22
|30%
|53
|24% 
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|6% 
|35
|17%
|6
|16% 
|37
|27%
|15
|39%
|18
|18%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|20%
|45
|14%
|14
|37% 
|30
|51%
|35
|36%
|28
|35% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|22%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|60% 
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|4%
|28
|0%
|6
|13%
|30
|57%
|7
|33%
|15
|26%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|23%
|56
|35%
|23
|37% 
|52
|68%
|38
|50%
|32
|24%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|20%
|40
|0%
|9
|20% 
|20
|71%
|38
|25%
|4
|67% 
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Trust in Organizations
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Engaging Stakeholders
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Response to Expectations
|-
!Community (agg. n-6) 
!67% 
!n=189
!33%
!66% 
!n=180 
!34% 
!66%
!n=169
!34% 
|-
|Developer (n-1) 
|88%
|n=24
|13%
|80%
|n=25
|20%
|83%
|n=23
|17%
|-
|City Official (n-1)
|77%
|n=44
|23%
|78%
|n=41
|22%
|77% 
|n=43
|23%
|-
|Media (n-1) 
|98%
|n=42
|2%
|71%
|n=42
|29%
|83%
|n=30 
|17%
|-
|Conservationist (n-2) 
|37%
|n=67 
|63%
|50%
|n=52
|50%
|37% 
|n=59
|63%
|-
|Environ. Activist (n-1)
|50% 
|n=12 
|50%
|50%
|n=20
|50%
|86% 
|n=14 
|14%
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <id>2409298</id>
      <parentid>2409296</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T20:41:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>18921</id>
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      <comment>Reference formatting and correction</comment>
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      <text bytes="70063" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Zoe
| last1 = Ketola
| orcid1 = 
| affiliation1 = Michigan Technological University
| first2 = William
| last2 = Lytle
| orcid2 = 
| affiliation2 = Evergreen International Sustainability Solutions; USA Dry Pea and Lentil Council
| correspondence2 = by [[Special:EmailUser/Wjlytle|online form]]
| first3 =  Chelsea 
| last3 = Schelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first4 =  Mark
| last4 = Rudnicki{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| first5 =  Matthew 
| last5 = Kelly{{affiliation|name=Ketola}}
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| license = 
| abstract = This research investigates the existing social license and the processes of achieving and articulating social license between a rural community in the northern Midwestern United States community and the forest products industry, based on interviews with both industry and community stakeholders. Perceptions of natural resource management and community relations are highly related to the community’s history with industries, relationships with place, and perspectives on valuable work. The results suggest that social license varies spatially, and it is the place-based context that allows local industry to have a higher degree of license than non-local industry actors. Thus, social license is spatially contingent, based on particular socio-spatial and historical contexts. In this paper, we articulate how these spatial and historical contextualization shapes perceptions of acceptable operating practices. This paper offers refinement of the concept of social license while also considering how natural resource based industries can successfully meet evolving management challenges.
}}

== Introduction ==
The term “social license” - generally, the acceptance a company has to engage in its operations - was introduced in 1997 and has since been applied in multiple resource extraction industries to describe changes in company-community interactions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Kieren |last1=Moffat |first2=Justine |last2=Lacey |first3=Airong |last3=Zhang |first4=Sina |last4=Leipold |url=https://academic.oup.com/forestry/article/89/5/477/2194485 |title=The social licence to operate: a critical review |journal=Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research |doi=10.1093/forestry/cpv044 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=477–488 |year=2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; This use of social license has included an understanding of how acceptance levels impact resource development operations within these industries&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gunningham|first=Neil|last2=Kagan|first2=Robert A.|last3=Thornton|first3=Dorothy|date=2004|title=Social License and Environmental Protection: Why Businesses Go Beyond Compliance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|journal=Law &amp; Social Inquiry|volume=29|issue=2|pages=307–341|doi=10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00338.x|issn=0897-6546}}&lt;/ref&gt; state corporations comply with their social license by operating within societal expectations and avoiding activities (or influential elements within them) considered unacceptable, and define social license it as “the demands on and expectations for a business enterprise that emerge from neighborhoods, environmental groups, local stakeholders, and other elements of the surrounding civil society”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

It seems that industries recognize the value or necessity of their social license and its impact on their operations. Some forecasts indicate that obtaining social license may become a requirement for obtaining a legal license from government agencies, although frameworks used to incorporate social license in government licensure are not well-defined and may turn out the be prohibitive to forming trust-based community relationships.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Anguelovski|first=Isabelle|date=2011|title=Understanding the Dynamics of Community Engagement of Corporations in Communities: The Iterative Relationship Between Dialogue Processes and Local Protest at the Tintaya Copper Mine in Peru|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920903339699|journal=Society &amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=4|pages=384–399|doi=10.1080/08941920903339699|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Lacey|first1= J.|last2= Parsons|first2= R.|last3= Moffat|first3= K.|date=2012|title=Exploring the concept of a Social Licence to Operate in the Australian minerals industry: Results from interviews with industry representatives|publisher= CSIRO|at= EP125553|doi=10.4225/08/5852dc54dc765}}&lt;/ref&gt; Issues related to the government’s measurement of corporations’ social license include its role in licensure processes, the penalties for non-compliance, or the community’s ability to halt a project if a corporation is not responsive to their concerns, are still subject to global concern.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Demuijnck|first=Geert|last2=Fasterling|first2=Björn|date=2016|title=The Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|journal=Journal of Business Ethics|volume=136|issue=4|pages=675–685|doi=10.1007/s10551-015-2976-7|issn=0167-4544}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Regardless of government involvement, social license is achieved within and given by communities. Communities can be defined as “a social unit of any size that shares common values, or that is situated in a given geographical area”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: The Contribution of Science and Technology Education|last1=Churach|first1=Dan|last2=Nichols|first2=Di|date=2007|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-8790-173-8|editor1-last=Zandvliet|editor1-first=David B.|pages=71–84|chapter=Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Environments: Industry Supported Professional Development in the Mineral Resource Sector|doi=10.1163/9789087901738_008|editor2-last=Fisher|editor2-first=Darrel L.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Communities are often viewed as people that fall in a certain geographic region, although even these geographic groups can contain multiple, smaller groups that include individuals with varied perspectives and values that shape the way they view industrial operations. Further, members of geographic communities may have different relationships with industry because they may be part of the workforce, product consumers, and potential project partners.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Local stakeholders may also differ in the extent to which they contribute to supplying infrastructure for industry, including access to resources and the ways they benefit from industrial activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/802343793|title=Sustainable communities, sustainable development: other paths for Papua New Guinea|last1=James|first1=Paul Warren|last2=Nadarajah|first2=Yaso|last3=Haive|first3=Karen|last4=Stead|first4=Victoria C.|date=2012|publisher=University of Hawaiʻi|isbn=0-8248-3588-3|doi=10.21313/hawaii/9780824835880.001.0001|oclc=802343793}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Communities carry social, spatial, and historical contexts; geographical spaces are socio-environmental places and communities are shaped by their shared climates and histories. Thus, the granting of social license is also based on perspectives and values developed within community context, and understanding the social licensing process arguably requires attentiveness to the spatial and historical context of any community.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Sen|date=2019|title=Managing forests for the greater good: The role of the social license to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=107|pages=101920|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2019.05.006|issn=1389-9341}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, how social license influences the relationships between local stakeholders and local industry is often unclear, leaving the portrait of its socio-environmental context incomplete. This work considers how the social license to operate for a local forest products industry is embedded in a local socio-environmental context within a rural community in Michigan, aiming to understand what that may mean for navigating the development of social license and potential conflicts that may threaten it.

== Unpack social license ==

Social license is often regarded as being synonymous with community approval, in part due to its deep historical roots in mining and forestry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Syn|first=Juliette|date=2014|title=The Social License: Empowering Communities and a Better Way Forward|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=318–339|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922640|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite report|last1=Boutilier|first1= R.|last2= Thomson|first2= I.|date= 2011|title= Modelling and measuring the social license to operate: Fruits of a dialogue between theory and practice|publisher= Social License|url=https://socialicense.com/publications/Modelling%20and%20Measuring%20the%20SLO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Parsons|first=Richard|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Moffat|first3=Kieren|date=2014|title=Maintaining legitimacy of a contested practice: How the minerals industry understands its 'social licence to operate'|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=41|pages=83–90|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt; References to the concept of social license go back to 1996, when W. Henson Moore refers to mills as needing a “social license to operate” from the public.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|last1=Moore|first1=W.H.|date=October 1996|title= The social license to operate|work= PIMA Magazine|pages= 22–23|volume=78|issue=10|issn=1046-4352}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, given the dynamic nature of relationships, community approval fails to describe all of the essential elements of social license, such as how different stakeholder groups perceive individual nodes of the supply chain in the forest products industry and especially how the industry can achieve and maintain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Citing our previous definition of the term from Gunningham et al., it would be most productive to view social license not as a linear relationship that directly binds industry with the community, but as a continuum, spectrum, or even web of relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dare|first=Melanie (Lain)|last2=Schirmer|first2=Jacki|last3=Vanclay|first3=Frank|date=2014|title=Community engagement and social licence to operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|journal=Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal|volume=32|issue=3|pages=188–197|doi=10.1080/14615517.2014.927108|issn=1461-5517}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|date=2014|title=Can’t Climb the Trees Anymore: Social Licence to Operate, Bioenergy and Whole Stump Removal in Sweden|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|journal=Social Epistemology|volume=28|issue=3–4|pages=239–257|doi=10.1080/02691728.2014.922637|issn=0269-1728}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gehman|first=Joel|last2=Lefsrud|first2=Lianne M.|last3=Fast|first3=Stewart|date=2017|title=Social license to operate: Legitimacy by another name?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/capa.12218|journal=Canadian Public Administration|volume=60|issue=2|pages=293–317|doi=10.1111/capa.12218|issn=0008-4840}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; outline three important facets to an industry involved in community engagement: “trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, [and] ability of organizations to respond to changing expectations” (pp. 191-192). Dare et al. (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; argue that these three elements form a vehicle that allows a corporation to increase its social license. 

Traditionally, industries have used community engagement or public relations strategies and personnel to reach out to local stakeholders. The effectiveness of these methods is influenced by the nature of the industry operations, education provided to communities, and the relationship that can be formed during engagement, which occurs at both the strategic and operational levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Strategic engagement includes proactively reaching out to community leaders and finding key influencers with whom to form relationships. Operational engagement exists at the work site and includes efforts to shape how people experience an operation through one-on-one conversations and by minimizing negative environmental and aesthetic impacts. However, operational engagement is often limited by poor access to the work site, particularly in rural areas with difficult terrain, large open spaces, and lackluster road networks. When site access is limited, local stakeholders may rely on other sources, such as the media, to help them form their opinions of industrial operations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lester|first=Libby|date=2016|title=Media and social licence: on being publicly useful in the Tasmanian forests conflict|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw015|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=542–551|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw015|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Previous research suggests that operational engagement has limitations due to communities not trusting local managers, a failure to reach the full body of stakeholders, and the inability of organizations to adapt operations to fit with changing social norms.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

The forest products industry is characterized by both stationary operations (i.e., mills) and transient operations (i.e., timber harvests) that occur across a wide expanse of the landscape. In this way, forest products industries commonly cross geographic communities, thereby complicating operations level engagement. Despite the limitations, strategic engagement and operational engagement are presumed to be an important part of a corporation’s achieving social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prno|first=Jason|last2=Scott Slocombe|first2=D.|date=2012|title=Exploring the origins of ‘social license to operate’ in the mining sector: Perspectives from governance and sustainability theories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|journal=Resources Policy|volume=37|issue=3|pages=346–357|doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002|issn=0301-4207}}&lt;/ref&gt; Combined, these factors influence what level of social license a community may grant industry. We hope to understand the extent to which the community in our case study grants their forest products industry its social license and how the concepts of strategic and operational engagement factor into social license to operate. 

Effective community engagement should focus on building legitimacy, credibility and trust; these are the three key relationship components for understanding the continuum of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Trust is particularly important for unlocking more effective community-industry relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stern|first=Marc J.|last2=Baird|first2=Timothy D.|date=2015|title=Trust ecology and the resilience of natural resource management institutions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/es-07248-200214|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=20|issue=2|doi=10.5751/es-07248-200214|issn=1708-3087}}&lt;/ref&gt; The “trust ecology” includes prior behavior and performance, personal histories, positive direct interactions and equitable procedures.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt; Building multiple forms of trust allows for greater institutional resilience, in that if one type of trust becomes jeopardized, the other forms will help retain social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;

One element of trust is reputation, which illustrates how different stakeholder groups can influence the formation of social license.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; The reputation of a corporation has also been defined as organizational legitimacy, and represents how stakeholders perceive the identity and values of an organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/964759813|title=The social license: How to keep your organization legitimate|first=John|last=Morrison|date=2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=1-137-37072-6|oclc=964759813}}&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, operational legitimacy is based on the action or production of services provided to stakeholders by the organization.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Lacey (2012)&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; suggests that social license can take a long time for a corporation or industry to achieve, but social license can be lost very quickly for a variety of factors, including changes in stakeholder expectations, technology, or other disturbances. Gunningham et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; argue that meeting and exceeding regulations to build reputational capital is economically vital, saying: “in certain circumstances, [natural resource based industries] cannot afford to do otherwise” (p. 321). 

The concept of social license as currently articulated is not without weaknesses. The terms often used to describe social license (e.g., legitimate, credible, support, accept, permit, approve, consent) can overlap in meaning, leading to ambiguity in their interpretation).&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; Likewise, social license becomes more opaque when held next to terms like corporate social responsibility, sustainable development, and corporate citizenship, which all seek to call attention to the same general concept of striving for an industry that balances economic, social, and environmental goals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.johnelkington.com/archive/TBL-elkington-chapter.pdf|title=The Triple Bottom Line: Does It All Add up? Assessing the Sustainability of Business and CSR|last1=Elkington|first1=J.|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781849773348|editor1-last=Henriques|editor1-first=A.|pages=1–16|chapter=Enter the triple bottom line|doi=10.4324/9781849773348|editor2-last=Richardson|editor2-first=J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sarkar|first=Amin U.|date=1998|title=Sustainability, sustainable development and forest resources|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504509809469980|journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development &amp;amp; World Ecology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=164–171|doi=10.1080/13504509809469980|issn=1350-4509}}&lt;/ref&gt; There has even been some specific disapproval for the term social license, such as when the term was adopted by industry and then used in conversation with the local community; stakeholders and media felt that the term was being used against them as propaganda and that it was difficult to fully comprehend.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, many natural resource based industries have become interested in analyzing their social license in hopes of cultivating more effective partnerships with local communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; This study examined the social license of the forest products industry based on the perspective of both industry members and community stakeholders in a rural community located in the northern Midwestern United States. We hope that our findings will allow some refinement of the social license concept such that it can be better applied to current and future projects involving industrial activities using local natural environments.

== Case Study Background ==
This research centers on how the public grants social license to the forest products industry within a rural county in Michigan, located in the northern Midwestern United States. This county has about 1,000 square miles of mostly forested land and has a history of involvement with the forest products industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties_list_26.txt |title=2010 Census Gazetteer Files |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113024015/http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/docs/gazetteer/counties_list_26.txt |archive-date=2013-11-13 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |date=2012 |access-date=October 15, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; For this research, the forest products industry is defined as all the lands owned and the operations that take place involving the management of forests or the processing of wood within the county. Participants in the forest products industry include public and private landowners, developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists, the media, and more, within the geographic boundaries of the county. Individuals representing each of these groups were interviewed as part of this study. Industry participants and community stakeholders were interviewed separately with question sets aimed at understanding their roles surrounding the social license of the forest products industry.

== Methods ==
This study was based around three primary research questions, as informed by the preceding background on social license literature and gaps in its theory. These questions are as follows.

# How does social license align with articulations of the relationships among the industry and the local community? 
# What current level of social license is the community granting the industry? 
# In what ways can the concept of social license be further refined based on this work’s context?

The interview protocol was developed following a thorough review of existing social license literature and existing knowledge regarding the local market, its actors, and their dynamics. It was designed to elicit responses from participants about the human dimensions of the local forest products industry and asked questions about topics shaping the local forest products industry’s social license. This was done to develop an understanding of the processes and practices of engagement among sectors of the forest products industry, as well as between the local industry and influential stakeholders in the community. As the interview progressed, participants were encouraged to express their personal views of their industry and their community with a strong focus on relationships, responsibilities, values and disturbances.

Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling methodology to better understand the social license continuum by receiving names of key informants that could be difficult to identify from outside the industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heckathorn|first=Douglas D.|date=2011|title=Comment: Snowball versus Respondent-Driven Sampling|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|journal=Sociological Methodology|volume=41|issue=1|pages=355–366|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9531.2011.01244.x|issn=0081-1750}}&lt;/ref&gt; Two separate sampling frames were used for each group of respondents, industry actors and community stakeholders. An initial assessment of the sectors of the forest products industry was performed using the Michigan Department of Natural Resources: Forest Products Industry Directory searchable database. Thirty-three corporate profiles were retrieved using the directory. These profiles were utilized for developing basic classifications of the industry as well as providing an initial point of contact for the interviews. Expansion of the sectors and classification system was necessary to accurately include the operations of corporations that were referred to participate in interviews through the snowball sampling method. A database on community leaders in government, nonprofit organizations, and the local media was created to initially identify community participants. These participants were then contacted for interviews and, if interviewed, were asked for additional potential participants. The snowball sampling method provides a means of determining when research is approaching saturation and occurs when names are referred multiple times and very few new names are added.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Charmaz|first1= K.|date=2003|chapter=Grounded theory|editor1-first= J. A.|editor1-last= Smith|title= Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods |pages= 81–110|publisher=Sage|isbn=0761972307 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Referrals from outside the county were not contacted for an interview.

Fourteen interviews were conducted with individuals from industry, representing 42.4% of the identified corporate profiles. Industry was considered to be the collection of all corporations and sectors involved with forest products. Each participant was given a primary classification based on the operations of the corporation (referred to as businesses and companies in some interview responses) and the individual position of the participant. Six of the companies were given secondary classifications based on their organization spanning more than one class. Interview questions are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 1. Interview Questions - Industry'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt''
!''Social License Subpart''
|-
|Q1: What makes your job or industry unique? 
P1: What level of responsibility, do you feel, is associated with your work? 

P2: Are there any parts of your job that you especially enjoy?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: Could you tell me about relationships with landowners/clients? 
P1: How long do these relationships usually last? 

P2: Do they understand what you do?
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|-
|Q3: Could you tell me about relationships with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with them?

P2: Who do you perceive, has more power in these interactions?

P3: Can you help me understand that better? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities 
|-
|Q4: Has there been a major external change- cultural, technological, social, economic- that has affected your clients or the public’s satisfaction with your products or services? 
P1: Are there segments of your company that have had trouble adapting? ie. equipment, personnel, facilities, R+D
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Social License in Community Context 
|-
|Q5: Do you feel that you have the ability to communicate effectively with landowners and the public? 
P1: What are the factors that limit your communication?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q6: The forest products industry seems to be very complex. What strategies have you developed to help you survive? 
P1: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q7: What was your industry like 10 years ago?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q8: When was the best time to be in your industry? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q9: Where do you see your industry in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories 
|-
|Q10: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about these topics? 
|Relationships &amp; Trust 
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''''Table 2. Interview Questions - Stakeholders'''''
!''Question/Prompt Number: Question/Prompt'' 
!'''''Social License Subpart''''' 
|-
|Q1: Could you tell me your job title and describe what your job entails? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q2: How long have you lived/worked in [County]? 
P1: What do you like about forests in this area?
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q3: Do you own land? 
A. How many acres?  

B. Permanent residence?  

C. For land that is not a permanent residence, what is your purpose for owning it? (recreation, investment, been in the family)  

D. How did you acquire your land (purchase vs inherit)  

E. Is the land forested? Does it have a home  

F. Is the land have you ever harvested trees either commercially (timber sale) or for personal use (firewood)?  

G. Do you have a forest management plan?  

H. Do you consult with a professional forester? 
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories
|-
|Q4: When I use the term forest products industry, who do you think of? 
P1: Why is that? 

P2: How would you define the forest products industry for [County]? 

P3: Would you say that you have a high, medium or low understanding of the forest products industry? {Define the forest products industry for our research}
|Community Identities &amp; Industry Histories/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q5: What types of responsibilities, do you feel, are placed on the forest products industry? 
P1: How do you expect the actions of businesses in the industry to reflect these responsibilities? 

P2: Do you trust local members of the forest products industry to be stewards of our resources? {prompt with economic responsibilities (taxes, commerce) social (jobs, community involvement, recreation), environmental}
|Social License in Community Context/Relationships &amp; Trust
|-
|Q6: Could you tell me about the relationships the forest products industry has with the public/community? 
P1: What kinds of interactions do you have with the industry? 

P2: Who do you perceive, has more influence on the outcomes of these interactions? 

P3: Do you feel the industry understands the community’s needs?
|Relationships &amp; Trust/Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q7: Has there been a major change-environmental, social, economic- that has affected your satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the forest products industry? 
P1: How does the forest products industry accommodate or address complaints?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q8: Do you feel that the forest products industry communicates effectively? 
P1: How does the industry show that? 

P2: What are the factors that limit their communication?
|Social Engagement through Community Identities
|-
|Q9: What are the difficulties associated with running a business in [County]? 
P1: Do the strategies of the forest products industry help them survive in your opinion? 

P2: Repeat answer back. Is there anything I missed or you would like to add?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities/Social License in Community Context
|-
|Q10: What was your community like 10 years ago?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q11: When was the best time to be in your community? 
P1: Why do you think that is?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q12: Where do you see your community in 10 years? 
P1: Is that a future you look forward to being a part of? 

P2: How will we arrive there?
|Industry Histories &amp; Community Identities
|-
|Q13: Is there anyone else that you can suggest that I communicate with about how the forest products industry relates to the community in [County]?
|Relationships &amp; Trust
|}
Six community participants were interviewed, representing positions later classified based on categories of significance identified via the snowball sampling method. Each of the participants represented a larger interest group including developers, government officials, environmental activists, conservationists and the media. These groups were referred to be interviewed because they reflect the diversity of natural resource stakeholders and they are inclusive of influential persons and decision-makers who may shape public opinion of the forest products industry. Interview questions for community participants can be found in Appendix B.

This research is based on a total of 20 in-depth interviews. Each participant agreed to the interview, consented to being digitally recorded, and was assured confidentiality. The interview protocol was reviewed by Michigan Technological University’s Institutional Review Board and given Exempt status because the research posed minimal risk to participants. Information associated with individual participants was assigned a numerical value to ensure confidentiality and ensure accuracy in data processing. Each interview was transcribed verbatim. Personal information and private stories unrelated to the research were deleted from transcripts to help maintain the confidentiality of the participants. Interview participants were given the opportunity to review themes and presentations that included their data for accuracy before publication.

An iterative process was applied to the coding and analysis of the interviews. Each interview transcript was coded using a grounded theory approach, where open codes were initially used to identify themes, and codes were further refined as data analysis developed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; Key themes from literature and overarching themes from interview responses were used as initial codes, after extensive review of the conceptual frameworks that could be best applied to the data.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Gery W.|last2=Bernard|first2=H. Russell|date=2003|title=Techniques to Identify Themes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1525822x02239569|journal=Field Methods|volume=15|issue=1|pages=85–109|doi=10.1177/1525822x02239569|issn=1525-822X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the interviews were designed around concepts of community engagement,&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; there appeared to be very little evidence of direct community engagement. Morrison’s (2014)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; descriptions of organizational and operational legitimacy were added to the axial coding to more accurately represent the relative weights of themes seen in the responses.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Bryman|first1= A.|date= 2015|title=Social research methods|publisher= Oxford University Press|edition=5th|isbn=9780199689453 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ultimately, responses were coded as falling into one or more of three themes: trust in organizations, capacity to engage stakeholders, and ability to respond to changing expectations of stakeholders. For industry member responses, these classifications were then further analyzed to determine how the industry engaged the community, either with its organization or its operation. The influence of organizational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: relationships, ethics and responsibilities. These divisions were used to understand how the long memories and deep, interpersonal connections people in this rural, isolated community may be related to the level of social license they permit. The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses to three divisions: specialization, sustainability and resource management. These divisions were used to understand how local industry actors respond to external, local pressures regarding their social license. Participants were not asked about these topics directly, however, their responses to other interview questions may be indicative of the broader market dynamics at play in this local industry. Although responses were given a binary coding for the purpose of analysis, they are not intended to represent the overarching measure of social license, which is widely accepted as beyond binary.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Results ==
Data analysis via iterative coding processes revealed several themes related to, but not perfectly corresponding to, existing perspectives on social license and our original research objectives. The influence of organizational legitimacy were grouped into the following themes uncovered in interview responses: relationships, ethics, and responsibilities between industry and community. In terms of operational dimensions, dominant themes related to specialization, sustainability, and resource management were noted.

Regarding organizational legitimacy, relationships included the personal and professional interactions of individuals within the industry and with other stakeholders. An example quotation tallied for relationships is as follows: “the time that we spent together- designing, figuring and their business to the shop usually take that relationship deeper.” The ethics division denoted responses that could be categorized as being part of a moral code or standard beyond what is required by the profession. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for ethics: “as a Christian [there are] guidelines as to what is right and what’s wrong.” The final division under organizational legitimacy is responsibilities. Responsibilities were the obligations or duties assigned to a person by themselves or other stakeholders such as family, neighbors, and corporations. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for responsibilities: “I have to make sure we buy the proper material to give us the greatest yield for the least amount of money.”

The influence of operational legitimacy was analyzed by assigning industry participant responses tallies under three divisions: specialization, sustainability, and resource management. Specialization included changes in operational procedure or machinery to better meet market demands and improve efficiency. Here’s an example of a quotation that would be tallied for specialization: “equipment to manufacture [a product] has undergone a lot of changes, before it was a very hands on, labor intensive, and dangerous.” The sustainability division denoted responses about operations that balanced social, economic and most often environmental goals. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for sustainability: “We do culvert permits whenever a stream needs to be crossed or bridge permits- that is very common now.” The final division under operational legitimacy is resource management, which included the inputs and outputs of manufacturing and the methods by which forests were managed in the region, often including comments about granting public access to private forest lands. Here’s an example of a quotation tallied for resource management: “Thinning a hardwood stand is very extensive. Clear cutting aspen, not particularly intensive. It regenerates so quickly.” Responses tallied in these divisions were not counted mutually exclusively, meaning some comments bridge several divisions that were relevant for assessing social license.

Coding also revealed a major theme, articulated by members of both groups, regarding the relationship between the history of natural resource based industrial activities in the area and perspectives of and expectations for current industry activities. We begin the presentation of the results with a brief history of resource extraction in the county and how participants associated this with shaping current discussions of natural resource based industry. This is followed by data on relationships, trust, and engagement within the county. The last sections build upon the previous sections to review the current social license dynamics as described by interview participants.

=== Industry histories and community identities ===
The long history of logging and copper mining in the county continues to shape the attitudes and identities of industry participants today. The economic cycles of the last decade have left only the most fit forest products industry corporations intact. The community as a whole and the individuals working for the forest products industry in particular value continued commitment to hard work in the face of structural challenges. Several industry participants talked with pride about the importance of hard work, saying things like, “I have always made sure that we are cutting all the time. If you sit you are going backwards,” and, “Work harder than the next guy out there, do a better job.” The industry here takes a stoic stance toward surviving macroeconomic cycles: “Our long term focus has been helpful. You can make a lot of bad decisions if you are thinking short term. We have been around 100 years. You have got to keep reminding yourself of the long term goals.” Several participants represented companies that have generations of experience operating in the region, which may provide continuity on issues that impact social license.

The data suggests that the forest products industry may receive social license through the channels that were originally established by mining corporations. Several community participants mentioned that the local culture is accepting of the presence of industry, saying, “collectively, the culture still reflects that this was a mining region and that the mining companies were the giver,” and, “people were used to depending on the company store, not challenging the father mine figure and that carried over so that the people are looking to somebody to give them the job or someone to fix it.”

Further, comparisons to mining operations seem to have a positive effect on perceptions of the forest products industry. One community member, comparing the impacts of logging and mining, said, “The legacy mining thing is worse.” Rather than anything attributed to industry responsibility, though, participants discussed the differences between mining and logging activities in terms of the biophysical characteristics, the resiliency of local ecosystems and the natural regeneration of many tree species, which allowed the industry to remain intact. According to another community member, the forest resource was “poorly managed for 80 years and it survived or came back.”

An industry member similarly focused on the positive aspects of wood products, arguing, “one of the things about our industry is that the trees that we grow are renewable. A lot of industries are extractive type industries. Ours is a renewable industry. So that is a really neat thing. And the other thing is that our industry can go very well hand in hand with other interests that folks have and we have. For instance, recreation, biodiversity, hunting, you name it.” The renewable nature of forest resources and the ability to manage the forest for multiple uses were elements that local stakeholders and industry representatives alike described as important for granting social license.

=== Relationships and trust ===
Relationships built through formal channels of communication or industry engagement through activities such as community event sponsorships are perceived as key for social license.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanclay|last2=Hanna|date=2019|title=Conceptualizing Company Response to Community Protest: Principles to Achieve a Social License to Operate|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land8060101|journal=Land|volume=8|issue=6|pages=101|doi=10.3390/land8060101|issn=2073-445X}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, according to participants in this project, relationships exist both within the industry and informally among members of the industry and the community due to the multi-dimensional nature of human identity and social life which corresponds with understanding of variable stakeholder relationships.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; It was not primarily through formal networks of communication or industry support but through informal relationships, engagement, and shared activities and interests that the forest products industry was able to achieve and maintain local license via community relationships that built and maintained trust.

One industry member talked at length about the responsibility for the environment that accompanies their position, saying, “Protecting water quality, protecting threatened and endangered species, make sure wildlife habitat is conserved, making sure the neighbors are treated correctly. Those things are common to everybody and those things are what we really got to focus on. Particularly water quality. I think as an industry in general we have come a hell of a long ways in improving what we do around water. Both in road construction and skidding wood and harvesting.” In the interviews with the industry, it was widely acknowledged that the wellbeing of their industry was directly linked to the wellbeing of the environment. There were a range of comments made by industry members related to ensuring that the forest would be sustained into the future, including: “Our responsibility is, we are obviously utilizing today, we want to make sure that future generations can utilize as well.” Another industry member said, “I am responsible for achieving that budget in terms of the amount of wood we harvest and the amount of money we make off of that. We have to do that in an environmentally sustainable manner that means that we can keep doing it for a long time in the future.”

The forest products industry relied on their organizations’ or participants’ ethics to build trust with the public. The organizations also relied on their relationships within the industry and community as well as their perceived responsibilities to help form trust. The forest products industry responded that operationally, sustainability had the largest impact on whether the public would trust the organization. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

Industry members talked about the importance of positive communication efforts while developing relationships with others, saying, “It’s all about people skills, you can’t go in there be a know-it-all. It's all about listening and talking. Being friendly, being open, being honest, being empathetic.” Another industry participant said, “Most people are pretty understanding of what we do. They realize. Once in a while they ask when you do something that seems to be out of the norm, I usually get called on it. There are lots of people around- I know just about everybody in the community. They kind of trust you and if they see something, they want to know why too.” These comments are illustrative of how participants from industry discussed developing trust with local stakeholders.

The developer, city official and media participants indicated a high level of trust in the forest products industry. As one of these local stakeholders said, “I think that our forest industry people are stewards of our forest, stewards of our earth of which all of us actually should be, but especially in that industry and I think that they are.” While less common among the participants associated with conservation and environmental activism, all community participants made some comments about trust that indicate the existence of a social license. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

=== Engagement through community identities ===
Among research participants, relationships that built trust were described as occurring not through formal activities or corporate sponsorships but through shared community identities that created a sense of shared purpose among industry actors and local stakeholders. Of the comments made concerning community engagement, 57% focused on relationships, as the avenue through which members of the forest product industry thought that their organizations engaged stakeholders. Most of the relationships described by industry members were personal or involved other members of the industry. As one participant said, “I know many of the consulting foresters, timber managers. We catch up at community events and sessions.” Local industry members are often also local stakeholders and could serve to inform others about the operations of the industry through their informal social networks. Outside of several specific instances, engaging stakeholders was not part of the practice of corporations within the industry operating in this community. Portions of their resource management or specialization (such as design) could have been used to develop conversations with the local community, but were largely absent. The forest products industry seemed to withdraw from many formal activities that would engage stakeholders because of perceived possibility of negative responses. As one industry member said, “We can be blamed for some of that for not protecting our turf long, long ago. Or for some of our bad behavior as an industry may be long, long ago. We haven't tooted our horn on what’s changed, instead we try to stay out of that limelight.” See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

However, community participants suggested that engagement from the industry was largely positive. A majority of the comments about industry engagement suggested industry had been successful in those interactions. See Appendix A for expanded data tables relating to this discussion.

There were very few responses made by local stakeholders specifically about direct or formal engagement with the forest products industry. Only two references were made to direct engagement efforts initiated by the forest products industry, both having been far enough in the past where local stakeholders were unable to recall details. One community member stated, “I do remember TV commercials educating people on the industry and what it means to your economy and your environment, but I can’t recall anything particular.” Another recalled, “That program where they put the signs out and the kids can go out and learn about different types of forest cover. That was started when there was a real strong backlash against the industry.” For both industry and community participants, direct or formal engagement was described as happening rarely and reactively. The kinds of informal engagement that were taking place, and were arguably contributing to the local license granted by the community to industry activities, were based on informal community networks. Participants had gone to school together, been coworkers, or had similar hobbies. These networks were the foundation for shared relationships, the building of trust, and the maintenance of informal engagement.

=== Social license in the community context ===
While the forest products industry may be somewhat embedded in the community, the lack of recognized formal engagement and feeling of invisibility or persecution experienced by some industry participants indicates its social license is inadequate. One industry participant said they felt “demonized” and that as a member of the industry, “You are almost best to stay out of the limelight,” although this is contrary to responses from community participants and may be a factor currently limiting effective communication between the groups. This lack of communication between the groups also shows that the social license may be lacking between this community and the local forest products industry. While respondents may not have directly used the term “social license” or some variation, their responses allude to the greater themes and impacts of social license to operate.

One potential reason for the continued dynamic of perceived conflict is that the industry is not proactively communicating about operational changes that do address the potential environmental harms of logging activities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Of the local stakeholders, all six participants indicated that they had at least a mid-level understanding of the forest products industry. This is despite the lack of coordinated education by the industry and other identified possible partners from university, extension, and government agencies. Further, based upon the responses from community participants, much of the community would be receptive to direct and formal engagement, but said things like, “I think unless you are related, you don’t really know loggers” and “I would bet that nine of ten, if people have a complaint they are not going to know where to go.”

Multiple participants indicated that they relied on local representatives of state agencies and a local university for information about logging practices and the forest products industry. local stakeholders expected these institutions to maintain relations with individual industry actors and provide information to the community. However, The public’s utilization of state government and university expertise was not part of the direct line of questioning in the interviews, but this potentially provides another perspective on community industry relations. Although the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was seen as an asset to the industry and community, there were responses that indicated that community engagement on behalf of the forest products industry was not the DNR’s primary role. local stakeholders recognized the tensions faced by the DNR; as one interviewee said, “Our DNR is underfunded. We are ranked top three in natural resources but we are in the bottom three in state investment.” Given the community’s social context of having the resources of a local university and local agents from state offices, there is less pressure on the industry to maintain direct communications to facilitate community support. However, this indirect line of communication may strain the limited resources of existing groups (i.e., universities, DNR staff, members of the industry who conduct operations in the public view) in ways that may impede the communication necessary to sustain community support for the forest products industry.

== Discussion &amp; limitations ==
Past research on how natural resource based industries achieve social license focuses on formal means of engagement and communication as well as schematics of social license formation assumed to apply across an entire industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;Moffat et al. 2016&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Peter|last2=Lacey|first2=Justine|last3=Wyatt|first3=Stephen|last4=Williams|first4=Kathryn J. H.|date=2016|title=Social licence to operate and forestry – an introduction|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpw036|journal=Forestry|volume=89|issue=5|pages=473–476|doi=10.1093/forestry/cpw036|issn=0015-752X}}&lt;/ref&gt; This research instead looks at how local stakeholders and industry actors perceive the processes shaping communication, engagement, and change without explicit reference to social license and demonstrates how social perspectives of industry activities are embedded in real socio-environmental contexts and histories. Via interrogation of the processes involved in real relationships between the forest products industry and the local community and the extent to which the industry is achieving social license, this research demonstrates that social license is highly contingent on socio-historical and spatially variable community identities.

Given the long history of natural resource based industries in this community, natural resource economic dependency is an integral part of community identity and shapes community support for forest product activities. local stakeholders are also aware of the macro-economic forces, largely out of the hands of local industry actors, which shape operational practices. They are critical of how these larger systemic economic systems impact their community while recognizing that local industry actors are largely responsive to forces they cannot control. Forest dependent communities are often interested in balancing forest health with employment and wood production but are also often unable to pay for expanded conservation,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kangas|first=Jyrki|last2=Niemeläinen|first2=Pasi|date=1996|title=Opinion of forest owners and the public on forests and their use in Finland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02827589609382936|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research|volume=11|issue=1-4|pages=269–280|doi=10.1080/02827589609382936|issn=0282-7581}}&lt;/ref&gt; and community participants in this study also recognized the limits on local industry actors to make decisions about how the industry utilizes natural resources.

However, histories of natural resource extraction can also be problematic for communities as they face economic dependencies that shape their willingness to accept industry activities. Gunningham, Thornton, and Kagan et al. (2004)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; found that industry actors felt location and visibility had a very strong connection to social license, even claiming that, “an economically dependent local community would be likely to have a more relaxed social license” (p. 324).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; In communities with a diverse economy, the processes of achieving social license are often much more complex.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Communities may exert low pressure on the industry due to economic dependence; however, the industry arguably requires more than just local consent in order to operate.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Considering the relationship between this community and the natural resource industries in the community, local stakeholders and local industry operators have shared history and experience as having limited power to control the larger economic forces acting upon them. This shared experience shapes the process of acquiring social license, and our data analysis highlights the importance of local histories and relationships in shaping social license. Nonlocal actors are likely to experience a much lesser degree of social license than local actors based on our findings. This can be at least partially explained by considering the importance of shared values, local history, and long standing relationships within the community. Local actors are more likely to have similar values to stakeholders, have established some history in the area, and have had the time to establish meaningful relationships within the community. As such, social license varies spatially and local actors are likely to carry a greater social license to operate than nonlocal actors.

Baines and Edwards (2018)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Baines|first=James|last2=Edwards|first2=Peter|date=2018|title=The role of relationships in achieving and maintaining a social licence in the New Zealand aquaculture sector|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|journal=Aquaculture|volume=485|pages=140–146|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.11.047|issn=0044-8486}}&lt;/ref&gt; shared similar findings in New Zealand’s aquaculture sector regarding the importance of relationships and communication between industry and local stakeholders. They find that social license depends on relationships and building trust. Smaller, local companies tend towards relationships that are relational as opposed to transactional, possibly due to their on-going community presences and communication abilities, which are better for fostering these relationships and trust building. This is consistent with our findings regarding the importance of long-standing relationships, as well as the need for better communication between the local industry and stakeholders cited by interviewees.

A corporate strategy employed to maximize shareholder profit has been to vertically integrate or divest of certain sectors. Vertical integration is when a corporation is invested or owns more than one segment of the supply chain. Vertical integration can help to increase profit margins, secure access to a resource, and add resilience to the expansion and contraction of the industry based on economic cycles. Still, vertical integration can also remove autonomy, flexibility, or opportunities for advancement in local communities. The way that industry arranges and presents its sectors to the local community could influence social license. Thus, issues of scale matter for shaping the process of acquiring social license.

This case study also suggests that informal relationships through shared social networks and shared community identities (as hunters, fishers, or snowmobilers) build trust for the local forest products industry. Trust in industry was not based on knowing the specifics of operational practice; rather, trust was developed and maintained through informal relationships. If formal and informal relationships predicating trust are absent social license may not develop, leading to the collapse of otherwise viable projects.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jijelava|first=David|last2=Vanclay|first2=Frank|date=2017|title=Legitimacy, credibility and trust as the key components of a social licence to operate: An analysis of BP's projects in Georgia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=140|pages=1077–1086|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.070|issn=0959-6526}}&lt;/ref&gt; For environmentally oriented actors, this means seeing industry actors as people who also use the environment. For industry actors, this means acknowledging their interest in an environment that can sustain both economic activities and the recreational activities they want as humans who also live in the community.

However, the research suggests that these informal networks are not serving as a means to communicate about improvements to industry operations that promote environmental sustainability through best management practices (BMPs) and sustainability certification programs. Although adherence to regulations or voluntary participation in sustainability certifications is standard to the forest products industry, it is unclear if the details of the industry performance are being communicated with the public effectively. This represents an opportunity for the industry to improve development of community relationships through communication about operational practices focused on sustainability efforts, especially if ways are found to do this that leverage the informal communication and relational networks that seem to matter most to local stakeholders.

Many of the resources affected by forest management are held in the public trust,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fujisawa|first=Hideo|date=2004|title=The forest planning system in relation to the forest resource and forestry policies|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|journal=Journal of Forest Research|volume=9|issue=1|pages=1–5|doi=10.1007/s10310-003-0062-y|issn=1341-6979}}&lt;/ref&gt; so it is important for both industry actors and community stakeholders to feel engaged and involved in decisions regarding local natural resource management. As Krogman (2002)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krogman|first=Naomi|last2=Beckley|first2=Tom|date=2002|title=Corporate 'Bail-Outs' and Local 'Buyouts': Pathways to Community Forestry?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/089419202753403300|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=15|issue=2|pages=109–127|doi=10.1080/089419202753403300|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; described, the possible range of co-management of community forests and industries is a broad spectrum. Yet Moon’s (2011)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Moon|first=Seong-Gin|last2=Bae|first2=Suho|date=2011|title=State-Level Institutional Pressure, Firms' Organizational Attributes, and Corporate Voluntary Environmental Behavior|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|journal=Society &amp;amp; Natural Resources|volume=24|issue=11|pages=1189–1204|doi=10.1080/08941920.2010.546828|issn=0894-1920}}&lt;/ref&gt; findings on voluntary environmental behavior by corporations suggest that corporations are less concerned with regulatory disciplinary measures than with maintaining economic stability. The current research project suggests that local stakeholders recognize the pressures facing industry actors. It also indicates interest from both industry and local groups in managing natural resource uses for the long term. The findings suggest ways that natural resource based industries can leverage informal relationships, shared ethics commitments, and shared localized sense of responsibility to shape their organizational tendencies. This also informs the extent to which specialization, sustainability, and resource management impact operational possibilities, and relates themes in both groups that suggest more commonality than division among participant perspectives.

Study limitations include a relatively small sample size and the discrepancy between how many interviews were conducted with industry representatives versus general local stakeholders. Responses from community stakeholder interviews indicate that community members understand and recognize industry issues and barriers to success, a fact that industry members themselves recognize, however, additional research is required to adequately characterize these similarities. In addition, our use of snowball sampling creates an opportunity to miss certain local populations and their ideas. Further interviews aimed at capturing these populations are necessary to form a more complete image of social license in this community.

== Conclusion ==
Industry in this community has experienced a long history shaped by their natural resource use and the public’s opinion of it. At present, the forest products industry in this county renews and maintains its social license through personal relationships and shared values between industry members and local stakeholders, despite the absence of direct community engagement efforts. This gives direct benefit to local actors, who are more likely to hold these shared values and to have developed these personal relationships than an actor external to the community. Industry operations have improved with global innovations in technology, best management practices, sustainability certifications and health and safety regulations, and the industry might strengthen its social license by engaging local stakeholders in conversation about the shared values associated with the management of natural resources. A strengthened social license would benefit the industry if it tries to grow or navigate disturbances.

In this research, the concept of social license helps to explain the ways that operational and organizational dimensions of a natural resource based industry achieve social support from local stakeholders. Further, this research suggests that local stakeholders and industry participants have more commonalities than divisions in terms of key elements shaping social license, including commitments to a shared sense of value ethics and responsible resource management. Finally, this research suggests ways of expanding the concept of social license to consider the impact of local socio-environmental context, informal social relationships, and localized values as well as suggesting that natural resource based industries can leverage direct or mediated dialogue with local communities to communicate changes to operations and organization related to both large scale economic forces and localized environmental management.

== Appendix A ==
''Expanded Data Tables''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Trust in Organizations
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''46%'''
|'''351'''
|'''89%'''
|'''84'''
|'''46%'''
|'''277'''
|'''22%'''
|'''160'''
|'''59%'''
|'''158'''
|'''43%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|39%
|138
|87%
|23
|38%
|93
|23%
|22
|51%
|53
|34%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|29%
|35
|83%
|6
|41%
|37
|20%
|15
|44%
|18
|41%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|44% 
|45
|71% 
|14
|43%
|30
|14% 
|35
|46% 
|28
|45%
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|44%
|9
|100%
|3
|53%
|15
|20% 
|5
|100%
|8
|100%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|57% 
|28
|83%
|6
|40% 
|30
|29%
|7
|67%
|15
|47%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|50% 
|56
|100%
|23
|63%
|52
|26%
|38
|78% 
|32
|65%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|73% 
|40
|100%
|9
|60% 
|20
|24% 
|38
|75%
|4
|33%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Engaging Stakeholders
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''57%'''
|'''351'''
|'''30%'''
|'''84'''
|'''23%''' 
|'''277'''
|'''24%'''
|'''160'''
|'''16%'''
|'''158'''
|'''17%'''
|'''15'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|48%
|138
|22%
|23
|18% 
|93
|18% 
|22
|11% 
|53
|14%
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|49%
|35
|17%
|6
|22%
|37
|7% 
|15
|6%
|18
|14%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|62%
|45
|29%
|14
|30% 
|30
|26% 
|35
|25% 
|28
|32% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|56%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|40%
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|82%
|28
|33% 
|6
|17%
|30
|29% 
|7
|7% 
|15
|11%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|54%
|56
|48%
|23
|35%
|52
|16%
|38
|28% 
|32
|18%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|75%
|40
|22%
|9
|35%
|20
|37%
|38
|25%
|4
|0%
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Response to changing expectation
!FPI
!Relationships
!n=
!Ethics 
!n=
!Responsibility
!n=
!Specialization
!n=
!Sustainability
!n=
!Resource management
!n=
|-
|'''Aggregate'''
|'''15%'''
|'''351'''
|'''17%'''
|'''84'''
|'''21%'''
|'''277'''
|'''60%''' 
|'''160'''
|'''35%''' 
|'''158'''
|'''27%'''
|'''157'''
|-
|Land (n-4)
|13%
|138
|13%
|23
|15% 
|93
|64%
|22
|30%
|53
|24% 
|59
|-
|Managers (n-2)
|6% 
|35
|17%
|6
|16% 
|37
|27%
|15
|39%
|18
|18%
|22
|-
|Extraction (n-2) 
|20%
|45
|14%
|14
|37% 
|30
|51%
|35
|36%
|28
|35% 
|31
|-
|Spec. Procure.(n-1) 
|22%
|9
|0%
|3
|0%
|15
|60% 
|5
|0%
|8
|0%
|3
|-
|Processing (n-1) 
|4%
|28
|0%
|6
|13%
|30
|57%
|7
|33%
|15
|26%
|19
|-
|Secondary Man. (n-2)
|23%
|56
|35%
|23
|37% 
|52
|68%
|38
|50%
|32
|24%
|17
|-
|Woodwork (n-2)
|20%
|40
|0%
|9
|20% 
|20
|71%
|38
|25%
|4
|67% 
|6
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Trust in Organizations
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Engaging Stakeholders
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Response to Expectations
|-
!Community (agg. n-6) 
!67% 
!n=189
!33%
!66% 
!n=180 
!34% 
!66%
!n=169
!34% 
|-
|Developer (n-1) 
|88%
|n=24
|13%
|80%
|n=25
|20%
|83%
|n=23
|17%
|-
|City Official (n-1)
|77%
|n=44
|23%
|78%
|n=41
|22%
|77% 
|n=43
|23%
|-
|Media (n-1) 
|98%
|n=42
|2%
|71%
|n=42
|29%
|83%
|n=30 
|17%
|-
|Conservationist (n-2) 
|37%
|n=67 
|63%
|50%
|n=52
|50%
|37% 
|n=59
|63%
|-
|Environ. Activist (n-1)
|50% 
|n=12 
|50%
|50%
|n=20
|50%
|86% 
|n=14 
|14%
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
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== What is wrong with that page ? ==

I can see a tag that points here at the bottom of that page: [[Computing_entanglement_entropy_in_2d_CFTs]]. However I do not find the deprecated syntax there. Also, that page does not appear in the list. What is going on? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 16:09, 11 April 2021 (UTC)

:{{At|Sylvain Ribault}} You might try reaching out to one of the users listed in the discussions at [[phab:T195861]] to see if they can help resolve this. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:01, 14 April 2021 (UTC)

==Possible error in the percent-sign fix==
Maybe it was a temporary problem, but on [[special:permalink/2409255]] I found that the % fix didn't work. Instead I used &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; -&gt; &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:07, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>5860bnwsqbnqxy3q0jzb1ezjevn7asi</sha1>
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== What is wrong with that page ? ==

I can see a tag that points here at the bottom of that page: [[Computing_entanglement_entropy_in_2d_CFTs]]. However I do not find the deprecated syntax there. Also, that page does not appear in the list. What is going on? [[User:Sylvain Ribault|Sylvain Ribault]] ([[User talk:Sylvain Ribault|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sylvain Ribault|contribs]]) 16:09, 11 April 2021 (UTC)

:{{At|Sylvain Ribault}} You might try reaching out to one of the users listed in the discussions at [[phab:T195861]] to see if they can help resolve this. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:01, 14 April 2021 (UTC)

==Possible error in the percent-sign fix==
Maybe it was a temporary problem, but on [[special:permalink/2409268]] I found that the % fix didn't work. Instead I used &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; -&gt; &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;%&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:07, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>78ny3fstkkus9bgihtebj2k6t61j025</sha1>
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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/OpenSpeaks: Open Toolkit for Multimedia Documentation of Indigenous Languages</title>
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      <text bytes="57246" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Subhashish
| last1 = Panigrahi
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-3665-8184
| affiliation1 = O Foundation
| correspondence1 = subhashish@theofdn.org
| first2 = Sailesh
| last2 = Patnaik{{affiliation|name=Panigrahi}}
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-2765-0017
| affiliation2 = 
| first3 = 
| last3 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| last4 = 
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| correspondence = subhashish@theofdn.org
| journal = WikiJournal of Humanities      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = Language field-documentation experts have often shared concerns about existing unethical and colonial practices that have led to no or poor &quot;data ownership&quot; by the native speakers. As documentary linguists and other archivists often establish a short-term contact with indigenous groups for any documentation, we argue in this article how changing the approach from documentation by alien archivists to building resources for equipping speakers of low-resourced languages can help alter the    unethical language documentation practices. OpenSpeaks, an open educational resource that we created based on learning from citizen-led language archiving processes, has been the testing ground for developing a learning framework and educational content for multimedia archivists who are interested to record low-resourced languages. The framing of OpenSpeaks is done keeping in mind many indigenous, endangered and first languages that are not archived actively in audiovisual forms. Recognizing the lower level of documentation a result of lack of resources (primarily financial, human, institutional and technical) we detail on the development of OpenSpeaks by underlining the areas that are either missing and/or need more elaboration from an anthropological and social justice lens.
| keywords = indigenous language, linguistic documentation, multimedia, endangered language, OER
| submitted = 2021-05-05
}}

== Introduction ==
&lt;!--[[File:Example_image.png|left|thumb| Image caption text goes here
(attribution: name of image creator, [[creativecommons:by/3.0/deed.en|CC-BY 3.0]])
]]--&gt;

The swift decline of indigenous, endangered and other low-languages has been one of the growing concerns for civil society considering the larger impact on human knowledge. Languages that are marginalized and are on the verge of extinction often do not have the privilege of linguistic research and documentation, even though the latter could ensure detailed conservation in a scientific manner. The citizen science model of archiving both traditional and contemporary aspects of low-resource languages has been in practice through activism.

The affordability that a native speaker community has to access the essential resources plays a pivotal role in intergenerational transmission of any language, a factor that the UNESCO Ad-hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages identified to be the key reason for language endangerment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://ich.unesco.org/doc/src/00120-EN.pdf|title=UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages|publisher=International Expert Meeting on UNESCO Programme Safeguarding of Endangered Languages, UNESCO|year=2003|location=Paris|pages=7–8|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such resources can be financial, human, socio-political, institutional, technical and educational in nature. Hence, no or low availability of resources directly impacting language endangerment needs to be studied while designing language documentation strategies. Documenting indigenous and endangered languages as digital media are often intended for helping with sustenance of a language and the growth  through widespread use. It is important to note that lack of online platforms and other digital mediums or the lack of the knowhow of such platforms/mediums can add to language endangerment. Digital interventions and creation of digital pathways have proven to be effective in not only normalizing use of an indigenous language online, but also creating a [[w:Ripple effect|ripple effect]] in activating wider use of many indigenous languages in a geographical location.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Avila|first=Eddie|date=2017|title=How indigenous digital activists are leveraging the internet to revitalize their native languages|url=http://www.linguapax.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/LinguapaxReview2017_web-1.pdf|journal=Linguapax Review|pages=80–89|volume=5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With the advent of pervasive technology, particularly cheaper smartphones, the pre-existing challenges to multimedia documentation is slowly being addressed differently by different language-documentation stakeholders. Linguists also see a great value in “documentary linguistics” that captures face-to-face interactions by native speakers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Seyfeddinipur|first1=Mandana|last2=Rau|first2=Felix|date=September 2020|title=Keeping it real: Video data in language documentation and language archiving|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10125/24965|journal=Language Documentation &amp; Conservation|volume=14|pages=503–519|issn=1934-5275}}&lt;/ref&gt; By creating different forms of online, other digital and even in-person engagements, the Rising Voices project at the Global Voices is encouraging young speakers to actively use their native languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/revitalizing-endangered-languages/technology-in-language-revitalization/9C4ED484CB915554C249941840999821|title=Technology in Language Revitalization: Rising Voices|last=Avila|first=Eddie|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|isbn=9781108641142|location=Cambridge|pages=297–316|doi=10.1017/9781108641142.018}}&lt;/ref&gt; While conducting user research during the UNLOCK acceleration program, we learned that the language digital-activism includes a range of initiatives, and it is often confusing for a new activist to identify the right tactic or strategy that is best suited to serve their own cause.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikimedia.de/unlock-projects/openspeaks-accessibility/|title=OpenSpeaks Accessibility|year=2021|website=www.wikimedia.de|publisher=Wikimedia Deutschland}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

As a response to UNESCO's International Decade of Indigenous Languages campaign&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379851|title=Global action plan of the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022-2032)|year=2021|website=unesco.org|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2021-11-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; and beyond, both professional field researchers and citizen archivists are working towards creating multimedia documentations of many low-resource languages, especially the ones that are endangered. The citizen archivists being either self-taught or individuals without formal training in field linguistic documentation who might or might not be from a native speaker community have a relatively little access and affordability in terms of institutional, financial and other relevant resources. OpenSpeaks was created in 2017 as an as a standalone project and it was hosted at https://openspeaks.com. The project was subsequently integrated into [[OpenSpeaks|Wikiversity]] in 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/OpenSpeaks|title=OpenSpeaks - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2021-12-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[:w:Open Educational Resource|Open Educational Resources]] within the project were intended to help citizen archivists with both strategic and operational knowhow on documentation of indigenous, endangered and other low-resource languages. As a project, OpenSpeaks has its roots in grassroots activism where language documentation work is led by citizen archivists that are either native speakers of low-resource languages or are in close contact with native speakers. The authors' close involvement in the citizen language-documentation initiatives has been useful in learning about the different needs for a resource that can serve both strategic and operational knowledge.

== Audiovisual and other multimedia documentations ==
Recording a language as audio or video are a part of the consorted efforts of the preservation of diverse knowledge, and creating an inclusive environment and putting effort in making more resources available for many marginalized communities to share indigenous knowledge by using language technologies. As UNESCO emphasized in 2019, &quot;In today’s world, digital literacy, access to broadband connectivity and quality content, including in local languages, are also prerequisites for the fulfillment of our human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as for our participation in the development of societies.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/lt4all_concept_note_en.pdf|title=International Conference Language Technologies for All (LT4All): Enabling Linguistic Diversity and Multilingualism Worldwide|date=2019-12-04|website=en.unesco.org|access-date=2021-11-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; The linguistic discipline of &quot;[[w:Documentary Linguistics|Documentary Linguistics]]&quot; or &quot;Language Documentation&quot; helps keep historical audiovisual records of a language and culture, the documentations help further the growth of languages through education and research. Multiple attempts by linguists backed with field experience have helped establish a foundation for teaching multimedia language documentation to citizen archivists. Some such resources include the paper &quot;Keeping it real: Video data in language documentation and language archiving&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and the Teachable course &quot;Archiving for the Future: Simple Steps for Archiving Language Documentation Collections&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://archivingforthefuture.teachable.com/|title=Archiving for the Future: Simple Steps for Archiving Language Documentation Collections [OER]|last1=Kung|last2=Smythe|first2=Susan|date=2020|accessdate=2021-12-22|last3=Pojman|first3=Elena|last4=Niwagaba|first4=Alicia}}&lt;/ref&gt; or the online guide &quot;Language Sustainability Toolkit&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://livingtongues.org/language-sustainability-toolkit/|title=The Language Sustainability Toolkit |accessdate=2021-12-22|date=2021|last1=Daigneault|first1=Anna Luisa|last2=Udell|first2=Daniel Bögre|last3=Tcherneshoff|first3=Kristen|last4=Anderson|first4=Gregory D. S.}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Among many other resource-building efforts, recording a low-resourced language as audio and video can help with language learning and teaching apart from contributing to technological areas such as speech synthesis that is essential for building text-to-speech and speech-to-text solutions or Natural Language Processing. Speech synthesis helps with universal access by people with visual impairment or deafness. Multimedia documentation of low-resource languages is niche area under the language documentation work. The intention for documentation of languages in multimedia forms involve collecting rich body of information when led by linguists. Otherwise, the information depth might vary widely as the goal of the documentation can be storytelling and even capturing linguistic content with an aesthetic outcome in mind.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Identifying issues with documentation ==
The lack of access to the language technology has been one of the major factors behind creating a digital divide and furthering the financial exclusion of a wide number of marginalized communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; While the need for multimedia documentation of languages is paramount, anecdotal evidence we have received from many native speaker-activists suggest that availability of human, financial, educational, infrastructural, political and other essential resources are scarce in the case of most indigenous, endangered and other marginalized languages. Additionally, multimedia recordings are more expensive than creation of textual content. It is important to note that the textual content relies on multiple critical factors such as availability of an established writing system, acceptance of a Unicode standard for script encoding, ease of script rendering across operating systems both on mobile devices and computers, and availability of Unicode-compliant typefaces. Keeping the technical factors aside, widespread use of native writing systems in many indigenous communities with a a strong oral culture is a slower process. It is also affected adversely by the neighboring and dominant writing systems. For instance, the official status of India's [[w:Odia language|Odia language]] (written in the [[w:Odia script|Odia script]]) and the historical push for its wider use in education, governance and mass media and the lack of the same for the neighboring indigenous languages such [[w:Santali language|Santali]] and [[w:Ho language|Ho]] has strongly impacted the slow spread of textual content in Ho and Santali. Further more, Anderson and Gomango (2016) keenly observe an internal neocolonialism and ethnolinguistic hierarchy being built in the Juray (Jurai) [[w:Sora people|Sora]] indigenous cluster of Odisha on the basis of existing social discrimination of the caste system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|isbn=9780956021083|first1=Gregory D. S.|last1= Anderson |first2=Opino|last2= Gomango|date= 2016|chapter= On the current status and state of Juray in the Sora-Juray cluster|editor1-first= Nicholas|editor1-last= Ostler |editor2-first=Panchanan|editor2-last= Mohanty|title= FEL XX: Language Colonization and Endangerment: Long-term effects, echoes and reactions: Proceedings of the 20th FEL Conference 9–12 December 2016|pages= 103–109|location=Hungerford, England|publisher= FEL}}&lt;/ref&gt;

When it comes to audiovisual recording, the recording environments vary across the impacting factors of financial/space affordability, technical knowhow and the purpose of the recording. Natural and conversational recording of a language are often done as field recording where the speakers live or work. Such recordings provide context to the speaker's life and also the recorded content. The considerations for the field recording process are also for creative/aesthetic purposes in cases as Seyfeddinipur and Rau observe.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; For avoiding any distracting noise, especially for linguistic studies or conventional broadcasting, controlled environments such as a scripted recording inside a studio are also used to ensure very high-quality media. Such recordings can later be used for creating future [[w:Speech synthesis|speech synthesis]] systems apart from helping study grammar, vocabulary, and oral traditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ani|first1=Kelechi Johnmary|date=2012|title= UNESCO prediction on the extinction of Igbo language in 2025: analyzing societal violence and new transformative strategies|journal= Developing Country Studies|volume= 2|issue=8|pages=110–118|issn=2225-0565|url=https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/DCS/article/view/2934}}&lt;/ref&gt; Considering the high cost of studio recording and based on the actual purpose of the recording productions also use hybrid approaches.

The need for demonstrating the informal use of a language and design multimedia literacy programs through documented multimedia evidence often requires documentation of key information of the speakers through metadata. Information related to the speaker's age, gender, influence of dominant/other non-native languages over one's native language, and their socioeconomic strata make a deep impact their overall speech. While documentation of such information is essential, they are tied to the affordability factors of the archivist.

The process of documentation tend to vary from archivist to archivist. For instance, documentary linguistics as a practice focuses on collecting the rich linguistic data of a language&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; such as recording everyday conversation in a marketplace whereas documentary filmmakers focus on the aesthetics and storytelling. Training volunteers to create informational videos, such as the virALLanguages project that helps create COVID-19 awareness videos in indigenous/minority languages, can also be counted as documentation of language.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 |url=https://globalvoices.org/2020/05/11/promoting-coronavirus-education-through-indigenous-languages/
 |title=Promoting coronavirus education through indigenous languages
 |last=Panigrahi
 |first=Subhashish
 |date=2020-05-11
 |website=globalvoices.org
 |publisher=Global Voices
 |access-date=2021-05-05
 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Community-led digital archivism ==
We think of &quot;archivism&quot; as an extended form of language digital activism for documenting languages in audiovisual forms, while the word &quot;archivism&quot; is a portmanteau of &quot;archiving&quot; and &quot;activism&quot;. Littell et al. (2018) emphasize that, based on consultations with some of the Canadian indigenous language communities, while speech technologies are desired, there is a little progress in building the same.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|isbn= 978-1-948087-50-6|last1=Littell|first1=Patrick|last2=Kazantseva|first2=Anna|last3=Kuhn|first3=Roland|last4=Pine|first4=Aidan|last5=Arppe|first5=Antti|last6=Cox|first6=Christopher|last7=Junker|first7=Marie-Odile|date=2018|chapter=Indigenous language technologies in Canada: Assessment, challenges, and successes|url=https://aclanthology.org/C18-1222.pdf|title=Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics|location=Santa Fe, New Mexico|publisher=International Committee on Computational Linguistics|doi=|pages=2620–2632}}&lt;/ref&gt; Community-led efforts including collaborations between communities and an internal/external multimedia archivist can result in an organic and gradual development of resources required for speech technology—some of the foundational resources being recording of pronunciations of all/most words in a language by people of all genders and in different dialects. The wider scholarship in the artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) disciplines that are intersectional to speech technologies emphasize the lack of adequate and diverse data being responsible for exclusion of historically-marginalized peoples.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gebru|first=Timnit|date=2020|chapter=Race and Gender|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190067397.013.16|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ethics of AI|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=251–269|editor1-first=Markus D. |editor1-last=Dubber|editor2-first= Frank |editor2-last=Pasquale|editor3-first=Sunit|editor3-last= Das|isbn=9780190067397}}&lt;/ref&gt; Slow progression of audiovisual data collection by community-led processes, as opposed to occasional interventions, presumedly has the natural advantage of access to more number of individuals in a community with different gender identities, socioeconomic groups apart from the ecological and environmental factors that affect the field recording. The same AI/ML scholarships also recommend fair data collection practices such as remuneration to contributors while underlining a binding principle of &quot;[[w:Nothing About Us Without Us|Nothing About Us Without Us]]&quot;. In the context of language audiovisual-recording, this principle would translate to the native community having agency/shared ownership of data which is often restricted through copyright and other institutional paywall processes. Some of the questions to help with an inclusive approach, while still considering the low/limited access to resources an archivist might have, can be:

* How can I record narratives of people of different genders while still being conscious of community taboos?
* As the purpose of audio recording of words (a pronunciation library) is often for training speech recognition systems in the future, do the speakers understand the nature of the use of their data and are they consenting for public use of their data for perpetuity?
* What kind remuneration I can fetch to collect data in a fair and equitable way?
* Which tools and technologies would be useful in my situation and would be affordable?

== Areas of focus ==
While the the first version (ver. 1.0) of OpenSpeaks focused primarily on the practical aspects audiovisual recording process and some parts of the prior planning and post-processing processes, the version 2.0 onward detailed on consent, content rights including copyright and content licensing. In the version 3.0 considerations and practical guide on making language documentation accessible to people with disabilities, particularly with blindness and deafness, were incorporated.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== Consent ===
In the version 2.0 of OpenSpeaks, the inter-related disciplines of consent, content rights and licensing were explained in a single chapter.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=OpenSpeaks&amp;oldid=2292729|title=OpenSpeaks - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2021-12-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the context of multimedia language-documentation workflow, consent can be understood as the mutual agreement between a native speaker who is interviewed by an archivist and the archivist. The documentations happens in environments where the interviewees' understanding of the future use of the content is not always the same. Even though consent is a critical element to documenting languages, standardizing content-seeking process is extremely hard and can be a futile attempt. Hence, the OpenSpeaks guides only aims at helping an archivist understand their own context as the module details the scenarios of the consent-seeking process. In the light of the complexity of this process, the answer to the question &quot;how do I take permission for an interview?&quot; or &quot;do I take permission from an interviewee in writing or verbally?&quot; are never definitive. While framing consent to be paramount to ethical research in indigenous settings, Lovo et al. (2021) explain &quot;Informed Concent&quot; to be (a) &quot;a mechanism for respect of dignity and autonomy of persons that should be meaningful, trusting, transparent, un-intrusive, free of coercion, free and informative to protect human rights and bioethics&quot;, and (b) &quot;collaborative and establishing a trusting relationship&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lovo|first=Etivina|last2=Woodward|first2=Lynn|last3=Larkins|first3=Sarah|last4=Preston|first4=Robyn|last5=Baba|first5=Unaisi Nabobo|date=2021-10-09|title=Indigenous knowledge around the ethics of human research from the Oceania region: A scoping literature review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13010-021-00108-8|journal=Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine|volume=16|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s13010-021-00108-8|issn=1747-5341}}&lt;/ref&gt; Applying the same frame in the multimedia language-documentation process, a set of closely-connected questions shared below can be helpful to identify the adequate process for asking consent, creating a participatory space as it has always been useful in our experience.

* Is the person/are the persons about to be interviewed adult and are able to understand fully the purpose of the recording and the future publication of the same?
* If not, how I can discuss with them, or someone they would nominate, to clarify the complete purpose of the recording and the  possible ways the recording will be used?
* If they are in agreement for the recording, what would be the best way to document the agreement and share the same for any future use?
*What is the literacy level of the interviewee, whether a verbal or written consent would be appropriate, and what would be the best way to document the same as an evidence?

When it comes to consent, the revocation of the same is often intended to be a part of the consent-seeking process. However, some of the copyright clauses such as the [[w:Creative Commons Licenses|Creative Commons Licenses]] would make a &quot;work&quot; (a published recording in this context) a perpetual contribution. Hence we recommend in OpenSpeaks for having the conversation with the individual interviewees and agree mutually about consent, content rights and copyright before the recording. Some of the related areas of considerations around this subject discussed in OpenSpeaks are: a) forms of evidence-documentation in different kinds of shareable media formats such as signed agreement on a paper or an agreement given verbally and recorded as a part of the documentation itself, b) identifying the right kind of agreement-sharing platform based on the access and affordability of both the interviewee and the interviewer, c) validation of any indirect consent (e.g. physical gestures instead of a written consent), and d. process of revocation (in case of non-open licensed publication of recording). The challenges an individual interviewee might be facing because of their disability, old age, fluency of the lingua franca between the interviewer (or any intermediary translator) and themselves are also some of the discussed areas that can disqualify an indirect consent legally or ethically at a later date.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

=== Content Rights ===
In addition to consent, ownership of content (&quot;content rights&quot;) is a subjective area. One might find, while, in a set of Mesoamerican conversations along with many other cultures,  knowledge is perceived to be the outcome of a collective process which does not guarantee any individual member of a community the &quot;final authority or ownership&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Penelope|last2=Sicoli|first2=Mark A.|last3=Le Guen|first3=Olivier|date=2021-10|title=Cross-speaker repetition and epistemic stance in Tzeltal, Yucatec, and Zapotec conversations|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.07.005|journal=Journal of Pragmatics|volume=183|pages=256–272|doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2021.07.005|issn=0378-2166}}&lt;/ref&gt; many during our field documentation work have shared discontent towards the irrevocable and perpetual nature of the open licensing. A case study shared in OpenSpeaks through a short film &quot;Who Owns the Content?&quot; sheds light on the complex nature of content ownership over documented. The narrator Eddie Avila shares in this film the story of a Colombian young individual discovering audio cassette tapes with recordings of his father and how the traditional stories and songs that were told by the father to an European researcher who then recorded the same.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theofdn.org/film/who-owns-the-content/|title=Film: &quot;Who Owns The Content&quot; (2019)|date=2019-07-15|website=theofdn.org|publisher=O Foundation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815034328/https://theofdn.org/film/who-owns-the-content/|archive-date=2021-08-15|access-date=2021-12-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; The dilemma in identifying the ownership of content gets addressed to some extent in the examples and guides shared in OpenSpeaks. Often times, the question is not &quot;who owns the recorded content?&quot; but &quot;is the content owned by a community (collective knowledge) or a creation of one individual or some individuals?&quot;. As this paper and other scholarship discuss widely how the history of many indigenous peoples are not only poorly documented but there is also century-long systemic erasure of indigenous knowledge, it is not simple and easy to reach at a conclusion about ownership. An archivist assuming ownership over content and wrongly attributing either themselves or some individuals under restrictive licenses can potentially block many in the native speaker community the access to their own community knowledge. 

=== Copyright and licensing ===
Quite similar to all other forms of intellectual property, [[copyright]] is assumed over all/most of the recorded content when it comes to language documentation. The premise of copyright is all kinds of &quot;published works&quot; that have &quot;originality&quot;. The general rules of copyright, permission-seeking and attributing are equally applicable to any audio or video material. However, the ethical and moral sides of copyright are critical to the process in the OpenSpeaks framework. So, some of the self-assessment questions are framed to help the archivist find more details of the different rights and identify what particular licensing would make sense. 
*The following question helps understand the [[w:Moral rights|moral rights]] that are applicable. A narrative (a story or song or other kinds) that is predominantly known to a community would mean (moral) ownership of a community while the copyright has to be identified in a slightly different way.
**What is the kind of content that is recorded -- is it a folklore or folk song or any such narrative that is popular in the entire community or is it something that the interviewee has created on their own?
*The following questions help identify who would own the copyright. Considering the fact that there are many conditions involved, copyright is identified by looking at each condition objectively. For instance, without any agreement detailing copyright in a self-sponsored documentation, the copyright of the documented audio/video only would lie with the archivist. The moral right, if the content includes a folklore or folk song, will still lie with the community.
**Does the documentation work involve a contract or agreement detailing about copyright?
**Is the work sponsored/commissioned by anyone?
**Is the documentation done by one individual or multiple individuals?
**If the documentation crew are paid or have volunteered? What kind of labor distribution exist if the work is volunteer work?
* When it comes to using the appropriate license, the archivist would generally decide based on a set of conditions some of which are outlined in OpenSpeaks and are reproduced below:
**Is the archivist the sole/partial copyright owner of the content?
**Is the work a commissioned work and hence is copyrighted by someone else?
**Is there an agreement that defines the scope of copyright?
**In either of the cases shared above, does the copyright allow full access of the content to the native speaker community or does it restrict them from accessing the content?
**Are any of the particular Creative Commons licenses applicable to the work? (The Creative Commons Choose (https://creativecommons.org/choose/) or the beta Chooser (https://chooser-beta.creativecommons.org/) tools are shared on OpenSpeaks to help the archivist identify a particular license. As the focus of OpenSpeaks is to help an archivist ensure of unrestricted and [[w:Paywall|unpaywalled]] access to content for the native language speakers, the license selection process also emphasizes on identifying the best license that would work for each community as opposed to impose only [[w:Free content|free content]]. Additionally, the plaintext version of a consent and rights release on OpenSpeaks draws learning from frugal field-documentation processes, a content release used for content donation for Wikimedia projects,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wikimedia_VRT_release_generator|title=Commons:Wikimedia VRT release generator - Wikimedia Commons|author=Wikimedia Commons contributors|accessdate=2021-12-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; and keeps the release comprehensive for low-medium level of literacy of interviewees.
Lastly, each specific use case of a published documentation is not always known to the archivist, especially during the time of consent-seeking or more specifically, during the content release agreement. If revocation of any consent and other permissions are not possible, the recommended fair practice in the OpenSpeaks version 3.0 onward are set around full clarification to the interviewee during consent-seeking.

== Learning exercises ==

=== Survey for localization in Santali language ===
During the creation of the version 2.0, we conducted a bilingual (English and Santali) survey&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theofdn.org/openspeaks/content-update-2020/|title=We’re updating OpenSpeaks and we’d love to hear from you!|last=Panigrahi|first=Subhashish|last2=Tudu|first2=Ramjit|date=2020-11-28|website=theofdn.org|publisher=O Foundation|access-date=2022-01-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; focusing on language content and rights and engaged a small group of 25 individuals including many native Santali-language speakers and are involved in content creation in the language. Some of the general observations from the survey are shared below:

* '''Linguistic distribution:'''
** Among the 25 participants, 17 were native Santali-language speakers, from five different countries
** One-third of the participants represented either a collective, nonprofit, academic or another civil society organization while the remaining were a part of a different stakeholder (in language documentation) while they practice digital activism independently in personal capacity.
** The participants are broadly active in promoting their language on digital mediums, which includes both audio-visual documentation and textual documentation such as blogging, content creation/sharing and commenting on social media and web platforms.
** 12 participants who are actively involved in archiving their own languages (other than Santali) in various mediums self identified as native speakers of at least one indigenous language, and at least four of them speak a language that is an oral language with no formally-recognized writing system.
* '''Consent-seeking:'''
** 13 participants expressed that they are not fully aware of asking consent during the documentation.
** We also learned that the respondents ask for consent in three major ways: a) through verbal discussions, b) during the recording process, c) through fillable forms before the recording.
** We also observed that most participants seek consent during the recording of the video while five emphasized that the consent-seeking is mostly over a verbal discussion and five others confirmed of asking for consent over a form.
* '''Copyright and licensing:'''
** While almost half of the participants confirmed that they know how to make audiovisual recording in their own languages, the remaining half shared that that they need help to learn about best practices or the need for a beginner's guide.
** Most participants involved in creating multimedia documentation also expressed about the need for understanding copyright and the Creative Commons licenses for publishing the documented media.
The learning from this exercise validated our own preexisting notions around consent-seeking, copyright and overall attribution process. This process also helped break the linearity in the guides on these topics that were explained in the Chapter 1 of version 2.0 of OpenSpeaks, and the focus in the translation process was on explaining these concepts instead of merely translating. The three Santali-language speakers who led the translation for Santali, R. Ashwani Banjan Murmu, Fagu Baskey and Joy sagar Murmu, used their own respective experiences as community organizers and Wikimedians, used a feedback loop to influence the English version of the Chapter. They also used a hybrid model of selecting both loanwords (transliteration of popular English terms such as &quot;license&quot; in the Ol Chiki alphabet that used for Santali) and newly coined terms that can be widely understood apart from using existing vocabulary.

== Chapter 2: Audiovisual recording ==
This chapter details process of audiovisual recording the use of languages.

=== Module 1: Basics of audio-visual recording ===
''An overview of what are aimed from the recording process and how to go about it''.

==== Prerequisites ====
; '''1. Be honest and ask your interviewee to be honest'''
: Language is a very sensitive element of a society. When any known/unknown mistakes like mispronunciations get recorded and shared publicly, native speakers might take an offense. So, please check with your interviewee to ensure that you document any unintended mistakes in the description part of the video/audio while publishing. You might not always be able to delete portions of such unintended mistakes but you can always admit that there is any unintended mistake that got recorded. Similarly, if the interviewee is not a native speaker and is trying to learn a language, you should mention clearly about that. The real native speakers will welcome such honesty.

; '''2. Imagine yourself out in the field interviewing someone speaking a language that you don’t probably''' understand
: Think of the challenges that you might face—the loss in translation, the lack of your understanding of their cultural/linguistics nuances. Are you going to use a language that is mutually intelligible by you both or get the questions translated or just have a translator along with you to assist?

; '''3. Plan in advance and practice''' well
: Planning for a documentation starts with knowing your interviewee(s) well. Do some research about their language, culture, and may be a few most used phrases in their language that you can say to amaze them while interviewing them. People generally appreciate when someone alien makes an effort to speak in their language. Use a spreadsheet or even an app to have a rough and agile plan. Things might change while interviewing and you need to be prepared for the same. Also, have a plan B in case anything fails. If you’re someone who gets a [[cold feet]] while meeting a stranger, write down and practice your questions with a friend/family member or in front of a mirror.
; '''4. Know your hardware and''' software
: As you are going to rely on your recording equipment and software (''you will learn about them in the next module''), it’s important that you know well about them. ''But how well is well''? Well, as long as you know the [[Wt:ins and outs|ins and outs]] of your gears and some troubleshoot in case of emergency. For instance, if you’re planning to use your phone for the audio and video recording, check what apps are best for your workflow. It’s advisable to use apps (e.g. Filmic Pro for iOS devices) that show the audio levels on screen while recording so you know for sure that the audio is indeed being recorded.
; '''5. Keep a notebook/note-taking app to capture some important''' data
: Physical/digital note-taking while recording always helps during post-production. Also, you need to capture some metadata (''more in Module 3'') for which you can use the note or use a printed template. But please keep in mind that the noise you might make while writing might get recorded so choose your pen carefully.
; '''6. Ensure you get to record in a quiet''' place
: The most challenging aspect of any recording in a quiet place for clean audio and and well-lit place for good quality video. Check below to know what to avoid:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Noise sources !! Possible solutions
|-
| [[:w:Background noise|Ambient noise]] (Audio) ||
# Talk to the interviewee before recording to check what could be the least noisy place where you're going to record
# If you can, get a [[:w:Lavalier microphone|lavalier microphone]] (also known as ''lav mic'', ''lapel mic'', ''clip mic'', etc.) so that you get a nice clean sound as it is placed close to the interviewee's face
|-
| LED and other home electric lights (Video) || Most home lights, when captured in a camera, look flickering and disturbing. When you'll learn more about the solution for such issues in the next module, avoid home lighting and use lights that are [https://www.techsmith.com/blog/get-perfect-lighting-video/ recommended] (more [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFg4jLfaVe0 here]) for filing if you can afford. Alternatively, if you're filming during the day, you can sit close to a window with the subject's face lit with the natural lighting.
|}

==== Interview process ====
* '''Friendliness and empathy''': The best emotion is captured when your interviewee trusts you the most. Try to be empathetic and friendly, relate to them in a human level and keep a check on their comfort level. They would open up to share something that they care about only when they think they can trust you. Trust is built over time. How do you bring it in a short interview?
* '''Ice braker questions''': You can always ask some trivial ice-breaking questions in the beginning and slowly move towards asking more personal questions.
* '''Body language''': In a physical interview, your body language matters much more than a telephonic or voice/video call. Positive body posture can entirely set the mood of the subject. So a thumb rule is be a good listener and show curiosity to learn from the interviewee. But when you're interviewing someone speaking a endangered language that is alien to you, you still can start with the same body posture. Even though you won't understand the vocabulary, being empathetic and trying to relate by observing the interview's emotional flow. You could reflect that by the right kind of camera moves.
* '''Motion is emotion''': Documenting a language is not just about placing a camera on a tripod and interview someone though that's a good starting point. But you need to capture the life of someone on the camera if you're capturing them saying about their life. If a picture means a thousand words, a video means a million! So, take some ample amount of time to shoot some [[:w:b-rolls|b-rolls]]. For instance, if your interviewee has narrated about a bedtime story during the interview, capture some relevant shots—like kids sitting around an old person, or parents with kids. B-rolls are generally short so shoot really tiny videos (30 seconds - 1 minute max.) and cover a wider range of areas because you never know where you can use them. You can use the b-rolls as [[:w:Cut_(transition)|cut shots]].

=== Module 2. Hardware and software for recording, and recording process ===
==== Audio recording ====
[[File:Home-studio recording setup for Kathabhidhana.jpg|thumb|400px|A home studio setup consisting of a computer installed with a free and open source audio recording/editing software like Audacity, a professional microphone, and a monitoring headphone. Read more in our Pronunciation Toolkit.]]
Different scenarios:
# '''Home studio''': If you're recording at home, try to create a minimal setup You need a microphone to be able to record the audio. If you can, I would suggest to record in a small home studio setup like the picture above (consists of a USB microphone, a computer, and a monitor headphone).
# '''Field recording with a recorder or phone''': The recording setup will largely vary if you are meeting someone outside your home for a field recording. In that case you will need to carry an audio recorder or a smartphone (some sort of recording app installed in it) with earphones. If you’re using a portable recorder make sure you cover the top of the mic with a soft cotton cloth or fake fur to a) avoid dust going inside, and b) the sound of the wind during outdoor recording. Use a rubber band to tighten the base and never touch the cloth/fur while recording. Mics can capture small little movements and completely distort the audio.
# '''Recording from phone''': Earphones that come with the phones generally work both for phones and computers as compared to the default microphone provided along with . However, avoid sitting in an open space as there is a high probability of a lot of noise being captured unless if you are using a shotgun microphone.
# '''Audio editing software''': If editing from a computer, [https://www.audacityteam.org/download/ Audacity], a free and open source audio editing software is the first choice for many seasoned recording artists. It is robust, easy to use and can be used in multiple platforms. If you are using your phone or tablet to record and edit the audio, then, use your native recording app or try to find a good free alternative in your respective app store. Ideally the recording/editing app should be allowing you to record in a decent lossless quality (minimum requirement is 44100 Hz, above 16 bit PCM i.e. 24 or 32 bit, above 220 kbps; check your settings to find these). Save the audio in .WAV or .FLAC (Audacity supports both). If your recorder/phone does not support these formats, try to use an app/online converter like this ([https://www.zamzar.com/convert/mp3-to-flac MP3→FLAC] or [https://zamzar.com/convert/m4a-to-flac M4A→FLAC]) to convert the audio into .FLAC.

==== Video recording ====
;Which camera to use
Frankly speaking, the video is less important here as compared to the audio. With low quality video, viewers would still be able to manage if the audio is loud and clear. So if you are keen on investing, invest on a good quality microphone that can either be connected with the camera or can be used as a secondary recorder. But do not trust your camera’s default microphone. They can literally jeopardize your hard work. As far as the camera goes, you can literally use any camera that allows you to record in a decent quality i.e. above 720p (1280×720 px)—from your phone to a point and shoot camera to a dSLR.
&lt;poem&gt;
    a) Using a camera: Use a shotgun microphone that can be connected directly into your camera so that you don’t need to invest much on audio syncing during post production.
    b) Using a phone for recording video: These days most phones come with high quality hardware that are capable of recording good video. But the real key to recording quality video in a phone lies in stabilizing the shot while recording. You can only do that by investing in a small tripod (they are generally really cheap and do the job) that can hold your phone. For this particular project, tripods will be the best. 
&lt;/poem&gt;
How to edit the videos: You need to compress the video using a free software like [http://handbrake.fr/ Handbrake], and upload that into YouTube or something similar without making it public. We will download it and ask you to delete so that you don’t have to worry about the amount of space it will take in your hard drive.

== Chapter 3: Metadata collection and publication ==
''Annotation, subtitling of audio/video, translation of transcription and other content''
Download Content Release form (editable document in [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OpenSpeaks-Content_Release_Agreement_editable_document_v.1.0_2019-05-23.odt .odt] and [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OpenSpeaks-Content_Release_Agreement_editable_document_v.1.0_2019-05-23.docx .docx], fillable form in .pdf); Metadata Documentation Sheet in [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OFDN_OpenSpeaks_-_Metadata_Documentation_Sheet_v.%201.0_2019-05-23.ods .ods], [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OFDN_OpenSpeaks_-_Metadata_Documentation_Sheet_v.%201.0_2019-05-23.xlsx .xlsx])

'''Annotation''' is the process of collecting additional information that might help provide background to any particular situation. For instance, a particular alcoholic beverage in an indigenous community is offered to the local deity first before drinking. A video that shows people consuming and the subtitles/captioning with the conversation that they are having might not provide enough context. Such nuances are generally added in text or audio along with a timestamp (e.g. ''refer to 01:36: Lakshmi and Babu are showing a gesture of respect to each other before drinking &quot;rasi&quot;''). Audio/video content will surely need subtitles in largely spoken languages like English for a wider coverage. Transcriptions are generally created to have a verbatim version of the interview. Ideally, you need to work post-interview with a native speaker to create the transcription to ensure there is no loss of information in the process. However, transcription is not a easily digestible. So you need to create summaries for each section of the interview which will capture the highlights and sometimes details (for instance a game play or story).

== Chapter 4: Accessibility ==
Accessibility considerations are to ensure that everyone can access the published digital media with no/moderate hassle. The underlying principle with accessibility is ensuring that none is excluded and making conscious effort to avoid any critical issues to people with disability. Use of subtitles/captions in audio and video, using typefaces/fonts that in the visual media that have proper contrast, size and alignment considerations, and use of colors that are friendly to the eyes of people with [[:w:color blindness|color blindness]] are some of the most important consideration. To check whether the media you have published is accessible or not, you could use the below checklist.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!
!Yes/no, How to
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Recommendations
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''A. Video captioning'''
''Do your audio/video have subtitles/caption?'' 
|Yes
|[[w:Closed captioning|'''Closed captioning''']] (CC) is more preferred for web applications as the caption is not &quot;burned in&quot; (hardcoded) on the video but is displayed separately. It also helps for translation of captions if you could release it as [[w:Timed text|Timed text]] formats such as [[w:SubRip|SubRip]] (files ending with a '''.srt''' suffix).
|'''Open captioning''' means that the captions appear as images that are &quot;burned in&quot; on the video. You can only watch it whereas you can select different language versions available in case of Closed captioning.
|-
|No
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Adding captions to videos is a very essential requirement when it comes to linguistic documentation. There are many ways to add captions. For computers, a highly recommended software is [http://www.aegisub.org/ Aegisub] ([http://docs.aegisub.org/ user manual]) as it supports all major platforms (Windows, Mac and other Unix operating systems). Many modern video editors also support captioning. If you are collaborating with remote translators then [https://amara.org/en/videos/create/ Amara] is a recommended option. It is an Open Source video subtitling platform (learn how to use it from [https://amara.org/en/subtitling-platform/#free-platform here]). Popular platforms like [https://archive.org/ Internet Archive], [https://archive.org/ Vimeo] and [https://youtube.org/ YouTube] are supported on Amara. YouTube also supports an in-built [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2734796?hl=en Closed Captioning]. We strongly recommend the comprehensive guides that BBC has created (short version here, long version [https://bbc.github.io/subtitle-guidelines here]) to learn how to create accessible captioning.
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''B. Audio/video transcriptions'''
''Do you upload a transcription file separately along with your audio documentations?''
|Yes
|'''Verbatim transcriptions''' often retain stutters and fillers such as &quot;''umm..''&quot;, &quot;''hmm..''&quot; that are a part of human speech. As the primary purpose of transcriptions is accessibility, verbatim transcriptions help.
|'''Non-verbatim''' transcriptions either omit stutters and fillers entirely or they are replaced with explanatory text. You might have seen in (English-language) movie subtitles how they write [MUSIC]&lt;ref group=&quot;A&quot;&gt;''The vocabulary, format and style for transcriptions vary from platform to platform. For instance, some use &lt;code&gt;[NAME OF SONG IN BACKGROUND]&lt;/code&gt; whereas others use icons such as &lt;code&gt;♬ NAME OF SONG IN BACKGROUND ♬&lt;/code&gt; for representing the same thing.''&lt;/ref&gt; when there is a background music playing. Similarly, you can use different explanatory texts based on the context. (''see below for how to transcribe'')
|-
|How to
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Please see the [https://www.w3.org/WAI/media/av/transcripts/ Transcripts] resource page on W3C for more recommendations. [https://www.w3.org/WAI/media/av/transcribing/ Here] is a step-by-step guide to create audio-to-text transcription that might be useful in some cases.
|-
|No
|'''Written languages''': You must consider adding transcriptions to your audio and video. Simply put, transcriptions the text version of what is heard in an audio or video. They are very essential for people with full/partial blindness as they use screen reader software to convert text into audio and listen to the audio version to be able to access the content. Transcriptions are also helpful when a particular word is not very clearly pronounced. It is important to note that many written languages might not have yet a speech synthesis software but language documentations have a long lifeline. So, if you transcribe today and upload the transcription, it might be useful some day. It is often uploaded separately as a text file along with an audio file. YouTube shows the transcription separately when the option is selected on the right side of the video (only when the video is captioned). 
|'''Spoken/oral languages''': As oral languages do not have a writing system, you might consider translating the content first into a well known language that is relevant in your context, and make the transcription available.
|-
|'''C. Color contrast'''
|How to
|{{font color|white|black|High contrast}} text is easily readable by people with low vision. So, it is always preferred over any aesthetics corrections. In your titles/captions, credits in the case of videos, documents shared along with audio/video, and web displays (websites, blogs, articles), try to use {{font color|yellow|blue|high contrast}} text.
|Extremely '''light-shaded text''' over a light-shaded background (e.g. grey over a sky background {{font color|#F2F3F3|#80BEF6| like this }}) are hard to read for many.
|}

== Additional information ==

=== Self declaration ===
The authors self-identify as dominant-caste and cis-gender male individuals India's discriminatory Hindu [[w:Caste system in India|caste system]]. Generally speaking, such individuals have historically received through that system the most amount of privileges irrespective of their political stands or understanding of social justice. The authors would further like to acknowledge that their personal socioeconomic privileges, in which the caste system plays a large role, have resulted in their early and wider access to the internet, fluency in English and access to a range of other resources. These access/privileges resulting in their early entrance into the open knowledge movement such as Wikipedia/Wikimedia projects, and even affordability for volunteer participation in such movements. The authors are aware that they have been benefitted in their own respective lives from the existing discriminations of the caste system, patriarchy, neocolonial practices of their own majoritarian community, and different forms of sociocultural systems.

=== Acknowledgements ===
OpenSpeaks has been enriched from a range of major projects, readings and interactions. It might not be possible to attribute all in a chronological order but some of the individuals and organizations include, but is not limited to: 
* Indigenous communities: Santali community (specifically Ramjit Tudu, [[User:R Ashwani Banjan Murmu|R Ashwani Banjan Murmu]], [[User:Fagu Baskey|Fagu Baskey]] and [[User:Joy sagar Murmu|Joy sagar Murmu]]); Bonda community of Bandhuguda, Malkangiri district, Odisha, India; Ho community of Keshpada, Mayurbhanj district, Odisha, India; Kusunda, Tharu and Magar communities of Kulmor, Dang district, Nepal; Gutob community of Tukum, Koraput district, Odisha, India
* Civil society partners/donors: Eddie Avila and [http://rising.globalvoices.org/ Rising Voices][[:w:Global Voices|Global Voices]], [[:w:Creative Commons|Creative Commons]], [[:w:National Geographic Society|National Geographic Society]], [[:w:Mozilla|Mozilla]] [https://mozilla.github.io/leadership-training/round-4/projects/#openspeaks Open Leadership Series], [https://journalists.org/2017/09/06/meet-onas-2017-mj-bear-fellows-30-digital-journalism-stand-outs/ MJ Bear Fellowship 2017, Online News Association], [[:m:WhoseKnowledge?|WhoseKnowledge?]], UNESCO, [[:w:Centre for Internet and Society (India)|Centre for Internet and Society (India)]], Adivasi Lives Matter, Digital Empowerment Foundation
* Other communities and conference: Wikimedians from around the world, particularly during Wikimania 2017, 2018 and 2019, Celtic Knot Conference 2018 and 2019; Creative Commons Global Summit 2019 and 2020; Internet Governance Forum, Mozilla Festival 2021; National Geographic Citizen Science Workshop 2018; two TEDx talks
* The Chapter &quot;Chapter 1: Consent, Content Rights and Content Licensing&quot; was created and expanded with a grant from Creative Commons. More [https://theofdn.org/openspeaks/content-update-2020/ details] in this page.

=== Competing interests ===
The author has no competing interest.

=== Ethics statement ===
This project draws direct/indirect learning from documentary films &quot;Gyani Maiya&quot; (2019), &quot;Mage Porob&quot; (2019) and &quot;Remosam&quot; (2019) that were made in collaboration respectively with the Kusunda community of Nepal, and Ho community and Bonda community of India. The participating individual members of these communities were interviewed with consent abided by the consent guidelines outlined in this project and the National Geographic Society release. Traditional community ethics were abided in all places while working together with indigenous groups and a high standard of moral and ethical standard was adhered to otherwise.

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=A}}

== References ==
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      <text bytes="57250" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Subhashish
| last1 = Panigrahi
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-3665-8184
| affiliation1 = O Foundation
| correspondence1 = subhashish@theofdn.org
| first2 = Sailesh
| last2 = Patnaik{{affiliation|name=Panigrahi}}
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-2765-0017
| affiliation2 = 
| first3 = 
| last3 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| last4 = 
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| correspondence = subhashish@theofdn.org
| journal = WikiJournal of Humanities      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = Language field-documentation experts have often shared concerns about existing unethical and colonial practices that have led to no or poor &quot;data ownership&quot; by the native speakers. As documentary linguists and other archivists often establish a short-term contact with indigenous groups for any documentation, we argue in this article how changing the approach from documentation by alien archivists to building resources for equipping speakers of low-resourced languages can help alter the    unethical language documentation practices. OpenSpeaks, an open educational resource that we created based on learning from citizen-led language archiving processes, has been the testing ground for developing a learning framework and educational content for multimedia archivists who are interested to record low-resourced languages. The framing of OpenSpeaks is done keeping in mind many indigenous, endangered and first languages that are not archived actively in audiovisual forms. Recognizing the lower level of documentation a result of lack of resources (primarily financial, human, institutional and technical) we detail on the development of OpenSpeaks by underlining the areas that are either missing and/or need more elaboration from an anthropological and social justice lens.
| keywords = indigenous language, linguistic documentation, multimedia, endangered language, OER
| submitted = 2021-05-05
}}

== Introduction ==
&lt;!--[[File:Example_image.png|left|thumb| Image caption text goes here
(attribution: name of image creator, [[creativecommons:by/3.0/deed.en|CC-BY 3.0]])
]]--&gt;

The swift decline of indigenous, endangered and other low-languages has been one of the growing concerns for civil society considering the larger impact on human knowledge. Languages that are marginalized and are on the verge of extinction often do not have the privilege of linguistic research and documentation, even though the latter could ensure detailed conservation in a scientific manner. The citizen science model of archiving both traditional and contemporary aspects of low-resource languages has been in practice through activism.

The affordability that a native speaker community has to access the essential resources plays a pivotal role in intergenerational transmission of any language, a factor that the UNESCO Ad-hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages identified to be the key reason for language endangerment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://ich.unesco.org/doc/src/00120-EN.pdf|title=UNESCO Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages|publisher=International Expert Meeting on UNESCO Programme Safeguarding of Endangered Languages, UNESCO|year=2003|location=Paris|pages=7–8|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such resources can be financial, human, socio-political, institutional, technical and educational in nature. Hence, no or low availability of resources directly impacting language endangerment needs to be studied while designing language documentation strategies. Documenting indigenous and endangered languages as digital media are often intended for helping with sustenance of a language and the growth  through widespread use. It is important to note that lack of online platforms and other digital mediums or the lack of the knowhow of such platforms/mediums can add to language endangerment. Digital interventions and creation of digital pathways have proven to be effective in not only normalizing use of an indigenous language online, but also creating a [[w:Ripple effect|ripple effect]] in activating wider use of many indigenous languages in a geographical location.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Avila|first=Eddie|date=2017|title=How indigenous digital activists are leveraging the internet to revitalize their native languages|url=http://www.linguapax.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/LinguapaxReview2017_web-1.pdf|journal=Linguapax Review|pages=80–89|volume=5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With the advent of pervasive technology, particularly cheaper smartphones, the pre-existing challenges to multimedia documentation is slowly being addressed differently by different language-documentation stakeholders. Linguists also see a great value in “documentary linguistics” that captures face-to-face interactions by native speakers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Seyfeddinipur|first1=Mandana|last2=Rau|first2=Felix|date=September 2020|title=Keeping it real: Video data in language documentation and language archiving|url=http://hdl.handle.net/10125/24965|journal=Language Documentation &amp; Conservation|volume=14|pages=503–519|issn=1934-5275}}&lt;/ref&gt; By creating different forms of online, other digital and even in-person engagements, the Rising Voices project at the Global Voices is encouraging young speakers to actively use their native languages.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/revitalizing-endangered-languages/technology-in-language-revitalization/9C4ED484CB915554C249941840999821|title=Technology in Language Revitalization: Rising Voices|last=Avila|first=Eddie|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2021|isbn=9781108641142|location=Cambridge|pages=297–316|doi=10.1017/9781108641142.018}}&lt;/ref&gt; While conducting user research during the UNLOCK acceleration program, we learned that the language digital-activism includes a range of initiatives, and it is often confusing for a new activist to identify the right tactic or strategy that is best suited to serve their own cause.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikimedia.de/unlock-projects/openspeaks-accessibility/|title=OpenSpeaks Accessibility|year=2021|website=www.wikimedia.de|publisher=Wikimedia Deutschland}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

As a response to UNESCO's International Decade of Indigenous Languages campaign&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379851|title=Global action plan of the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (IDIL 2022-2032)|year=2021|website=unesco.org|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=2021-11-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; and beyond, both professional field researchers and citizen archivists are working towards creating multimedia documentations of many low-resource languages, especially the ones that are endangered. The citizen archivists being either self-taught or individuals without formal training in field linguistic documentation who might or might not be from a native speaker community have a relatively little access and affordability in terms of institutional, financial and other relevant resources. OpenSpeaks was created in 2017 as an as a standalone project and it was hosted at https://openspeaks.com. The project was subsequently integrated into [[OpenSpeaks|Wikiversity]] in 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/OpenSpeaks|title=OpenSpeaks - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2021-12-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[:w:Open Educational Resource|Open Educational Resources]] within the project were intended to help citizen archivists with both strategic and operational knowhow on documentation of indigenous, endangered and other low-resource languages. As a project, OpenSpeaks has its roots in grassroots activism where language documentation work is led by citizen archivists that are either native speakers of low-resource languages or are in close contact with native speakers. The authors' close involvement in the citizen language-documentation initiatives has been useful in learning about the different needs for a resource that can serve both strategic and operational knowledge.

== Audiovisual and other multimedia documentations ==
Recording a language as audio or video are a part of the consorted efforts of the preservation of diverse knowledge, and creating an inclusive environment and putting effort in making more resources available for many marginalized communities to share indigenous knowledge by using language technologies. As UNESCO emphasized in 2019, &quot;In today’s world, digital literacy, access to broadband connectivity and quality content, including in local languages, are also prerequisites for the fulfillment of our human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as for our participation in the development of societies.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/lt4all_concept_note_en.pdf|title=International Conference Language Technologies for All (LT4All): Enabling Linguistic Diversity and Multilingualism Worldwide|date=2019-12-04|website=en.unesco.org|access-date=2021-11-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; The linguistic discipline of &quot;[[w:Documentary Linguistics|Documentary Linguistics]]&quot; or &quot;Language Documentation&quot; helps keep historical audiovisual records of a language and culture, the documentations help further the growth of languages through education and research. Multiple attempts by linguists backed with field experience have helped establish a foundation for teaching multimedia language documentation to citizen archivists. Some such resources include the paper &quot;Keeping it real: Video data in language documentation and language archiving&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and the Teachable course &quot;Archiving for the Future: Simple Steps for Archiving Language Documentation Collections&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://archivingforthefuture.teachable.com/|title=Archiving for the Future: Simple Steps for Archiving Language Documentation Collections [OER]|last1=Kung|last2=Smythe|first2=Susan|date=2020|accessdate=2021-12-22|last3=Pojman|first3=Elena|last4=Niwagaba|first4=Alicia}}&lt;/ref&gt; or the online guide &quot;Language Sustainability Toolkit&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://livingtongues.org/language-sustainability-toolkit/|title=The Language Sustainability Toolkit |accessdate=2021-12-22|date=2021|last1=Daigneault|first1=Anna Luisa|last2=Udell|first2=Daniel Bögre|last3=Tcherneshoff|first3=Kristen|last4=Anderson|first4=Gregory D. S.}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Among many other resource-building efforts, recording a low-resourced language as audio and video can help with language learning and teaching apart from contributing to technological areas such as speech synthesis that is essential for building text-to-speech and speech-to-text solutions or Natural Language Processing. Speech synthesis helps with universal access by people with visual impairment or deafness. Multimedia documentation of low-resource languages is niche area under the language documentation work. The intention for documentation of languages in multimedia forms involve collecting rich body of information when led by linguists. Otherwise, the information depth might vary widely as the goal of the documentation can be storytelling and even capturing linguistic content with an aesthetic outcome in mind.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== Identifying issues with documentation ==
The lack of access to the language technology has been one of the major factors behind creating a digital divide and furthering the financial exclusion of a wide number of marginalized communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; While the need for multimedia documentation of languages is paramount, anecdotal evidence we have received from many native speaker-activists suggest that availability of human, financial, educational, infrastructural, political and other essential resources are scarce in the case of most indigenous, endangered and other marginalized languages. Additionally, multimedia recordings are more expensive than creation of textual content. It is important to note that the textual content relies on multiple critical factors such as availability of an established writing system, acceptance of a Unicode standard for script encoding, ease of script rendering across operating systems both on mobile devices and computers, and availability of Unicode-compliant typefaces. Keeping the technical factors aside, widespread use of native writing systems in many indigenous communities with a a strong oral culture is a slower process. It is also affected adversely by the neighboring and dominant writing systems. For instance, the official status of India's [[w:Odia language|Odia language]] (written in the [[w:Odia script|Odia script]]) and the historical push for its wider use in education, governance and mass media and the lack of the same for the neighboring indigenous languages such [[w:Santali language|Santali]] and [[w:Ho language|Ho]] has strongly impacted the slow spread of textual content in Ho and Santali. Further more, Anderson and Gomango (2016) keenly observe an internal neocolonialism and ethnolinguistic hierarchy being built in the Juray (Jurai) [[w:Sora people|Sora]] indigenous cluster of Odisha on the basis of existing social discrimination of the caste system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|isbn=9780956021083|first1=Gregory D. S.|last1= Anderson |first2=Opino|last2= Gomango|date= 2016|chapter= On the current status and state of Juray in the Sora-Juray cluster|editor1-first= Nicholas|editor1-last= Ostler |editor2-first=Panchanan|editor2-last= Mohanty|title= FEL XX: Language Colonization and Endangerment: Long-term effects, echoes and reactions: Proceedings of the 20th FEL Conference 9–12 December 2016|pages= 103–109|location=Hungerford, England|publisher= FEL}}&lt;/ref&gt;

When it comes to audiovisual recording, the recording environments vary across the impacting factors of financial/space affordability, technical knowhow and the purpose of the recording. Natural and conversational recording of a language are often done as field recording where the speakers live or work. Such recordings provide context to the speaker's life and also the recorded content. The considerations for the field recording process are also for creative/aesthetic purposes in cases as Seyfeddinipur and Rau observe.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; For avoiding any distracting noise, especially for linguistic studies or conventional broadcasting, controlled environments such as a scripted recording inside a studio are also used to ensure very high-quality media. Such recordings can later be used for creating future [[w:Speech synthesis|speech synthesis]] systems apart from helping study grammar, vocabulary, and oral traditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ani|first1=Kelechi Johnmary|date=2012|title= UNESCO prediction on the extinction of Igbo language in 2025: analyzing societal violence and new transformative strategies|journal= Developing Country Studies|volume= 2|issue=8|pages=110–118|issn=2225-0565|url=https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/DCS/article/view/2934}}&lt;/ref&gt; Considering the high cost of studio recording and based on the actual purpose of the recording productions also use hybrid approaches.

The need for demonstrating the informal use of a language and design multimedia literacy programs through documented multimedia evidence often requires documentation of key information of the speakers through metadata. Information related to the speaker's age, gender, influence of dominant/other non-native languages over one's native language, and their socioeconomic strata make a deep impact their overall speech. While documentation of such information is essential, they are tied to the affordability factors of the archivist.

The process of documentation tend to vary from archivist to archivist. For instance, documentary linguistics as a practice focuses on collecting the rich linguistic data of a language&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; such as recording everyday conversation in a marketplace whereas documentary filmmakers focus on the aesthetics and storytelling. Training volunteers to create informational videos, such as the virALLanguages project that helps create COVID-19 awareness videos in indigenous/minority languages, can also be counted as documentation of language.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 |url=https://globalvoices.org/2020/05/11/promoting-coronavirus-education-through-indigenous-languages/
 |title=Promoting coronavirus education through indigenous languages
 |last=Panigrahi
 |first=Subhashish
 |date=2020-05-11
 |website=globalvoices.org
 |publisher=Global Voices
 |access-date=2021-05-05
 |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Community-led digital archivism ==
We think of &quot;archivism&quot; as an extended form of language digital activism for documenting languages in audiovisual forms, while the word &quot;archivism&quot; is a portmanteau of &quot;archiving&quot; and &quot;activism&quot;. Littell et al. (2018) emphasize that, based on consultations with some of the Canadian indigenous language communities, while speech technologies are desired, there is a little progress in building the same.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|isbn= 978-1-948087-50-6|last1=Littell|first1=Patrick|last2=Kazantseva|first2=Anna|last3=Kuhn|first3=Roland|last4=Pine|first4=Aidan|last5=Arppe|first5=Antti|last6=Cox|first6=Christopher|last7=Junker|first7=Marie-Odile|date=2018|chapter=Indigenous language technologies in Canada: Assessment, challenges, and successes|url=https://aclanthology.org/C18-1222.pdf|title=Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics|location=Santa Fe, New Mexico|publisher=International Committee on Computational Linguistics|doi=|pages=2620–2632}}&lt;/ref&gt; Community-led efforts including collaborations between communities and an internal/external multimedia archivist can result in an organic and gradual development of resources required for speech technology—some of the foundational resources being recording of pronunciations of all/most words in a language by people of all genders and in different dialects. The wider scholarship in the artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) disciplines that are intersectional to speech technologies emphasize the lack of adequate and diverse data being responsible for exclusion of historically-marginalized peoples.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Gebru|first=Timnit|date=2020|chapter=Race and Gender|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190067397.013.16|title=The Oxford Handbook of Ethics of AI|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=251–269|editor1-first=Markus D. |editor1-last=Dubber|editor2-first= Frank |editor2-last=Pasquale|editor3-first=Sunit|editor3-last= Das|isbn=9780190067397}}&lt;/ref&gt; Slow progression of audiovisual data collection by community-led processes, as opposed to occasional interventions, presumedly has the natural advantage of access to more number of individuals in a community with different gender identities, socioeconomic groups apart from the ecological and environmental factors that affect the field recording. The same AI/ML scholarships also recommend fair data collection practices such as remuneration to contributors while underlining a binding principle of &quot;[[w:Nothing About Us Without Us|Nothing About Us Without Us]]&quot;. In the context of language audiovisual-recording, this principle would translate to the native community having agency/shared ownership of data which is often restricted through copyright and other institutional paywall processes. Some of the questions to help with an inclusive approach, while still considering the low/limited access to resources an archivist might have, can be:

* How can I record narratives of people of different genders while still being conscious of community taboos?
* As the purpose of audio recording of words (a pronunciation library) is often for training speech recognition systems in the future, do the speakers understand the nature of the use of their data and are they consenting for public use of their data for perpetuity?
* What kind remuneration I can fetch to collect data in a fair and equitable way?
* Which tools and technologies would be useful in my situation and would be affordable?

== Areas of focus ==
While the the first version (ver. 1.0) of OpenSpeaks focused primarily on the practical aspects audiovisual recording process and some parts of the prior planning and post-processing processes, the version 2.0 onward detailed on consent, content rights including copyright and content licensing. In the version 3.0 considerations and practical guide on making language documentation accessible to people with disabilities, particularly with blindness and deafness, were incorporated.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

=== Consent ===
In the version 2.0 of OpenSpeaks, the inter-related disciplines of consent, content rights and licensing were explained in a single chapter.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=OpenSpeaks&amp;oldid=2292729|title=OpenSpeaks - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2021-12-11}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the context of multimedia language-documentation workflow, consent can be understood as the mutual agreement between a native speaker who is interviewed by an archivist and the archivist. The documentations happens in environments where the interviewees' understanding of the future use of the content is not always the same. Even though consent is a critical element to documenting languages, standardizing content-seeking process is extremely hard and can be a futile attempt. Hence, the OpenSpeaks guides only aims at helping an archivist understand their own context as the module details the scenarios of the consent-seeking process. In the light of the complexity of this process, the answer to the question &quot;how do I take permission for an interview?&quot; or &quot;do I take permission from an interviewee in writing or verbally?&quot; are never definitive. While framing consent to be paramount to ethical research in indigenous settings, Lovo et al. (2021) explain &quot;Informed Concent&quot; to be (a) &quot;a mechanism for respect of dignity and autonomy of persons that should be meaningful, trusting, transparent, un-intrusive, free of coercion, free and informative to protect human rights and bioethics&quot;, and (b) &quot;collaborative and establishing a trusting relationship&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lovo|first=Etivina|last2=Woodward|first2=Lynn|last3=Larkins|first3=Sarah|last4=Preston|first4=Robyn|last5=Baba|first5=Unaisi Nabobo|date=2021-10-09|title=Indigenous knowledge around the ethics of human research from the Oceania region: A scoping literature review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13010-021-00108-8|journal=Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine|volume=16|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s13010-021-00108-8|issn=1747-5341}}&lt;/ref&gt; Applying the same frame in the multimedia language-documentation process, a set of closely-connected questions shared below can be helpful to identify the adequate process for asking consent, creating a participatory space as it has always been useful in our experience.

* Is the person/are the persons about to be interviewed adult and are able to understand fully the purpose of the recording and the future publication of the same?
* If not, how I can discuss with them, or someone they would nominate, to clarify the complete purpose of the recording and the  possible ways the recording will be used?
* If they are in agreement for the recording, what would be the best way to document the agreement and share the same for any future use?
*What is the literacy level of the interviewee, whether a verbal or written consent would be appropriate, and what would be the best way to document the same as an evidence?

When it comes to consent, the revocation of the same is often intended to be a part of the consent-seeking process. However, some of the copyright clauses such as the [[w:Creative Commons Licenses|Creative Commons Licenses]] would make a &quot;work&quot; (a published recording in this context) a perpetual contribution. Hence we recommend in OpenSpeaks for having the conversation with the individual interviewees and agree mutually about consent, content rights and copyright before the recording. Some of the related areas of considerations around this subject discussed in OpenSpeaks are: a) forms of evidence-documentation in different kinds of shareable media formats such as signed agreement on a paper or an agreement given verbally and recorded as a part of the documentation itself, b) identifying the right kind of agreement-sharing platform based on the access and affordability of both the interviewee and the interviewer, c) validation of any indirect consent (e.g. physical gestures instead of a written consent), and d. process of revocation (in case of non-open licensed publication of recording). The challenges an individual interviewee might be facing because of their disability, old age, fluency of the lingua franca between the interviewer (or any intermediary translator) and themselves are also some of the discussed areas that can disqualify an indirect consent legally or ethically at a later date.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

=== Content Rights ===
In addition to consent, ownership of content (&quot;content rights&quot;) is a subjective area. One might find, while, in a set of Mesoamerican conversations along with many other cultures,  knowledge is perceived to be the outcome of a collective process which does not guarantee any individual member of a community the &quot;final authority or ownership&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Penelope|last2=Sicoli|first2=Mark A.|last3=Le Guen|first3=Olivier|date=2021-10|title=Cross-speaker repetition and epistemic stance in Tzeltal, Yucatec, and Zapotec conversations|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.07.005|journal=Journal of Pragmatics|volume=183|pages=256–272|doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2021.07.005|issn=0378-2166}}&lt;/ref&gt; many during our field documentation work have shared discontent towards the irrevocable and perpetual nature of the open licensing. A case study shared in OpenSpeaks through a short film &quot;Who Owns the Content?&quot; sheds light on the complex nature of content ownership over documented. The narrator Eddie Avila shares in this film the story of a Colombian young individual discovering audio cassette tapes with recordings of his father and how the traditional stories and songs that were told by the father to an European researcher who then recorded the same.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theofdn.org/film/who-owns-the-content/|title=Film: &quot;Who Owns The Content&quot; (2019)|date=2019-07-15|website=theofdn.org|publisher=O Foundation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815034328/https://theofdn.org/film/who-owns-the-content/|archive-date=2021-08-15|access-date=2021-12-12}}&lt;/ref&gt; The dilemma in identifying the ownership of content gets addressed to some extent in the examples and guides shared in OpenSpeaks. Often times, the question is not &quot;who owns the recorded content?&quot; but &quot;is the content owned by a community (collective knowledge) or a creation of one individual or some individuals?&quot;. As this paper and other scholarship discuss widely how the history of many indigenous peoples are not only poorly documented but there is also century-long systemic erasure of indigenous knowledge, it is not simple and easy to reach at a conclusion about ownership. An archivist assuming ownership over content and wrongly attributing either themselves or some individuals under restrictive licenses can potentially block many in the native speaker community the access to their own community knowledge. 

=== Copyright and licensing ===
Quite similar to all other forms of intellectual property, [[copyright]] is assumed over all/most of the recorded content when it comes to language documentation. The premise of copyright is all kinds of &quot;published works&quot; that have &quot;originality&quot;. The general rules of copyright, permission-seeking and attributing are equally applicable to any audio or video material. However, the ethical and moral sides of copyright are critical to the process in the OpenSpeaks framework. So, some of the self-assessment questions are framed to help the archivist find more details of the different rights and identify what particular licensing would make sense. 
*The following question helps understand the [[w:Moral rights|moral rights]] that are applicable. A narrative (a story or song or other kinds) that is predominantly known to a community would mean (moral) ownership of a community while the copyright has to be identified in a slightly different way.
**What is the kind of content that is recorded -- is it a folklore or folk song or any such narrative that is popular in the entire community or is it something that the interviewee has created on their own?
*The following questions help identify who would own the copyright. Considering the fact that there are many conditions involved, copyright is identified by looking at each condition objectively. For instance, without any agreement detailing copyright in a self-sponsored documentation, the copyright of the documented audio/video only would lie with the archivist. The moral right, if the content includes a folklore or folk song, will still lie with the community.
**Does the documentation work involve a contract or agreement detailing about copyright?
**Is the work sponsored/commissioned by anyone?
**Is the documentation done by one individual or multiple individuals?
**If the documentation crew are paid or have volunteered? What kind of labor distribution exist if the work is volunteer work?
* When it comes to using the appropriate license, the archivist would generally decide based on a set of conditions some of which are outlined in OpenSpeaks and are reproduced below:
**Is the archivist the sole/partial copyright owner of the content?
**Is the work a commissioned work and hence is copyrighted by someone else?
**Is there an agreement that defines the scope of copyright?
**In either of the cases shared above, does the copyright allow full access of the content to the native speaker community or does it restrict them from accessing the content?
**Are any of the particular Creative Commons licenses applicable to the work? (The Creative Commons Choose (https://creativecommons.org/choose/) or the beta Chooser (https://chooser-beta.creativecommons.org/) tools are shared on OpenSpeaks to help the archivist identify a particular license. As the focus of OpenSpeaks is to help an archivist ensure of unrestricted and [[w:Paywall|unpaywalled]] access to content for the native language speakers, the license selection process also emphasizes on identifying the best license that would work for each community as opposed to impose only [[w:Free content|free content]]. Additionally, the plaintext version of a consent and rights release on OpenSpeaks draws learning from frugal field-documentation processes, a content release used for content donation for Wikimedia projects,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wikimedia_VRT_release_generator|title=Commons:Wikimedia VRT release generator - Wikimedia Commons|author=((Wikimedia Commons contributors))|accessdate=2021-12-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; and keeps the release comprehensive for low-medium level of literacy of interviewees.
Lastly, each specific use case of a published documentation is not always known to the archivist, especially during the time of consent-seeking or more specifically, during the content release agreement. If revocation of any consent and other permissions are not possible, the recommended fair practice in the OpenSpeaks version 3.0 onward are set around full clarification to the interviewee during consent-seeking.

== Learning exercises ==

=== Survey for localization in Santali language ===
During the creation of the version 2.0, we conducted a bilingual (English and Santali) survey&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://theofdn.org/openspeaks/content-update-2020/|title=We’re updating OpenSpeaks and we’d love to hear from you!|last=Panigrahi|first=Subhashish|last2=Tudu|first2=Ramjit|date=2020-11-28|website=theofdn.org|publisher=O Foundation|access-date=2022-01-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; focusing on language content and rights and engaged a small group of 25 individuals including many native Santali-language speakers and are involved in content creation in the language. Some of the general observations from the survey are shared below:

* '''Linguistic distribution:'''
** Among the 25 participants, 17 were native Santali-language speakers, from five different countries
** One-third of the participants represented either a collective, nonprofit, academic or another civil society organization while the remaining were a part of a different stakeholder (in language documentation) while they practice digital activism independently in personal capacity.
** The participants are broadly active in promoting their language on digital mediums, which includes both audio-visual documentation and textual documentation such as blogging, content creation/sharing and commenting on social media and web platforms.
** 12 participants who are actively involved in archiving their own languages (other than Santali) in various mediums self identified as native speakers of at least one indigenous language, and at least four of them speak a language that is an oral language with no formally-recognized writing system.
* '''Consent-seeking:'''
** 13 participants expressed that they are not fully aware of asking consent during the documentation.
** We also learned that the respondents ask for consent in three major ways: a) through verbal discussions, b) during the recording process, c) through fillable forms before the recording.
** We also observed that most participants seek consent during the recording of the video while five emphasized that the consent-seeking is mostly over a verbal discussion and five others confirmed of asking for consent over a form.
* '''Copyright and licensing:'''
** While almost half of the participants confirmed that they know how to make audiovisual recording in their own languages, the remaining half shared that that they need help to learn about best practices or the need for a beginner's guide.
** Most participants involved in creating multimedia documentation also expressed about the need for understanding copyright and the Creative Commons licenses for publishing the documented media.
The learning from this exercise validated our own preexisting notions around consent-seeking, copyright and overall attribution process. This process also helped break the linearity in the guides on these topics that were explained in the Chapter 1 of version 2.0 of OpenSpeaks, and the focus in the translation process was on explaining these concepts instead of merely translating. The three Santali-language speakers who led the translation for Santali, R. Ashwani Banjan Murmu, Fagu Baskey and Joy sagar Murmu, used their own respective experiences as community organizers and Wikimedians, used a feedback loop to influence the English version of the Chapter. They also used a hybrid model of selecting both loanwords (transliteration of popular English terms such as &quot;license&quot; in the Ol Chiki alphabet that used for Santali) and newly coined terms that can be widely understood apart from using existing vocabulary.

== Chapter 2: Audiovisual recording ==
This chapter details process of audiovisual recording the use of languages.

=== Module 1: Basics of audio-visual recording ===
''An overview of what are aimed from the recording process and how to go about it''.

==== Prerequisites ====
; '''1. Be honest and ask your interviewee to be honest'''
: Language is a very sensitive element of a society. When any known/unknown mistakes like mispronunciations get recorded and shared publicly, native speakers might take an offense. So, please check with your interviewee to ensure that you document any unintended mistakes in the description part of the video/audio while publishing. You might not always be able to delete portions of such unintended mistakes but you can always admit that there is any unintended mistake that got recorded. Similarly, if the interviewee is not a native speaker and is trying to learn a language, you should mention clearly about that. The real native speakers will welcome such honesty.

; '''2. Imagine yourself out in the field interviewing someone speaking a language that you don’t probably''' understand
: Think of the challenges that you might face—the loss in translation, the lack of your understanding of their cultural/linguistics nuances. Are you going to use a language that is mutually intelligible by you both or get the questions translated or just have a translator along with you to assist?

; '''3. Plan in advance and practice''' well
: Planning for a documentation starts with knowing your interviewee(s) well. Do some research about their language, culture, and may be a few most used phrases in their language that you can say to amaze them while interviewing them. People generally appreciate when someone alien makes an effort to speak in their language. Use a spreadsheet or even an app to have a rough and agile plan. Things might change while interviewing and you need to be prepared for the same. Also, have a plan B in case anything fails. If you’re someone who gets a [[cold feet]] while meeting a stranger, write down and practice your questions with a friend/family member or in front of a mirror.
; '''4. Know your hardware and''' software
: As you are going to rely on your recording equipment and software (''you will learn about them in the next module''), it’s important that you know well about them. ''But how well is well''? Well, as long as you know the [[Wt:ins and outs|ins and outs]] of your gears and some troubleshoot in case of emergency. For instance, if you’re planning to use your phone for the audio and video recording, check what apps are best for your workflow. It’s advisable to use apps (e.g. Filmic Pro for iOS devices) that show the audio levels on screen while recording so you know for sure that the audio is indeed being recorded.
; '''5. Keep a notebook/note-taking app to capture some important''' data
: Physical/digital note-taking while recording always helps during post-production. Also, you need to capture some metadata (''more in Module 3'') for which you can use the note or use a printed template. But please keep in mind that the noise you might make while writing might get recorded so choose your pen carefully.
; '''6. Ensure you get to record in a quiet''' place
: The most challenging aspect of any recording in a quiet place for clean audio and and well-lit place for good quality video. Check below to know what to avoid:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Noise sources !! Possible solutions
|-
| [[:w:Background noise|Ambient noise]] (Audio) ||
# Talk to the interviewee before recording to check what could be the least noisy place where you're going to record
# If you can, get a [[:w:Lavalier microphone|lavalier microphone]] (also known as ''lav mic'', ''lapel mic'', ''clip mic'', etc.) so that you get a nice clean sound as it is placed close to the interviewee's face
|-
| LED and other home electric lights (Video) || Most home lights, when captured in a camera, look flickering and disturbing. When you'll learn more about the solution for such issues in the next module, avoid home lighting and use lights that are [https://www.techsmith.com/blog/get-perfect-lighting-video/ recommended] (more [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pFg4jLfaVe0 here]) for filing if you can afford. Alternatively, if you're filming during the day, you can sit close to a window with the subject's face lit with the natural lighting.
|}

==== Interview process ====
* '''Friendliness and empathy''': The best emotion is captured when your interviewee trusts you the most. Try to be empathetic and friendly, relate to them in a human level and keep a check on their comfort level. They would open up to share something that they care about only when they think they can trust you. Trust is built over time. How do you bring it in a short interview?
* '''Ice braker questions''': You can always ask some trivial ice-breaking questions in the beginning and slowly move towards asking more personal questions.
* '''Body language''': In a physical interview, your body language matters much more than a telephonic or voice/video call. Positive body posture can entirely set the mood of the subject. So a thumb rule is be a good listener and show curiosity to learn from the interviewee. But when you're interviewing someone speaking a endangered language that is alien to you, you still can start with the same body posture. Even though you won't understand the vocabulary, being empathetic and trying to relate by observing the interview's emotional flow. You could reflect that by the right kind of camera moves.
* '''Motion is emotion''': Documenting a language is not just about placing a camera on a tripod and interview someone though that's a good starting point. But you need to capture the life of someone on the camera if you're capturing them saying about their life. If a picture means a thousand words, a video means a million! So, take some ample amount of time to shoot some [[:w:b-rolls|b-rolls]]. For instance, if your interviewee has narrated about a bedtime story during the interview, capture some relevant shots—like kids sitting around an old person, or parents with kids. B-rolls are generally short so shoot really tiny videos (30 seconds - 1 minute max.) and cover a wider range of areas because you never know where you can use them. You can use the b-rolls as [[:w:Cut_(transition)|cut shots]].

=== Module 2. Hardware and software for recording, and recording process ===
==== Audio recording ====
[[File:Home-studio recording setup for Kathabhidhana.jpg|thumb|400px|A home studio setup consisting of a computer installed with a free and open source audio recording/editing software like Audacity, a professional microphone, and a monitoring headphone. Read more in our Pronunciation Toolkit.]]
Different scenarios:
# '''Home studio''': If you're recording at home, try to create a minimal setup You need a microphone to be able to record the audio. If you can, I would suggest to record in a small home studio setup like the picture above (consists of a USB microphone, a computer, and a monitor headphone).
# '''Field recording with a recorder or phone''': The recording setup will largely vary if you are meeting someone outside your home for a field recording. In that case you will need to carry an audio recorder or a smartphone (some sort of recording app installed in it) with earphones. If you’re using a portable recorder make sure you cover the top of the mic with a soft cotton cloth or fake fur to a) avoid dust going inside, and b) the sound of the wind during outdoor recording. Use a rubber band to tighten the base and never touch the cloth/fur while recording. Mics can capture small little movements and completely distort the audio.
# '''Recording from phone''': Earphones that come with the phones generally work both for phones and computers as compared to the default microphone provided along with . However, avoid sitting in an open space as there is a high probability of a lot of noise being captured unless if you are using a shotgun microphone.
# '''Audio editing software''': If editing from a computer, [https://www.audacityteam.org/download/ Audacity], a free and open source audio editing software is the first choice for many seasoned recording artists. It is robust, easy to use and can be used in multiple platforms. If you are using your phone or tablet to record and edit the audio, then, use your native recording app or try to find a good free alternative in your respective app store. Ideally the recording/editing app should be allowing you to record in a decent lossless quality (minimum requirement is 44100 Hz, above 16 bit PCM i.e. 24 or 32 bit, above 220 kbps; check your settings to find these). Save the audio in .WAV or .FLAC (Audacity supports both). If your recorder/phone does not support these formats, try to use an app/online converter like this ([https://www.zamzar.com/convert/mp3-to-flac MP3→FLAC] or [https://zamzar.com/convert/m4a-to-flac M4A→FLAC]) to convert the audio into .FLAC.

==== Video recording ====
;Which camera to use
Frankly speaking, the video is less important here as compared to the audio. With low quality video, viewers would still be able to manage if the audio is loud and clear. So if you are keen on investing, invest on a good quality microphone that can either be connected with the camera or can be used as a secondary recorder. But do not trust your camera’s default microphone. They can literally jeopardize your hard work. As far as the camera goes, you can literally use any camera that allows you to record in a decent quality i.e. above 720p (1280×720 px)—from your phone to a point and shoot camera to a dSLR.
&lt;poem&gt;
    a) Using a camera: Use a shotgun microphone that can be connected directly into your camera so that you don’t need to invest much on audio syncing during post production.
    b) Using a phone for recording video: These days most phones come with high quality hardware that are capable of recording good video. But the real key to recording quality video in a phone lies in stabilizing the shot while recording. You can only do that by investing in a small tripod (they are generally really cheap and do the job) that can hold your phone. For this particular project, tripods will be the best. 
&lt;/poem&gt;
How to edit the videos: You need to compress the video using a free software like [http://handbrake.fr/ Handbrake], and upload that into YouTube or something similar without making it public. We will download it and ask you to delete so that you don’t have to worry about the amount of space it will take in your hard drive.

== Chapter 3: Metadata collection and publication ==
''Annotation, subtitling of audio/video, translation of transcription and other content''
Download Content Release form (editable document in [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OpenSpeaks-Content_Release_Agreement_editable_document_v.1.0_2019-05-23.odt .odt] and [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OpenSpeaks-Content_Release_Agreement_editable_document_v.1.0_2019-05-23.docx .docx], fillable form in .pdf); Metadata Documentation Sheet in [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OFDN_OpenSpeaks_-_Metadata_Documentation_Sheet_v.%201.0_2019-05-23.ods .ods], [https://github.com/OpenSpeaks/OERs/raw/master/OFDN_OpenSpeaks_-_Metadata_Documentation_Sheet_v.%201.0_2019-05-23.xlsx .xlsx])

'''Annotation''' is the process of collecting additional information that might help provide background to any particular situation. For instance, a particular alcoholic beverage in an indigenous community is offered to the local deity first before drinking. A video that shows people consuming and the subtitles/captioning with the conversation that they are having might not provide enough context. Such nuances are generally added in text or audio along with a timestamp (e.g. ''refer to 01:36: Lakshmi and Babu are showing a gesture of respect to each other before drinking &quot;rasi&quot;''). Audio/video content will surely need subtitles in largely spoken languages like English for a wider coverage. Transcriptions are generally created to have a verbatim version of the interview. Ideally, you need to work post-interview with a native speaker to create the transcription to ensure there is no loss of information in the process. However, transcription is not a easily digestible. So you need to create summaries for each section of the interview which will capture the highlights and sometimes details (for instance a game play or story).

== Chapter 4: Accessibility ==
Accessibility considerations are to ensure that everyone can access the published digital media with no/moderate hassle. The underlying principle with accessibility is ensuring that none is excluded and making conscious effort to avoid any critical issues to people with disability. Use of subtitles/captions in audio and video, using typefaces/fonts that in the visual media that have proper contrast, size and alignment considerations, and use of colors that are friendly to the eyes of people with [[:w:color blindness|color blindness]] are some of the most important consideration. To check whether the media you have published is accessible or not, you could use the below checklist.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!
!Yes/no, How to
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Recommendations
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''A. Video captioning'''
''Do your audio/video have subtitles/caption?'' 
|Yes
|[[w:Closed captioning|'''Closed captioning''']] (CC) is more preferred for web applications as the caption is not &quot;burned in&quot; (hardcoded) on the video but is displayed separately. It also helps for translation of captions if you could release it as [[w:Timed text|Timed text]] formats such as [[w:SubRip|SubRip]] (files ending with a '''.srt''' suffix).
|'''Open captioning''' means that the captions appear as images that are &quot;burned in&quot; on the video. You can only watch it whereas you can select different language versions available in case of Closed captioning.
|-
|No
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Adding captions to videos is a very essential requirement when it comes to linguistic documentation. There are many ways to add captions. For computers, a highly recommended software is [http://www.aegisub.org/ Aegisub] ([http://docs.aegisub.org/ user manual]) as it supports all major platforms (Windows, Mac and other Unix operating systems). Many modern video editors also support captioning. If you are collaborating with remote translators then [https://amara.org/en/videos/create/ Amara] is a recommended option. It is an Open Source video subtitling platform (learn how to use it from [https://amara.org/en/subtitling-platform/#free-platform here]). Popular platforms like [https://archive.org/ Internet Archive], [https://archive.org/ Vimeo] and [https://youtube.org/ YouTube] are supported on Amara. YouTube also supports an in-built [https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2734796?hl=en Closed Captioning]. We strongly recommend the comprehensive guides that BBC has created (short version here, long version [https://bbc.github.io/subtitle-guidelines here]) to learn how to create accessible captioning.
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''B. Audio/video transcriptions'''
''Do you upload a transcription file separately along with your audio documentations?''
|Yes
|'''Verbatim transcriptions''' often retain stutters and fillers such as &quot;''umm..''&quot;, &quot;''hmm..''&quot; that are a part of human speech. As the primary purpose of transcriptions is accessibility, verbatim transcriptions help.
|'''Non-verbatim''' transcriptions either omit stutters and fillers entirely or they are replaced with explanatory text. You might have seen in (English-language) movie subtitles how they write [MUSIC]&lt;ref group=&quot;A&quot;&gt;''The vocabulary, format and style for transcriptions vary from platform to platform. For instance, some use &lt;code&gt;[NAME OF SONG IN BACKGROUND]&lt;/code&gt; whereas others use icons such as &lt;code&gt;♬ NAME OF SONG IN BACKGROUND ♬&lt;/code&gt; for representing the same thing.''&lt;/ref&gt; when there is a background music playing. Similarly, you can use different explanatory texts based on the context. (''see below for how to transcribe'')
|-
|How to
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Please see the [https://www.w3.org/WAI/media/av/transcripts/ Transcripts] resource page on W3C for more recommendations. [https://www.w3.org/WAI/media/av/transcribing/ Here] is a step-by-step guide to create audio-to-text transcription that might be useful in some cases.
|-
|No
|'''Written languages''': You must consider adding transcriptions to your audio and video. Simply put, transcriptions the text version of what is heard in an audio or video. They are very essential for people with full/partial blindness as they use screen reader software to convert text into audio and listen to the audio version to be able to access the content. Transcriptions are also helpful when a particular word is not very clearly pronounced. It is important to note that many written languages might not have yet a speech synthesis software but language documentations have a long lifeline. So, if you transcribe today and upload the transcription, it might be useful some day. It is often uploaded separately as a text file along with an audio file. YouTube shows the transcription separately when the option is selected on the right side of the video (only when the video is captioned). 
|'''Spoken/oral languages''': As oral languages do not have a writing system, you might consider translating the content first into a well known language that is relevant in your context, and make the transcription available.
|-
|'''C. Color contrast'''
|How to
|{{font color|white|black|High contrast}} text is easily readable by people with low vision. So, it is always preferred over any aesthetics corrections. In your titles/captions, credits in the case of videos, documents shared along with audio/video, and web displays (websites, blogs, articles), try to use {{font color|yellow|blue|high contrast}} text.
|Extremely '''light-shaded text''' over a light-shaded background (e.g. grey over a sky background {{font color|#F2F3F3|#80BEF6| like this }}) are hard to read for many.
|}

== Additional information ==

=== Self declaration ===
The authors self-identify as dominant-caste and cis-gender male individuals India's discriminatory Hindu [[w:Caste system in India|caste system]]. Generally speaking, such individuals have historically received through that system the most amount of privileges irrespective of their political stands or understanding of social justice. The authors would further like to acknowledge that their personal socioeconomic privileges, in which the caste system plays a large role, have resulted in their early and wider access to the internet, fluency in English and access to a range of other resources. These access/privileges resulting in their early entrance into the open knowledge movement such as Wikipedia/Wikimedia projects, and even affordability for volunteer participation in such movements. The authors are aware that they have been benefitted in their own respective lives from the existing discriminations of the caste system, patriarchy, neocolonial practices of their own majoritarian community, and different forms of sociocultural systems.

=== Acknowledgements ===
OpenSpeaks has been enriched from a range of major projects, readings and interactions. It might not be possible to attribute all in a chronological order but some of the individuals and organizations include, but is not limited to: 
* Indigenous communities: Santali community (specifically Ramjit Tudu, [[User:R Ashwani Banjan Murmu|R Ashwani Banjan Murmu]], [[User:Fagu Baskey|Fagu Baskey]] and [[User:Joy sagar Murmu|Joy sagar Murmu]]); Bonda community of Bandhuguda, Malkangiri district, Odisha, India; Ho community of Keshpada, Mayurbhanj district, Odisha, India; Kusunda, Tharu and Magar communities of Kulmor, Dang district, Nepal; Gutob community of Tukum, Koraput district, Odisha, India
* Civil society partners/donors: Eddie Avila and [http://rising.globalvoices.org/ Rising Voices][[:w:Global Voices|Global Voices]], [[:w:Creative Commons|Creative Commons]], [[:w:National Geographic Society|National Geographic Society]], [[:w:Mozilla|Mozilla]] [https://mozilla.github.io/leadership-training/round-4/projects/#openspeaks Open Leadership Series], [https://journalists.org/2017/09/06/meet-onas-2017-mj-bear-fellows-30-digital-journalism-stand-outs/ MJ Bear Fellowship 2017, Online News Association], [[:m:WhoseKnowledge?|WhoseKnowledge?]], UNESCO, [[:w:Centre for Internet and Society (India)|Centre for Internet and Society (India)]], Adivasi Lives Matter, Digital Empowerment Foundation
* Other communities and conference: Wikimedians from around the world, particularly during Wikimania 2017, 2018 and 2019, Celtic Knot Conference 2018 and 2019; Creative Commons Global Summit 2019 and 2020; Internet Governance Forum, Mozilla Festival 2021; National Geographic Citizen Science Workshop 2018; two TEDx talks
* The Chapter &quot;Chapter 1: Consent, Content Rights and Content Licensing&quot; was created and expanded with a grant from Creative Commons. More [https://theofdn.org/openspeaks/content-update-2020/ details] in this page.

=== Competing interests ===
The author has no competing interest.

=== Ethics statement ===
This project draws direct/indirect learning from documentary films &quot;Gyani Maiya&quot; (2019), &quot;Mage Porob&quot; (2019) and &quot;Remosam&quot; (2019) that were made in collaboration respectively with the Kusunda community of Nepal, and Ho community and Bonda community of India. The participating individual members of these communities were interviewed with consent abided by the consent guidelines outlined in this project and the National Geographic Society release. Traditional community ethics were abided in all places while working together with indigenous groups and a high standard of moral and ethical standard was adhered to otherwise.

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=A}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}</text>
      <sha1>s6rl02yklr3iaf2cntev2pqlz8lkk1k</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal of Medicine/History of penicillin</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>275146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409339</id>
      <parentid>2379353</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T00:29:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobamnertiopsis</username>
        <id>24451</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>+dois where available</comment>
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      <text bytes="114870" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Kholhring
| last1 = Lalchhandama
| correspondence1 = 
| orcid1 = 0000-0001-9135-2703
| affiliation1 = Department of Life Sciences, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl, India
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| correspondence = chhandama@pucollege.edu.in
| submitted = 6/20/2021
| accepted = 10/22/2021
| w1 = History of penicillin
| et_al = true
| license = 
| abstract = The history of penicillin was shaped by the contributions of numerous scientists. The ultimate result was the discovery of the  [[w:Mold (fungus)|mould]] [[w:Penicillium|''Penicillium's'']] antibacterial activity and the subsequent development of [[w:penicillins|penicillins]], the most widely used  [[w:antibiotics|antibiotics]]. Following an accidental discovery of the mould, later identified as ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|Penicillium rubens]]'', as the source of the antibacterial principle (1928) and the production of a pure compound (1942), penicillin became the first naturally derived antibiotic. There  is  anecdotal  evidence  of  ancient societies  using  moulds  to  treat infections and of awareness that various moulds inhibited bacterial growth. However, it is not clear if ''Penicillium'' species were the species traditionally used or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin. In 1928, [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] was the first to discover the antibacterial substance secreted by the ''Penicillium'' mould and concentrate the active substance involved, giving it the name penicillin. His success in treating Harry Lambert's streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]], an infection until then fatal, proved to be a critical moment in the medical use of penicillin. Many later scientists were involved in the stabilisation and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of ''Penicillium''. Among the most important were  [[w:Ernst Chain|Ernst Chain]] and [[w:Howard Florey|Howard Florey]], who shared with Fleming the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]].
| keywords = Antibiotic, bacteria, infection, penicillin, ''Penicillium''
}}

==Early history==
[[file:Penicillin core.svg|thumb|The core structure of penicillin, where R is a variable group; the central &quot;square&quot; structure is the β-lactam ring, which is the key component for destruction of bacterial cell walls. {{attrib|[[w:User:Yikrazuul|Yikrazuul]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]]
Penicillin (Figure 1) is the second antibiotic and the first naturally-occurring antibiotic discovered.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Aminov|first=Rustam I.|date=2010|title=A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21687759|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|volume=1|pages=134|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134|pmc=3109405|pmid=21687759}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first antibiotic discovered was arsphenamine, marketed as [[w:Salvarsan|Salvarsan]], by German physician [[w:Paul Ehrlich|Paul Ehrlich]] and his Japanese assistant [[w:Sahachiro Hata|Sahachiro Hata]] in 1909.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4|title=Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen|last=Ehrlich|first=Paul|last2=Hata|first2=S.|date=1910|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-642-64911-0|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=1-178|language=German|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-64926-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; It was a modified compound of a highly toxic chemical [[w:Arsenic|arsenic]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=K. J.|date=2009|title=The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19679737|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=102|issue=8|pages=343–348|doi=10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036|pmc=2726818|pmid=19679737}}&lt;/ref&gt; that was used for the treatment of sexually transmitted bacterial (''[[w:Treponema pallidum|Treponema pallidum]]'') infection or [[syphilis]], and became the most commonly prescribed drug in the early 20th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Swain|first=K.|date=2018|title='Extraordinarily arduous and fraught with danger': syphilis, Salvarsan, and general paresis of the insane|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29866584|journal=The Lancet Psychiatry|volume=5|issue=9|pages=702–703|doi=10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30221-9|pmid=29866584}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, it was overshadowed by penicillin, a safer and more efficacious antibiotic, that was effective against a wide range of [[w:Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive bacteria]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Park|first=J. T.|last2=Strominger|first2=J. L.|date=1957|title=Mode of action of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13390969|journal=Science|volume=125|issue=3238|pages=99–101|doi=10.1126/science.125.3238.99|pmid=13390969}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as [[w:Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]] ''T. pallidum''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Clement|first=Meredith E.|last2=Okeke|first2=N. Lance|last3=Hicks|first3=Charles B.|date=2014-11-12|title=Treatment of syphilis: a systematic review|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25387188|journal=JAMA|volume=312|issue=18|pages=1905–1917|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.13259|issn=1538-3598|pmc=6690208|pmid=25387188}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Traditional curative practices preceded the discovery of penicillin as a component of the mould ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' (from the [[Latin]] word ''penicillum'', meaning &quot;painter's brush&quot;).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ji|first=Hong-Fang|last2=Li|first2=Xue-Juan|last3=Zhang|first3=Hong-Yu|date=2009|title=Natural products and drug discovery. Can thousands of years of ancient medical knowledge lead us to new and powerful drug combinations in the fight against cancer and dementia?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229284|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=10|issue=3|pages=194–200|doi=10.1038/embor.2009.12|pmc=2658564|pmid=19229284}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient Egypt, Greece and India were aware of the curative properties of fungi and plants in treating bacterial [[w:infection|infections]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |title=History of Antibiotics &amp;#124; Steps of the Scientific Method, Research and Experiments |publisher=Experiment-Resources.com |access-date=2012-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806090931/http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-antibiotics.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; as shown by the 16th-century BCE record of a Greek king of the use of bread moulds by a woman healer to treat wounded soldiers. Around the same time, Chinese traditional practitioners used moulds from soya bean for wound infections.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|jstor=1260294}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal [[w:spore|spore]]s) to treat wounds, a technique mentioned by [[w:Henryk Sienkiewicz|Henryk Sienkiewicz]] in his 1884 book ''[[w:With Fire and Sword|With Fire and Sword]]''. In 1640, the idea of using mould as a form of medical treatment was recorded by English apothecaries such as [[w:John Parkinson (botanist)|John Parkinson]], royal botanist to [[w:Charles I|Charles I]], who described the use of certain mould (possibly ''Penicillium'') in his book on [[w:pharmacology|pharmacology]] ''Theatrum Botanicum'' (''The Botanical Theatre'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Cranch|first=A. G.|date=1943|title=Early use of Penicillin (?)|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=123|issue=15|pages=990|doi=10.1001/jama.1943.02840500054025|issn=0002-9955}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gould|first=Kate|date=2016|title=Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273/|journal=The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|volume=71|issue=3|pages=572–575|doi=10.1093/jac/dkv484|pmid=26851273|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; One of the common practices for treating [[w:Impetigo|impetigo]] (an infection due to the bacterium ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'') was mould therapy using moulds obtained from bread and [[w:Porridge|porridge]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|last2=Rally|first2=Louise|last3=Ali|first3=Tasneem Adam|date=1992|title=The scientific basis of mould therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X09805879|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=108–110|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(09)80587-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; A Canadian biologist A. E. Cliffe provided a vivid description:&lt;blockquote&gt;It was during a visit through central Europe in 1908 that I came across the fact that almost every farmhouse followed the practice of keeping a mouldy loaf on one of the beams in the kitchen. When I asked the reason for this I was told that this was an old custom and that when any member of the family received an injury such as a cut or bruise, a thin slice from the outside of the loaf was cut off, mixed into a paste with water and applied to the wound with a bandage. It was assumed that no infection would result from such a cut.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|title=From Ethnomycology to Fungal Biotechnology|last=Singh|first=Jagjit|date=1999|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4613-7182-3|editor-last=Singh|editor-first=Jagjit|location=Boston, MA|pages=11–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-4815-7_2|editor-last2=Aneja|editor-first2=K. R.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;One of the most detailed medical narratives was how Brenda Ward (''née'' Whitnear) was cured of her facial impetigo in 1929. After treating an eight-year-old Brenda with all possible medications available, the family physician James Twomey resorted to traditional practice and advised the mother to prepare a starch paste. The paste was was left in the pantry kept at the cellar head for several days until it became very mouldy. It was then applied on the girl's face as an ointment for over a week until she was completely healed.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt; There is no written record of the treatment except for the receipt of the consultation fee. Ward recalled that the mould initially appeared yellow in colour, grew into bronze colour, and finally turned into blue-green colonies, which indicates it was either ''Penicillium'' or ''[[w:Aspergillus|Aspergillus]].'' Based on Ward's description, in 1989, British microbiologist [[w:Milton Wainright|Milton Wainright]] concluded that most likely the mould was ''Penicillum'' due the growth pattern and antibacterial activity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X89800102|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=21–23|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Traditional treatments often worked because numerous organisms, including many species of moulds, naturally produce [[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]] substances. However, it was not until recently that practitioners were able to identify or isolate the active components in these organisms.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hutchings|first=Matthew I.|last2=Truman|first2=Andrew W.|last3=Wilkinson|first3=Barrie|date=2019|title=Antibiotics: past, present and future|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=51|pages=72–80|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008|pmid=31733401|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Early scientific evidence===
The modern history of penicillin research began in earnest in the 1870s in the United Kingdom. [[w:John Scott Burdon-Sanderson|Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson]], physiologist and lecturer at St. Mary's Hospital, observed that [[w:microbiological culture|culture]] fluid covered with mould inhibited [[w:bacteria|bacteria]]l growth in his experiments on [[w:Spontaneous generation|spontaneous generation]] in 1870.&lt;ref&gt;Queener, Sherry; Webber, J. Alan; Queener, Stephen; eds. (1986).  [https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Beta_Lactam_Antibiotics_for_Clinical_Use/d-vSwAEACAAJ?hl=en ''Beta-lactam Antibiotics for Clinical Use'',] Informa Health Care, {{ISBN|0824773861}}, p. 4. [Refers to : J. B. Sanderson. Appendix No 5. &quot; Further report of researches concerning the intimate pathology of contagion. The origin and distribution of microzymes (bacteria) in water, and the circumstances which determine their existence in the tissue and liquids of the living body &quot;. 13th Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council [John Simon], with Appendix, 1870. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1871, pp. 56–66; reprinted in [http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/s2-11/44/323 ''Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science'', n. ser., XI, 1871, pp. 323–352].]&lt;/ref&gt; His reports in 1871 described: &lt;blockquote&gt;On October 10 glass a was turbid, and was found on microscopical examination to be teeming with bacteria; a thick whitish scum had formed on its surface. Glass h was perfectly clear; there were, however, great numbers of torula [a type of yeast] cells on its surface, but no bacteria. On October 12 6 exhibited numerous tufts of penicillium, but the liquid still remained limpid and free from bacteria.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Burdon-Sanderson|first=(John)|date=1871|title=Memoirs: The Origin and Distribution of Microzymes (Bacteria) in Water, and the Circumstances which determine their Existence in the Tissues and Liquids of the Living Body|url=https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323|journal=Journal of Cell Science|volume=s2-11|issue=44|pages=323–352|doi=10.1242/jcs.s2-11.44.323}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Efn|Unlike his predecessor scientists such as Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur who had experimentally rebutted spontaneous generation, Burdon-Sanderson went further by specifically identifying the types of microbes as bacteria, microzyme, fungi, torula, and ''Penicillium'', including the differences in their growth pattern. His experiment on 11 November 1870 reads: &quot;At the same date all the glasses showed tufts of penicillium; those on 3 and 5 were more advanced than the rest... the liquid in 5 was found to be perfectly limpid and free from microzymes (referring to bacteria).&quot;}}  &lt;/blockquote&gt;From his experiments, Burdon-Sanderson believed that decomposition or putrefaction was caused by bacteria, and not by moulds. He applied the ''Penicillium'' mould on dissected thigh muscles from a guinea pig and left them in bell jars. After two weeks tissues in sterilised jars and with ''Penicillium'' mould did not show signs of rotting. These experiments indicate that the mould had antibacterial activity, but Burdon-Sanderson failed to notice the importance of this finding.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Selwyn|first=S.|date=1979|title=Pioneer work on the ‘penicillin phenomenon’, 1870–1876|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/jac/5.3.249|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1093/jac/5.3.249}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted [[w:Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], an English surgeon and the father of modern [[w:antisepsis|antisepsis]], to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mould also prevented the growth of bacteria.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Majno|first=Guido|last2=Joris|first2=Isabelle|date=1979|title=Billroth and Penicillium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4452384|journal=Reviews of Infectious Diseases|volume=1|issue=5|pages=880–884|doi=10.1093/clinids/1.5.880}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lister identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium glaucum|Penicillium glaucum]]'' and found that most bacteria could not grow alongside this mould.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lister|first=Joseph|date=1875|title=XVI.— A Contribution to the Germ Theory of Putrefaction and other Fermentative Changes, and to the Natural History of Torulæ and Bacteria|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0080456800026004/type/journal_article|journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=313–344|doi=10.1017/S0080456800026004}}&lt;/ref&gt; He also described the antibacterial action of the mould on human tissue.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; In 1877, he treated Ellen Jones, a nurse at [[w:King's College Hospital|King's College Hospital]], whose wounds did not respond to any traditional antiseptic. The nurse was cured when a crude extract of ''P. glaucum'' culture was applied to her wounds. Uncertain of the nature and effect of the mould, Lister did not published his observations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; 

In 1873, Welsh physician [[w:William Roberts (physician)|William Roberts]], who later coined the term &quot;[[w:enzyme|enzyme]]&quot;, also conducted experiments on spontaneous generation and observed that glass tubes were easily contaminated by airborne bacteria and moulds.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443/|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}&lt;/ref&gt; In his 1874 report in the ''[[w:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'', he stated: &quot;I have repeatedly observed that liquids in which the ''Penicillum glaucum'' was growing luxuriantly could with difficulty be artificially infected with ''Bacteria''; it seemed, in fact, as if this fungus played the part of the plants in an aquarium, and held in check the growth of ''Bacteria,'' with their attendant putrefactive changes.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=W.|date=1874|title=Studies on biogenesis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/109106|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|volume=164|pages=457–477|doi=10.1098/rstl.1874.0012}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is regarded as &quot;the first unequivocal published statement&quot; on antibacterial activity of any substance.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; 

[[w:John Tyndall|John Tyndall]], professor of physics at the [[w:Royal Institution of Great Britain|Royal Institution of Great Britain]], followed up on Roberts's work on refutation of spontaneous generation and demonstrated in 1875 the antibacterial action of the ''P. glaucum''. His report, read before the Royal Society in 1876 (and published as a monograph in 1881),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Doetsch|first=R. N.|date=1963|title=Studies on biogenesis by Sir William Roberts|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14028366|journal=Medical History|volume=7|pages=232–240|doi=10.1017/s0025727300028374|pmc=1034828|pmid=14028366}}&lt;/ref&gt; stated:&lt;blockquote&gt;[The] two most actively charged tubes were in part crowned by beautiful tufts of Penicilllum Glaucum. This expanded gradually until it covered the entire surface with a thick tough layer, which must have seriously intercepted the oxygen necessary to the Bacterial life. The bacteria lost their translatory power, fell to the bottom, and left the liquid between them and the superficial layer clear.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Landsberg|first=H.|date=1949|title=Prelude to the discovery of penicillin|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/227238|journal=Isis|volume=40|issue=3|pages=225–227|doi=10.1086/349043}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In 1876, German biologist [[w:Robert Koch|Robert Koch]] discovered that ''[[w:Bacillus anthracis|Bacillus anthracis]]'' was the causative pathogen of [[w:anthrax|anthrax]];&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1876|others=Robert Koch-Institut|title=Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis|trans-title=The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5139|journal=Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|issue=2|pages=277 (1–22)|doi=10.25646/5064}}&lt;/ref&gt; it was the first time a specific bacterium was proved to cause a specific disease, and the first direct evidence of the [[w:Germ theory of diseases|germ theory of diseases]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lakhtakia|first=Ritu|date=2014|title=The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=e37–41|doi=10.12816/0003334|pmc=3916274|pmid=24516751}}&lt;/ref&gt; A year later, French biologists [[w:Louis Pasteur|Louis Pasteur]] and Jules Francois Joubert observed that, when contaminated with moulds, cultures of the anthrax bacilli could be successfully inhibited.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Sharma|first=G.|date=2016|title=La Moisissure et la Bactérie: Deconstructing the fable of the discovery of penicillin by Ernest Duchesne|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/21810|journal=Endeavour|volume=40|issue=3|pages=188–200|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2016.07.005|pmid=27496372|vauthors=Shama G}}&lt;/ref&gt; They reported their findings in the ''Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Neutral or slightly alkaline urine is an excellent medium for the bacteria... But if when the urine is inoculated with these bacteria an aerobic organism, for example one of the &quot;common bacteria,&quot; is sown at the same time, the anthrax bacterium makes little or no growth and sooner or later dies out altogether. It is a remarkable thing that the same phenomenon is seen in the body even of those animals most susceptible to anthrax, leading to the astonishing result that anthrax bacteria can be introduced in profusion into an animal, which yet does not develop the disease; it is only necessary to add some &quot;common 'bacteria&quot; at the same time to the liquid containing the suspension of anthrax bacteria. These facts perhaps justify the highest hopes for therapeutics.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=Howard W.|date=1946|title=The Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2602034/|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=19|issue=1|pages=101–118.1|pmc=2602034|pmid=20275724}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;The phenomenon was described by Pasteur and Koch as antibacterial activity and was named as &quot;antibiosis&quot; by French biologist [[w:Jean Paul Vuillemin|Jean Paul Vuillemin]] in 1877&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Foster|first=W.|last2=Raoult|first2=A.|date=1974|title=Early descriptions of antibiosis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4618289|journal=The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners|volume=24|issue=149|pages=889–894|pmc=2157443|pmid=4618289}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Brunel|first=J.|date=1951|title=Antibiosis from Pasteur to Fleming|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14873929|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=287–301|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.287|pmid=14873929}}&lt;/ref&gt; (the term antibiosis, meaning &quot;against life&quot;, was adopted as &quot;[[w:antibiotic|antibiotic]]&quot; by American biologist and later Nobel laureate [[w:Selman Waksman|Selman Waksman]] in 1947&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Waksman|first=S. A.|date=1947|title=What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20264541|journal=Mycologia|volume=39|issue=5|pages=565–569|doi=10.1080/00275514.1947.12017635|pmid=20264541}}&lt;/ref&gt;). It has also been asserted that Pasteur identified the mould as ''[[w:Penicillium notatum|Penicillium notatum]]''. However, [[w:Paul de Kruif|Paul de Kruif]]'s 1926 ''Microbe Hunters'' disagrees, describing this incident as contamination by other bacteria rather than by mould.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Kruif|first=Paul De|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?redir_esc=y&amp;id=pH24vLpivRgC&amp;q|title=Microbe Hunters|date=1996|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-15-602777-9|location=Florida (USA)|pages=144|language=en|quote=At once Pasteur jumped to a fine idea: &quot;If the harmless bugs from the air choke out the anthrax bacilli in the bottle, they will do it in the body too! It is a kind of dog-eat-dog!” shouted Pasteur, (...) Pasteur gravely announced: &quot;That there were high hopes for the cure of disease from this experiment&quot;, but that is the last you hear of it, for Pasteur was never a man to give the world of science the benefit of studying his failures.|orig-year=1926}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ten years later, in 1887, Swiss physician [[w:Carl Garré|Carl Alois Philipp Garré]] developed a test method using glass plate to see bacterial inhibition and found similar results.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt; Using a gelatin-based culture plate, he grew two different bacteria and found that their growths were inhibited differently; and reported:&lt;blockquote&gt;I inoculated on the untouched cooled [gelatin] plate alternate parallel strokes of ''B. fluorescens'' [''[[w:Pseudomonas fluorescens|Pseudomonas fluorescens]]''] and ''Staph. pyogenes'' [''[[w:Streptococcus pyogenes|Streptococcus pyogenes]]'' ]... B. fluorescens grew more quickly... [This] is not a question of overgrowth or crowding out of one by another quicker-growing species, as in a garden where luxuriantly growing weeds kill the delicate plants. Nor is it due to the utilization of the available foodstuff by the more quickly growing organisms, rather there is an antagonism caused by the secretion of specific, easily diffusible substances which are inhibitory to the growth of some species but completely ineffective against others.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;At the [[w:University of Naples|University of Naples]], in 1895, physician [[w:Vincenzo Tiberio|Vincenzo Tiberio]] published his research about moulds initially found in a water well in [[w:Arzano|Arzano]].&lt;ref&gt;Tiberio, Vincenzo (1895) [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA24 &quot;Sugli estratti di alcune muffe&quot;] [On the extracts of certain moulds], ''Annali d'Igiene Sperimentale'' (Annals of Experimental Hygiene), 2nd series, '''5''' : 91–103.  [https://books.google.com/books?id=LNg1AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA28#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false From p. 95:]  ''&quot;Risulta chiaro da queste osservazioni che nella sostanza cellulare delle muffe esaminate son contenuti dei principi solubili in acqua, forniti di azione battericida:  sotto questo riguardo sono più attivi o in maggior copia quelli dell' ''Asp. flavescens'', meno quelli del ''Mu. mucedo'' e del ''Penn. glaucum''.&quot;''  (It follows clearly from these observations that in the cellular substance of the moulds examined are contained some water-soluble substances, provided with bactericidal action:  in this respect are more active or in greater abundance those of ''Aspergillus flavescens''; less, those of ''Mucor mucedo'' and ''Penicillium glaucum''.)&lt;/ref&gt; He noticed that whenever the moulds on the wall of the well was cleaned, many people had abdominal pain due to infection ([[w:Enteritis|enteritis]]), which was unheard of when the well was mouldy. He believed that there was a link between the infection and the mould.&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Perciaccante|first=Antonio|last2=Coralli|first2=Alessia|last3=Lippi|first3=Donatella|last4=Appenzeller|first4=Otto|last5=Bianucci|first5=Raffaella|date=2019|title=Vincenzo Tiberio (1869-1915) and the dawn of the antibiotic age|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31154612|journal=Internal and Emergency Medicine|volume=14|issue=8|pages=1363–1364|doi=10.1007/s11739-019-02116-1|pmid=31154612}}&lt;/ref&gt; After identifying different moulds from the well, he found that ''Penicilium'' and ''Aspergillus'' could kill certain bacteria including ''[[w:Vibrio cholerae|Vibrio cholerae]]'', and some staphylococci strains.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bucci|first=Roberto|last2=Galli|first2=P.|date=2011|title=Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher|url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.897.8253&amp;rep=rep1&amp;type=pdf|journal=Italian Journal of Public Health|language=en|volume=8|issue=4|pages=404–406}}&lt;/ref&gt; From his observations, he concluded that these moulds contained soluble substances having antibacterial action.&lt;ref&gt;Bucci R., Galli P. (2011) [http://ijphjournal.it/article/view/5688/5424 &quot;Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher,&quot;] ''Italian Journal of Public Health'', '''8''' (4) : 404–406. (Accessed 1 May 2015)&lt;/ref&gt; However, his findings did not receive any attention until the discovery of penicillin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot; /&gt;

[[file:Penicillium rubens (Fleming's strain).png|thumb|Fleming's mould, ''Penicillium rubens'' CBS 205.57. A–C. Colonies 7 d old 25 °C. A. CYA. B. MEA. C. YES. D–H. Condiophores. I. Conidia. Bars = 10 µm. {{attrib|[https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]]
French medical student [[w:Ernest Duchesne|Ernest Duchesne]] at École du Service de Santé Militaire (Military Service Health School) in Lyon independently discovered the healing properties of ''P. glaucum.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kyle|first=R. A.|date=2005|title=Five decades of therapy for multiple myeloma: a paradigm for therapeutic models|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15800669|journal=Leukemia|volume=19|issue=6|pages=910–912|doi=10.1038/sj.leu.2403728|pmid=15800669}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was able to grow the mould on pieces of moist food. When he mixed the mould with the bacterium ''[[w:Escherichia coli|Escherichia coli]]'', he found that the bacteria did not grow, and when he injected the mould juice into guinea pigs experimentally inoculated with [[w:typhoid|typhoid]] bacteria (''[[w:Salmonella enterica|Salmonella enterica]]''), the animals never developed the disease.&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cIZpyNvjvdcC&amp;newbks=0&amp;hl|title=Explorers of the Body: Dramatic Breakthroughs in Medicine from Ancient Times to Modern Science|last=Lehrer|first=Steven|date=2006|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595407316|edition=2|location=Lincoln, Nebraska|pages=331-332|language=en|orig-year=1979}}&lt;/ref&gt; He described the experiment in his 1897 doctoral dissertation titled ''Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les microorganismes'' (''Contribution to the study of vital competition between microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes'') submitted to the [[w:Pasteur Institute|Pasteur Institute]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8UAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA1|title=Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes : antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes|last=Duchesne|first=E|vauthors=Duchesne E|date=1897|publisher=Alexandre Rey|location=Lyon, France|language=fr|trans-title=Contribution to the study of the vital competition in microorganisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Pouillard|first=Jean|title=Une découverte oubliée : la thèse de médecine du docteur Ernest Duchesne (1874–1912)|trans-title=A Forgotten Discovery : Doctor of Medicine Ernest Duchesne's Thesis (1874-1912)|url=http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|journal=Histoire des Sciences Médicales|language=fr|volume=XXXVI|issue=1|pages=11–20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713144835/http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/sfhm/hsm/HSMx2002x036x001/HSMx2002x036x001x0011.pdf|archive-date=13 July 2019|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unfortunately, his discovery was ignored by the institute and soon forgotten. It was not until 50 years later when a librarian found the thesis, once penicillin had already been discovered.&lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbO4CQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA231|title=Natural Products in the Chemical Industry|last1=Schaefer|first1=B.|date=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783642544613|page=231|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-54461-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Duchesne could not continue his experiments due to a severe illness (believed to be [[w:Tuberculosis|tuberculosis]]) he contracted five years later. He died in 1912 while serving in the French Army.&lt;ref name=&quot;:26&quot; /&gt; He was himself using moulds to treat horses, a method learned from Arab stable boys to cure animals' sores; but he did not claim that the mould contained any antibacterial substance, only that it somehow protected the animals.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; His conclusion was nonetheless prognostic, stating that competition between bacteria and moulds could be useful in the medical management of infections.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duckett|first=S.|date=1999|title=Ernest Duchesne and the concept of fungal antibiotic therapy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673699031621|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9195|pages=2068–2071|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(99)03162-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Penicillin does not cure typhoid as it is ineffective against most Gram-negative bacteria&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080912837001053|title=Comprehensive Natural Products Chemistry|last=Luengo|first=José M.|date=1999|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-091283-7|editor-last=Barton|editor-first=D.|pages=239–274|language=en|chapter=Enzymatic Synthesis of Penicillins|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-091283-7.00105-3|editor-last2=Nakanishi|editor-first2=K.|editor-last3=Meth-Cohn|editor-first3=O.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and so it remains unknown which substance might have been responsible for Duchesne's cure.{{efn|At the time, the term ''Penicillium glaucum'' was used as a catch-all phrase for a variety of different fungi, though not for ''Penicillium notatum''. Duchesne's specific mold was unfortunately not preserved, which makes it impossible to be certain today which fungus might have been responsible for the cure and, consequently, even less certain which specific antibacterial substance was responsible.}} A similar antibiotic effect of ''Penicillium'' was recorded in 1923 by [[w:Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]n [[w:Clodomiro Picado Twight|Clodomiro Picado Twight]], a Pasteur Institute scientist. In these early stages of penicillin research, most species of ''[[w:Penicillium|Penicillium]]'' were non-specifically referred to as ''P. glaucum'', so that it is impossible to know the exact species and that it was really penicillin that prevented bacterial growth.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;

The first to discover and isolate an antibiotic compound from ''Penicillium'' was an Italian physician [[w:Bartolomeo Gosio|Bartolomeo Gosio]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Johan T.|date=2009|title=The First Discoverers of Penicillin and of its Application in Therapy|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x|journal=Acta Medica Scandinavica|language=en|volume=126|issue=1|pages=60–64|doi=10.1111/j.0954-6820.1946.tb19000.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gosio was investigating [[w:Pellagra|pellagra]], which at the time was a common disease in southern Europe and America. It was known that the staple food of people having the disease was corn, and fungal contamination of corn was regarded as the source (American biochemist [[w:Conrad Elvehjem|Conrad Elvehjem]] would identify in 1937 its aetiology as the deficiency of [[w:Niacin|niacin]] or vitamin B&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elvehjem|first=C. A.|date=1940|title=Relation of nicotinic acid to pellagra|url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249|journal=Physiological Reviews|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=249–271|doi=10.1152/physrev.1940.20.2.249}}&lt;/ref&gt;) In 1893, Gosio identified the mould ''[[w:Penicillium brevicompactum|Penicillium brevicompactum]]'' as one possible cause,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sydenstricker|first=V. P.|date=1958|title=The history of pellagra, its recognition as a disorder of nutrition and its conquest|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13559167|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=6|issue=4|pages=409–414|doi=10.1093/ajcn/6.4.409|pmid=13559167}}&lt;/ref&gt; developed a simple culture method to make pure culture extract in crystalline form.&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/82_2016_499|title=How to Overcome the Antibiotic Crisis|last=Mohr|first=Kathrin I.|date=2016|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-49282-7|editor-last=Stadler|editor-first=Marc|volume=398|location=Cham|pages=237–272|chapter=History of Antibiotics Research|doi=10.1007/82_2016_499|editor-last2=Dersch|editor-first2=Petra}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1896, he tested the substance on anthrax bacillus and found that it was highly potent against the bacteria.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTXooAEACAAJ&amp;newbks=0&amp;hl=en|title=Ricerche batteriologiche e chimiche sulle alterazioni del mais: contributo all'etiologia della pellagra|last=Gosio|first=Bartolomeo|date=1896|publisher=Tip. delle mantellate|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=Kyriacos C.|last2=Rigol|first2=Stephan|date=2018|title=A brief history of antibiotics and select advances in their synthesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28676714|journal=The Journal of Antibiotics|volume=71|issue=2|pages=153–184|doi=10.1038/ja.2017.62|pmid=28676714}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nonetheless, his discovery was largely forgotten as the substance was found not to be the cause of pellagra, and its medicinal potential was not obvious. American scientists, Carl Alsberg and Otis Fisher Black resynthesized Gosio's substance in 1912 giving it the name [[w:Mycophenolic acid|mycophenolic acid]], which is now used as an [[w:Immunosuppressant|immunosuppressant]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Halle|first=Mahesh B.|last2=Lee|first2=Woohyun|last3=Yudhistira|first3=Tesla|last4=Kim|first4=Myungseob|last5=Churchill|first5=David G.|date=2019|title=Mycophenolic Acid: Biogenesis, Compound Isolation, Biological Activity, and Historical Advances in Total Synthesis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/ejoc.201900245|journal=European Journal of Organic Chemistry|language=en|volume=2019|issue=13|pages=2315–2334|doi=10.1002/ejoc.201900245}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1924, Andre Gratia and Sara Dath at the [[w:Free University of Brussels (1834–1969)|Free University of Brussels]], Belgium, found that dead ''[[w:Staphylococcus aureus|Staphylococcus aureus]]'' cultures were contaminated by a mould, a [[w:streptomycete|streptomycete]]. On further experimentation, they showed that the mould extract could kill not only ''S. aureus'', but also ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[w:Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' and ''Escherichia coli''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=2000|title=André Gratia (1893–1950): Forgotten Pioneer of Research into Antimicrobial Agents|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/096777200000800108|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=39–42|doi=10.1177/096777200000800108|pmid=11608911|s2cid=43285911}}&lt;/ref&gt; Gratia called the antibacterial agent &quot;mycolysate&quot; (killer mould). The next year they found another killer mould that could inhibit anthrax bacterium (''B. anthracis''). Reporting in ''Comptes Rendus Des Séances de La Société de Biologie et de Ses Filiales'', they identified the mould as ''Penicillium glaucum''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=de Scoville|first1=C|last2=Brouwer|first2=C De|last3=Dujardin|first3=M|date=1999|title=Nobel chronicle: Fleming and Gratia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673605663349|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=354|issue=9174|page=258|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66334-9|pmid=10421340|s2cid=11659394}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1927, Gratia reported its medical use:&lt;blockquote&gt;A poor patient who during three years had suffered from [[w:Furuncles|furuncles]] [infection by ''S. aureus''], in spite of all treatments, was sent to us in despair. Jaumain did not hesitate to continue the treatment by a series of injections of the mycolysat. The result was remarkable. Not only was the recovery rapid, but it is now three years that [''sic''] this recovery continues without the slightest relapse. Since that time we have given the mycolysat to a very large number of cases. It is the most effective treatment even of the most resistant types of staphylococcic diseases.&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Unfortunately, as in the case of Duchesne, these findings received little attention as the antibacterial agent and its medical values were not fully understood; moreover, Gratia's samples were lost.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

==The breakthrough discovery==
===Background ===
[[file:Professor Alexander Fleming at work in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London, during the Second World War. D17801.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming in his laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London. {{attrib|Ministry of Information Photo Division Photographer|[[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]]

Penicillin as we know it today was &quot;accidentally&quot; discovered by the Scottish physician [[w:Alexander Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] in 1928.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fraser|first=I.|date=1984|title=Penicillin: early trials in war casualties|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6440621|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=289|issue=6460|pages=1723–1725|doi=10.1136/bmj.289.6460.1723|pmc=1444789|pmid=6440621}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20120325/penicillin-an-accidental-discovery-changed-the-course-of-medicine|title=Penicillin: An accidental discovery changed the course of medicine|last=Eickhoff|first=Theodore C.|date=2008|website=Endocrine Today|access-date=2021-10-10}}&lt;/ref&gt; While working at [[w:St Mary's Hospital, London|St Mary's Hospital, London]], Fleming was investigating the pattern of variation in ''S. aureus'' (Figures 2 and 3).&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lalchhandama|first=K.|date=2020|title=Reappraising Fleming's snot and mould|journal=Science Vision|volume=20|issue=1|pages=29–42|doi=10.33493/scivis.20.01.03|doi-access=free|vauthors=Lalchhandama K}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was inspired by the recent discovery by the Irish physician [[w:Joseph Warwick Bigger|Joseph Warwick Bigger]] and his two students C.R. Boland and R.A.Q. O’Meara at the [[w:Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College, Dublin]], Ireland, in 1927''.'' Bigger and his students found that a particular strain of ''S. aureus''  (designated &quot;Y&quot;) that they isolated a year before from the pus of an axillary abscess (boil on the armpit) from one individual grew into a variety of strains. They published their discovery as &quot;Variant colonies of ''Staphylococcus aureus&quot;'' in ''[[w:The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology]],'' by concluding:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We were surprised and rather disturbed to find, on a number of plates, various types of colonies which differed completely from the typical ''aureus'' colony. Some of these were quite white; some, either white or of the usual colour were rough on the surface and with crenated margins.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bigger|first=Joseph W.|last2=Boland|first2=C. R.|last3=O'meara|first3=R. A. Q.|date=1927|title=Variant colonies ofStaphylococcus aureus|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/path.1700300204|journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology|language=en|volume=30|issue=2|pages=261–269|doi=10.1002/path.1700300204}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Fleming and his research scholar Daniel Merlin Pryce pursued this experiment but Pryce was transferred to another laboratory in early 1928. Their experiment had been successful and Fleming was planning and agreed to write a report in the compendium ''A System of Bacteriology'' to be published by the [[w:Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] at the end of that year.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt;

=== Initial discovery ===
In August, Fleming spent a vacation with his family at his country home The Dhoon at [[w:Barton Mills|Barton Mills]], Suffolk. Before leaving his laboratory (Figures 3 &amp; 4), he inoculated several culture plates with ''S. aureus.'' He kept the plates aside on one corner of the table away from direct sunlight to allow proper growth of the bacteria. There are two versions of the reason he returned to his laboratory during the vacation. According to some sources, he was appointed Professor of Bacteriology at the [[w:St Mary's Hospital Medical School|St Mary's Hospital Medical School]] and had to officially join on Saturday 1 September 1928. The next Monday he visited the laboratory.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Diggins|first=F.W.|date=1999|title=The true history of the discovery of penicillin, with refutation of the misinformation in the literature|journal=British Journal of Biomedical Science|volume=56|issue=2|pages=83–93|pmid=10695047|vauthors=Diggins FW}}  &lt;/ref&gt; Alternative sources say that he went to London &quot;on a flying visit&quot; to help a colleague with the treatment of [[w:Bacillus cereus|haemolytic bacillus]]. It was while waiting for the colleague that he visited the laboratory.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/S0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933|vauthors=Hare R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wyn Jones|first=Emyr|last2=Wyn Jones|first2=R. Gareth|date=2002|title=Merlin Pryce (1902-1976) and penicillin: an abiding mystery|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12713008|journal=Vesalius|volume=8|issue=2|pages=6–25|pmid=12713008}}&lt;/ref&gt; At the laboratory, Pryce paid him a visit and found him sorting out the Petri dishes. He and Pryce noticed one culture plate with an open lid and the culture contaminated with a blue-green mould. In the contaminated plate the bacteria around the mould did not grow, while those farther away grew normally, meaning that the mould killed the bacteria. Fleming commented as he watched the plate: &quot;That's funny.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wainright|first=M.|date=1993|title=The mystery of the plate: Fleming's discovery and contribution to the early development of penicillin|journal=Journal of Medical Biography|volume=1|issue=1|pages=59–65|doi=10.1177/096777209300100113|pmid=11639213|vauthors=Wainwright M|s2cid=7578843}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pryce remarked to Fleming: &quot;That's how you discovered [[w:lysozyme|lysozyme]].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot; /&gt;

=== Experiment ===
[[file:Flemming laboratory (3).JPG|thumb|St Mary's Hospital showing Fleming's lab (on the second floor) and Praed Street, from where Fleming alleged the mould came from. {{attrib|[[w:User:Vera de Kok|Vera de Kok]]|[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]]

Fleming went off to resume his vacation and returned to his laboratory late in September.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt; He collected the original mould and grew it in culture plates. After four days he found that the plates developed large colonies of the mould. He repeated the experiment with the same bacteria-killing results. He later recounted his experience:

&lt;blockquote&gt;When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I suppose that was exactly what I did.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Tan|first=Siang Yong|last2=Tatsumura|first2=Yvonne|date=2015|title=Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26243971|journal=Singapore Medical Journal|volume=56|issue=7|pages=366–367|doi=10.11622/smedj.2015105|pmc=4520913|pmid=26243971}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He concluded that the mould was releasing a substance that was inhibiting bacterial growth, and he produced a culture broth of the mould and subsequently concentrated the antibacterial component.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Arseculeratne|first=S. N.|last2=Arseculeratne|first2=G.|date=2017|title=A re-appraisal of the conventional history of antibiosis and Penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28144986|journal=Mycoses|volume=60|issue=5|pages=343–347|doi=10.1111/myc.12599|pmid=28144986}}&lt;/ref&gt; After testing against different bacteria, he found that the mould could kill only specific bacteria. For example, Gram-positive bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus'', ''[[w:Streptococcus|Streptococcus]]'', and diphtheria bacillus (''[[w:Corynebacterium diphtheriae|Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'') were easily killed; but there was no effect on Gram-negative species like typhoid bacterium (''[[w:Salmonella typhimurium|Salmonella typhimurium]]'') and influenza bacillus (''[[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Haemophilus influenzae]]''). He prepared a large-culture method from which he could obtain large amounts of the mould juice. On 7 March 1929, he coined the name &quot;penicillin&quot; for the mould extract,&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; explaining the reason as &quot;to avoid the repetition of the rather cumbersome phrase 'Mould broth filtrate', the name 'penicillin' will be used.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid69942002&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprinted as {{cite journal|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430|vauthors=Fleming A}}&lt;/ref&gt; In his Nobel lecture, he gave a further explanation:

&lt;blockquote&gt;I have been frequently asked why I invented the name &quot;Penicillin&quot;. I simply followed perfectly orthodox lines and coined a word which explained that the substance penicillin was derived from a plant of the genus ''Penicillium'' just as many years ago the word &quot;[[w:Digitalin|Digitalin]]&quot; was invented for a substance derived from the plant ''Digitalis''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/fleming-lecture.pdf|title=Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine, 1942-1962|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1999|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-02-3411-9|location=Singapore|pages=83–93|language=en|chapter=Penicillin: Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1945}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Fleming had no training in chemistry so that he left all the chemical works to his new research scholar Stuart Craddock, who joined him in December;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; he once remarked: &quot;I am a bacteriologist, not a chemist.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt; In January 1929, Fleming recruited his former research scholar Frederick Ridley, who had studied biochemistry, to study the chemical properties of the mould.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; However,a fucker both Craddock and Ridley left Fleming for other jobs before completing the experiments and isolating penicillin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Their failure to isolate the compound resulted in Fleming practically abandoning further research on the chemical aspects of penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Kristin | name-list-style = vanc |date=2019|title=Fleming vs. Florey: It All Comes Down to the Mold|url=https://digitalcommons.lasalle.edu/the_histories/vol2/iss1/3|journal=The Histories|volume=2|issue=1|pages=3–10}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nonetheless, he continued doing biological tests up to 1939.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

=== Identification of the mould ===
[[File:Penicillium rubens (type specimen).png|thumb|''Penicillium rubens'' (type specimen). {{attrib| [https://doi.org/10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12 Houbraken ''et al.'', 2011]| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en CC-BY 4.0]}}]]

The source of the fungal contamination in Fleming's experiment remained a matter of speculation for several decades. The [[w:Royal Society of Chemistry|Royal Society of Chemistry]] believed that it came from a cup of coffee which Fleming left on the table.&lt;ref name=&quot;:27&quot; /&gt; In 1945, Fleming himself suggested that the fungal spores came through the window facing [[w:Praed Street|Praed Street]]. This story was regarded as a reliable explanation and was popularised in the literature,&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; starting with George Lacken's 1945 book ''The Story of Penicillin''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; But it was later disputed by his co-workers, particularly Pryce, who testified much later that Fleming's laboratory window was kept shut all the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot; /&gt; Ronald Hare also agreed in 1970 that the window remain locked as a large table in front of it made it difficult to open. In 1966, Charles John Patrick La Touche told Hare that he had given Fleming 13 specimens of fungi (10 from his lab) and only one from his lab was showing penicillin-like antibacterial activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; It was therefore concluded that Fleming's mould came from La Touche's lab, located a floor below, and the spores had drifted in the air through the open doors.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Curry|first=J.|date=1981|title=Obituary: C. J. La Touche|journal=Sabouraudia|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|page=164|doi=10.1080/00362178185380261|vauthors=Curry J}}&lt;/ref&gt;

After a structural comparison with different species of ''Penicillium'', Fleming believed that his specimen was ''[[w:Penicillium chrysogenum|Penicillium chrysogenum]],'' a species described by the American microbiologist [[w:Charles Thom|Charles Thom]] in 1910. He was fortunate as Charles John Patrick La Touche, an Irish botanist, had just recently joined as a [[w:mycologist|mycologist]] at St Mary's to investigate fungi as the cause of asthma.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kingston|first=W.|date=2008|title=Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18347757|journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science|volume=177|issue=2|pages=87–92|doi=10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x|pmid=18347757}}&lt;/ref&gt; La Touche identified the specimen as ''Penicillium rubrum,''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Henderson|first=J. W.|date=1997|title=The yellow brick road to penicillin: a story of serendipity|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9212774|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|volume=72|issue=7|pages=683–687|doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)63577-5|pmid=9212774}}&lt;/ref&gt; the identification used by Fleming in his publication of the discovery.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6994200&quot; /&gt;

In 1931, Thom re-examined different species of ''Penicillium'' including that of Fleming's specimen. He came to a confusing conclusion, stating: &quot;Ad. 35 [Fleming's specimen] is ''P. notatum'' WESTLING. This is a member of the ''P. chrysogenum'' series with smaller conidia than ''P. chrysogenum'' itself.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal| vauthors = Thom C |date=1931|title=Appendix. History of species used and Dr. Thom's diagnoses of species|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character|language=en|volume=220|issue=468–473|pages=83–92|doi=10.1098/rstb.1931.0015|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; From then on, Fleming's mould was synonymously referred to as ''P. chrysogenum'' and ''P. notatum,'' a species discovered by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811. But Thom adopted and popularised the use of ''P. chrysogenum.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Thom |first=Charles | name-list-style = vanc |date=1945|title=Mycology Presents Penicillin|journal=Mycologia|volume=37|issue=4|pages=460–475|doi=10.2307/3754632|jstor=3754632}}&lt;/ref&gt;'' Adding to the controversial taxonomy, newly discovered species such as ''P. meleagrinum'' and ''P. cyaneofulvum'' were recognised as members of ''P. chrysogenum'' in 1977''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Samson|first=R. A.|last2=Hadlok|first2=R.|last3=Stolk|first3=A. C.|date=1977|title=A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/413477|journal=Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek|volume=43|issue=2|pages=169–175|doi=10.1007/BF00395671|pmid=413477}}&lt;/ref&gt; To resolve the confusion, in 2005, the Seventeenth [[w:International Botanical Congress|International Botanical Congress]] held in Vienna, Austria, formally adopted the name ''P. chrysogenum'' as the conserved name (''[[w:nomen conservandum|nomen conservandum]]'') for all related ''Penicilium'' species''.''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | date=2006|title=International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (VIENNA CODE). Appendix IV Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda. B. Fungi|url=https://www.iapt-taxon.org/icbn/main.htm|access-date=17 June 2020|website=International Association of Plant Taxonomy}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2011, whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis revealed that Fleming's mould belongs to ''[[w:Penicillium rubens|P. rubens]]'' (Figure 5)'','' a species described by Belgian microbiologist Philibert Biourge in 1923, and that ''P. chrysogenum'' is a different species.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=Jos|last2=Frisvad|first2=Jens C.|last3=Samson|first3=Robert A.|date=2011|title=Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22679592|journal=IMA fungus|volume=2|issue=1|pages=87–95|doi=10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12|pmc=3317369|pmid=22679592}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Houbraken|first=J.|last2=Frisvad|first2=J. C.|last3=Seifert|first3=K. A.|last4=Overy|first4=D. P.|last5=Tuthill|first5=D. M.|last6=Valdez|first6=J. G.|last7=Samson|first7=R. A.|date=2012|title=New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23606767|journal=Persoonia|volume=29|pages=78–100|doi=10.3767/003158512X660571|pmc=3589797|pmid=23606767}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Reception and publication ===
Initially, Fleming's discovery was not considered important, and as he showed to his his colleagues, all he received was an indifferent response. He described the discovery on 13 February 1929 before the [[w:Medical Research Club|Medical Research Club]] but his presentation titled &quot;A medium for the isolation of [[w:Haemophilus influenzae|Pfeiffer's bacillus]]&quot; did not receive any particular attention.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt;

In May 1929, Fleming reported his findings to the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'' whch published them in the next month's issue.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6994200&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|year=1929|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=10|issue=3|pages=226–236|pmc=2041430|pmid=2048009}}; Reprint of {{cite journal|vauthors=Fleming A|year=1979|title=On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=3–13|pmc=2041430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lobanovska&quot;/&gt; It failed to attract any serious attention. Fleming himself was quite unsure of the medical application and was more concerned about the application for bacterial isolation, as he concluded:

&lt;blockquote&gt;In addition to its possible use in the treatment of bacterial infections penicillin is certainly useful to the bacteriologist for its power of inhibiting unwanted microbes in bacterial cultures so that penicillin insensitive bacteria can readily be isolated. A notable instance of this is the very easy, isolation of Pfeiffers bacillus of influenza when penicillin is used...It is suggested that it may be an efficient antiseptic for application to, or injection into, areas infected with penicillin-sensitive microbes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6994200&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

G. E. Breen, a fellow member of the [[w:Chelsea Arts Club|Chelsea Arts Club]], once asked Fleming: &quot;I just wanted you to tell me whether you think it will ever be possible to make practical use of the stuff [penicillin]. For instance, could I use it?&quot; Fleming gazed vacantly for a moment and then replied: &quot;I don't know. It's too unstable. It will have to be purified, and I can't do that by myself.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt; Even as late as in 1941, the ''[[w:The BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' reported that &quot;the main facts emerging from a very comprehensive study [of penicillin] in which a large team of workers is engaged... does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | title = Annotations | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4208 | pages = 310–2 | date = August 1941 | pmid = 20783842 | pmc = 2162429 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4208.310 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A.|date=1941|title=Penicillin|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=4210|page=386|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4210.386|pmc=2162878|vauthors=Fleming A}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|The statement &quot;does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view&quot; seems to be later deleted, but is still apparent from Fleming's response (''BMJ'', 1941, '''2''' (4210): 386–386).}}

==Isolation ==
In 1933, [[w:Ernst Boris Chain|Ernst Boris Chain]], a chemist of Jewish-German origin, joined Australian scientist [[w:Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] (later Baron Florey) at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at the [[w:University of Oxford|University of Oxford]] in 1936 to investigate antibiotics.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|date=1972|title=Thirty years of penicillin therapy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4551373|journal=Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London|volume=6|issue=2|pages=103–131|pmc=5366029|pmid=4551373}}&lt;/ref&gt; Florey assigned him to work on lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme discovered by Fleming in 1922.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Fleming|first=A|year=1922|title=On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=93|issue=653|pages=306–317|bibcode=1922RSPSB..93..306F|doi=10.1098/rspb.1922.0023|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1938, he came across Fleming's 1929 paper while writing a research report and informed his supervisor of the potential medical benefits of penicillin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; Although a year before, Florey had concentrated on [[w:Pyocyanase|pyocyanase]] (a pigment from the bacterium ''Bacillus pycyaneus,'' now called ''[[w:Pseudomonas aeruginosa|Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''), he agreed with Chain that penicillin was medically more promising.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|date=1944|title=The discovery of the chemotherapeutic properties of penicillin|url=https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033|journal=British Medical Bulletin|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=5–7|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071033}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1939, Florey and Chain obtained a research grant of $25,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation to study antibiotics,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Florey|first=H. W.|last2=Abraham|first2=E. P.|date=1951|title=The work on penicillin at Oxford|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24619871|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=6|issue=3|pages=302–317|doi=10.1093/jhmas/vi.summer.302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kong|first1=Kok-Fai|last2=Schneper|first2=Lisa|last3=Mathee|first3=Kalai|date=2010|title=Beta-lactam antibiotics: from antibiosis to resistance and bacteriology|journal=Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica, et Immunologica Scandinavica|volume=118|issue=1|pages=1–36|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02563.x|pmc=2894812|pmid=20041868}}&lt;/ref&gt; which allowed them to assemble a research team composed of [[w:Edward Abraham|Edward Abraham]], [[w:Arthur Duncan Gardner|Arthur Duncan Gardner]], [[w:Norman Heatley|Norman Heatley]], [[w:Margaret Jennings (scientist)|Margaret Jennings]], J. Orr-Ewing and G. Sanders.&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=David S.|last2=Jones|first2=John H.|date=2014-12-01|title=Sir Edward Penley Abraham CBE. 10 June 1913 – 9 May 1999|url=http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|volume=60|pages=5–22|doi=10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002|issn=0080-4606|doi-access=free|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Landmark&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin|work=International Historic Chemical Landmarks|publisher=American Chemical Society|access-date=21 August 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Oxford team soon prepared a concentrated extract of ''P. rubens'' as &quot;a brown powder&quot; that &quot;has been obtained which is freely soluble in water&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; They found that the powder was not only effective ''in vitro'' against bacterial cultures but also and ''[[w:in vivo|in vivo]]'' against bacterial infection in mice. On 5 May 1939, they injected a group of eight mice with a virulent strain of ''S. aureus'', and then injected four of them with the penicillin solution. After one day, all the untreated mice died while the penicillin-treated mice survived; &quot;a miracle&quot; in Chain's view.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; The team published its findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1940.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

The team reported details of the isolation method in 1941 with a scheme for large-scale extraction. They also found that penicillin was most abundant as a yellow concentrate from the mould extract,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Fletcher|first3=C. M.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Gardner|first5=A. D.|last6=Heatley|first6=N. G.|last7=Jennings|first7=M. A.|date=1992|title=Further observations on penicillin. 1941|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1541313|journal=European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=42|issue=1|pages=3–9|pmid=1541313}}&lt;/ref&gt; but it was able to produce only small quantities. By the early 1942, they could prepare highly purified compound,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1942|title=Purification of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149328b0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3777|pages=328|doi=10.1038/149328b0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..328A|s2cid=4122059}}&lt;/ref&gt; and derived the empirical chemical formula as C&lt;sub&gt;24&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;32&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Ba.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Abraham|first1=E. P.|last2=Baker|first2=W.|last3=Chain|first3=E.|last4=Florey|first4=H. W.|last5=Holiday|first5=E. R.|last6=Robinson|first6=R.|date=1942|title=Nitrogenous Character of Penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/149356a0|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=149|issue=3778|pages=356|doi=10.1038/149356a0|bibcode=1942Natur.149..356A|s2cid=4055617}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the June 1942 issue of the ''British Journal of Experimental Pathology'', Chain, Abraham and E. R. Holiday reported the production of the pure compound concluding that:&lt;blockquote&gt;The penicillin preparation described in this paper is the most powerful antibacterial agent with predominantly bacteriostatic action so far known. Though it has not yet been obtained crystalline there are indications that it possesses a considerable degree of purity... The unusual biological properties of penicillin are linked with an exceptionally unstable chemical configuration. Inactivation by acid, alkali, and by boiling at any pH has been shown to be accompanied by definite chemical changes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E. P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|last3=Holiday|first3=E. R.|date=1942|title=Purification and Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2065494/|journal=British Journal of Experimental Pathology|volume=23|issue=3|pages=103–119|pmc=2065494}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== First medical use ==
In  January  1929,  Fleming performed the first clinical trial with penicillin on his assistant Craddock. Craddock had developed a severe infection of the [[w:nasal antrum|nasal antrum]] ([[w:sinusitis|sinusitis]]) for which he had undergone surgery. Fleming made use of the surgical opening of the nasal passage and started injecting penicillin on 9 January. Craddock showed no sign of improvement, probably because the infection was caused by influenza bacillus (''Haemophilus influenzae''), the bacterium which he had found not susceptible to penicillin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hare|first=R.|date=1982|title=New light on the history of penicillin|journal=Medical History|volume=26|issue=1|pages=1–24|doi=10.1017/s0025727300040758|pmc=1139110|pmid=7047933}}&lt;/ref&gt; It seems that Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Wainwright|first1=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1987|title=The Sheffield penicillin story|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0269915X87800228|journal=Mycologist|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=28–30|doi=10.1016/S0269-915X(87)80022-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1990|title=Besredka's &quot;antivirus&quot; in relation to Fleming's initial views on the nature of penicillin|url= |journal=Medical History |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.1017/S0025727300050286 |pmc=1036002 |pmid=2405221}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although Wright reportedly said that it: &quot;seemed to work satisfactorily,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M|date=1987|title=The history of the therapeutic use of crude penicillin. |journal=Medical History |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=41–50 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300046305|pmc=1139683|pmid=3543562}}&lt;/ref&gt; there are no records of its specific use.

In November 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], was the first to use penicillin for medical treatment successfully.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=Milton|date=1989|title=Moulds in Folk Medicine|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763|journal=Folklore|language=en|volume=100|issue=2|pages=162–166|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1989.9715763}}&lt;/ref&gt; He was a former student of Fleming who, after learning about penicillin, requested a sample from Fleming.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Dr Cecil George Paine - Unsung Medical Heroes - Blackwell's Bookshop Online|url=https://blackwells.co.uk/jsp/promo/umh.jsp?action=more&amp;id=18|access-date=2020-10-19|website=blackwells.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; He initially attempted to treat [[w:sycosis|sycosis]] (eruptions in beard follicles). On 25 November, he then tried it successfully with four patients (one adult, the others infants) who had [[w:ophthalmia neonatorum|ophthalmia neonatorum]], an inflammation of the eye due to infection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Wainwright|first=M.|last2=Swan|first2=H.T.|date=1986|title=C.G. Paine and the earliest surviving clinical records of penicillin therapy|journal=Medical History|volume=30|issue=1|pages=42–56|doi=10.1017/S0025727300045026|pmc=1139580|pmid=3511336|vauthors=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, penicillin first worked on an eye infection.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Alharbi|first1=Sulaiman Ali|last2=Wainwright|first2=Milton|last3=Alahmadi|first3=Tahani Awad|last4=Salleeh|first4=Hashim Bin|last5=Faden|first5=Asmaa A.|last6=Chinnathambi|first6=Arunachalam|date=2014|title=What if Fleming had not discovered penicillin?|url= |journal=Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=289–293|doi=10.1016/j.sjbs.2013.12.007|pmc=4150221|pmid=25183937}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nine years later, the Oxford team showed that ''Penicillium'' extract killed different bacteria (''Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,'' and ''Clostridium septique'') in culture and effectively cured ''Streptococcus'' infection in mice.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}&lt;/ref&gt; Thus, they reported their findings in the 24 August 1940 issue of ''The Lancet'' under the title &quot;Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent&quot; concluding:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The results are clear cut, and show that penicillin is active ''in vivo'' against at least three of the organisms inhibited ''in vitro''. It would seem a reasonable hope that all organisms in high dilution ''in vitro'' will be found to be dealt with ''in vivo''. Penicillin does not appear to be related to any chemotherapeutic substance at present in use and is particularly remarkable for its activity against the anaerobic organisms associated with [[w:gas gangrene|gas gangrene]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Chain|first1=E.|last2=Florey|first2=H. W.|last3=Adelaide|first3=M. B.|last4=Gardner|first4=A. D.|last5=Heatley|first5=N. G.|last6=Jennings|first6=M. A.|last7=Orr-Ewing|first7=J.|last8=Sanders|first8=A. G.|date=1940|title=Penicillin as a chemotherapeutic agent|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8403666|journal=The Lancet|volume=236|issue=6104|pages=226–228|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)08728-1|pmid=8403666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The following year, the Oxford team treated a policeman, [[w:Albert Alexander (police officer)|Albert Alexander]], who had a severe facial infection; his condition improved, but he eventually died as the researchers ran out of penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hamdy|first=Ronald C.|date=2006|title=Penicillin is 65 years old!|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16509564/|journal=Southern Medical Journal|volume=99|issue=2|pages=192–193|doi=10.1097/01.smj.0000194524.83293.0d|pmid=16509564}}&lt;/ref&gt; Subsequently, several other patients were treated successfully,&lt;ref name=&quot;SW2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|year=2007|title=Making Penicillin Possible: Norman Heatley Remembers|url=http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221041204/http://www.sciencewatch.com/interviews/norman_heatly.htm|archive-date=February 21, 2007|access-date=2007-02-13|work=ScienceWatch|publisher=Thomson Scientific}}&lt;/ref&gt; among them the survivors of the [[w:Cocoanut Grove fire|Cocoanut Grove fire]] in Boston (December 1942) who were the first burn patients to be successfully treated with penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Camille L.|date=2015|title=The Fire at Cocoanut Grove:|url=https://academic.oup.com/jbcr/article/36/1/232-235/4568893|journal=Journal of Burn Care &amp; Research|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=232–235|doi=10.1097/BCR.0000000000000111}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The most important clinical test took place in August 1942 when Fleming cured Harry Lambert (a work associate of Robert, Fleming's brother) of a fatal infection of the nervous system (streptococcal [[w:meningitis|meningitis]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Sir Alexander Fleming: Scottish researcher who discovered penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1045187004000184|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|language=en|volume=15|issue=1|pages=58–64|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.002|pmid=15175996}}&lt;/ref&gt; Fleming asked Florey for a purified penicillin sample, which he immediately injected into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the next day,&lt;ref name=&quot;:07&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}&lt;/ref&gt; and completely recovered within a week.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Bennett|first1=Joan W|title=Alexander Fleming and the discovery of penicillin|date=2001|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0065216401490137|journal=Advances in Applied Microbiology |volume=49 |pages=163–184 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/s0065-2164(01)49013-7 |isbn=978-0-12-002649-4|access-date=2020-10-17|last2=Chung|first2=King-Thom|pmid=11757350}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Cairns|first1=H.|last2=Lewin|first2=W. S.|last3=Duthie|first3=E. S.|last4=Smith|first4=HonorV.|date=1944|title=Pneumococcal Meningitis Treated with Penicillin|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673600770851|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=243|issue=6299|pages=655–659|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)77085-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Fleming reported his findings in ''[[w:The Lancet|The Lancet]]'' in 1943.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1943|title=Streptococcal Meningitis treated With Penicillin.|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673600874528|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=242|issue=6267|pages=434–438|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)87452-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; It was on this medical evidence that the British [[w:War Cabinet|War Cabinet]] set up the Penicillin Committee on 5 April 1943 formed by [[w:Cecil Weir|Cecil Weir]], Director General of Equipment, as Chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir [[w:Percival Hartley|Percival Hartley]], Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members.&lt;ref name=&quot;:07&quot;/&gt; The establishment of the committee opened the door to the mass production of penicillin the next year.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mathews|first=John A.|date=2008|title=The Birth of the Biotechnology Era: Penicillin in Australia, 1943–80|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08109020802459306 |journal=Prometheus|volume=26|issue=4|pages=317–333|doi=10.1080/08109020802459306|s2cid=143123783}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Baldry|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvs8AAAAIAAJ|title=The Battle Against Bacteria: A Fresh Look|date=1976|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-21268-7|page=115|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mass production ==
[[file:Penicillium notatum.jpg|thumb|The cantaloupe strain of ''Penicillum'' (''P. chrysogenum'' or ''P. notatum'') which is the best source of penicillins and was used in the first mass production in US.
{{attrib| Crulina 98| [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en CC-BY 3.0]}}]]
Knowing that large-scale production for medical use was futile in a confined laboratory, the Oxford team tried to persuade the war-torn British government and private companies to undertake mass production, but in vain.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Andrew Carroll|date=2014-06-02|title=Here is Where: Penicillin Comes to Peoria|url=https://www.historynet.com/here-is-where-penicillin-comes-to-peoria.htm|access-date=2021-01-04|website=HistoryNet|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Florey and Heatley travelled to the United States (US) in June 1941 to persuade the American government and pharmaceutical companies there.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chain&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark|url=https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628035235/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-date=28 June 2019|access-date=15 July 2019|publisher=American Chemical Society|location=Washington, D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ton ensure safe transportation of the sample, they smeared their coat pockets with the mould instead of taking it in a vial.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt; In July, they met with [[w:Andrew Jackson Moyer|Andrew Jackson Moyer]] and Robert  D. Coghill at the [[w:USDA|USDA]] Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL, now the [[w:National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research|National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research]]) in [[w:Peoria, Illinois|Peoria, Illinois]], where large-scale fermentations were done.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neushul|first=P.|date=1993|title=Science, government, and the mass production of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8283024|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=48|issue=4|pages=371–395|doi=10.1093/jhmas/48.4.371|pmid=8283024}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Americans showed great interest and were able to make a ''Penicillium'' culture by the end of July&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; but realised that Fleming's mould was not efficient enough to produce large quantities of penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rodríguez-Sáiz|first=Marta|last2=Díez|first2=Bruno|last3=Barredo|first3=José Luis|date=2005|title=Why did the Fleming strain fail in penicillin industry?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15809010|journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology|volume=42|issue=5|pages=464–470|doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2005.01.014|pmid=15809010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

With the help of US Army Transport Command, NRRL mycologist [[w:Kenneth Bryan Raper|Kenneth Bryan Raper]] was able to locate similar but better moulds from Chungkin (China), Bombay (Mumbai, India) and Cape Town (South Africa). However, the single-best sample was obtained in 1943 from [[w:cantaloupe|cantaloupe]] (a type of melon) sold in the Peoria fruit market. The mould was identified to be ''P. chrysogenum'' and designated as &quot;NRRL 1951&quot; or &quot;cantaloupe strain&quot; (Figure 6).&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Barreiro&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | vauthors = Barreiro C, Martín JF, García-Estrada C | title = Proteomics shows new faces for the old penicillin producer Penicillium chrysogenum | journal = Journal of Biomedicine &amp; Biotechnology | volume = 2012 | page = 105109 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22318718 | pmc = 3270403 | doi = 10.1155/2012/105109 }}&lt;/ref&gt; There is a popular story that Mary K. Hunt (or Mary Hunt Stevens&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bentley|first=Ronald|date=2009|title=Different roads to discovery; Prontosil (hence sulfa drugs) and penicillin (hence β-lactams)|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|journal=Journal of Industrial Microbiology &amp; Biotechnology|language=en|volume=36|issue=6|pages=775–786|doi=10.1007/s10295-009-0553-8|pmid=19283418|s2cid=35432074}}&lt;/ref&gt;), a staff member at NRRL, collected the mould;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Kardos|first1=Nelson|last2=Demain|first2=Arnold L.|date=2011|title=Penicillin: the medicine with the greatest impact on therapeutic outcomes|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=92|issue=4|pages=677–687|doi=10.1007/s00253-011-3587-6|pmid=21964640|s2cid=39223087}}&lt;/ref&gt; for which she was popularised as &quot;Mouldy Mary.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Bauze|first=Robert|date=1997|title=Editorial: Howard Florey and the penicillin story|url=https://search.proquest.com/openview/d5ed3749f4eb8b5b8bbe9d4ac3d955fd/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;cbl=11254|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|last=Taylor|first=Robert B.|title=Drugs and Other Remedies|date=2016|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|work=White Coat Tales|pages=67–84|place=Cham|publisher=Springer International Publishing|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-29055-3_3|isbn=978-3-319-29053-9|access-date=2021-01-04}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, Raper remarked that this story was &quot;folklore&quot; and that the fruit was delivered to the laboratory by a woman from the local fruit market.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Raper developed methods for industrialized penicillin production and isolated higher-yielding strains of the ''Penicillium'' mould.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1946|title=The development of improved penicillin‐producing molds|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=48|issue=2|pages=41–56|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1946.tb31753.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; Simultaneous research by [[w:Jasper H. Kane|Jasper H. Kane]] and other [[w:Pfizer|Pfizer]] scientists in [[w:Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]] developed the practical, deep-tank [[w:Industrial fermentation|fermentation]] method for production of large quantities of pharmaceutical-grade penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Daemmrich|first=Arthur|date=2009|title=Synthesis by microbes or chemists? Pharmaceutical research and manufacturing in the antibiotic era|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510903083237|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=25|issue=3|pages=237–256|doi=10.1080/07341510903083237}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[file:PenicillinPSAedit.jpg|thumb|Penicillin ad for World War II servicemen, ''c''. 1944. {{attrib| [[w:National Institute of Health|National Institute of Health]]| [[W:Public domain|Public domain]]}}]]

When production first began, one-litre containers had a yield of less than 1%, but improved to a yield of 80–90% in 10,000 gallon containers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Landmark&quot; /&gt; This increase in efficiency happened between 1941 and 1945 as the result of continuous process innovation (Figure 7 shows one of the first mass applications).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1991|title=Penicillin Production Saga Recalled|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24531093|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=81|issue=3|pages=157–161}}&lt;/ref&gt; Orvill May, director of the [[w:Agricultural Research Service|Agricultural Research Service]], had Coghill use his experience with fermentation to increase the efficiency of extracting penicillin from the mould. When Moyer and Coghill replaced sucrose with lactose in the growth media, penicillin yield was increased.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Moyer|first=Andrew J.|last2=Coghill|first2=Robert D.|date=1946|title=Penicillin|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC518023/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=51|issue=1|pages=79–93|pmc=518023|pmid=16561059|doi=10.1128/jb.51.1.79-93.1946}}&lt;/ref&gt; An even larger increase occurred when they added [[w:corn steep liquor|corn steep liquor]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wells|first=Percy A.|date=1975|title=Some Aspects of the Early History of Penicillin in the United States|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24536802|journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences|volume=65|issue=3|pages=96–101}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The inefficiency of growing the mould on the surface of their nutrient baths, rather than having it submerged was a major challenge to the scientists. Although a submerged process of growing the mould was more efficient, the strain used was not suitable for the required conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=W. E.|last2=Peterson|first2=W. H.|date=1950|title=Factors Affecting Production of Penicillin in Semi-Pilot Plant Equipment|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a025|journal=Industrial &amp; Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1769–1774|doi=10.1021/ie50489a025}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the improved fermentation, the cantaloupe strain could produced six times as much penicillin per millilitre of the culture filtrate.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2004|title=Penicillin: its discovery and early development|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15175995/|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|volume=15|issue=1|pages=52–57|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2004.02.001|pmid=15175995}}&lt;/ref&gt; To improve on the cantaloupe strain, researchers subjected it to [[w:X-ray|X-ray]]s to facilitate mutations in its genome.&lt;ref name=&quot;Landmark&quot; /&gt; The new mutant strain, designated &quot;X-1612&quot;, made in in 1946 produced twice as much penicillin as the original strain.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Savage|first=George M.|date=1949|title=Improvement in streptomycin-producing strains of Streptomyces griseus by ultraviolet and X-ray energy|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC385538/|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=57|issue=4|pages=429–441|pmc=385538|pmid=16561716|doi=10.1128/jb.57.4.429-441.1949}}&lt;/ref&gt; Another mutant strain, named &quot;Q176&quot;, made in 1947 from ultraviolet irradiation further doubled the penicillin productivity.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Raper|first=Kenneth B.|date=1952|title=A Decade of Antibiotics in America|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|journal=Mycologia|language=en|volume=44|issue=1|pages=1–59|doi=10.1080/00275514.1952.12024170|jstor=4547566}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Now scientists had a mould that grew well submerged and produced an acceptable amount of penicillin. The next challenge was to provide the air required by the mould to grow. This problem was solved using an aerator but, due to the use of corn steep, aeration caused  severe  foaming.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stefaniak|first=J. J.|last2=Gailey|first2=F. B.|last3=Brown|first3=C. S.|last4=Johnson|first4=M. J.|date=1946|title=Pilot Plant Equipment for Submerged Production of Penicillin|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50439a010|journal=Industrial &amp; Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=38|issue=7|pages=666–671|doi=10.1021/ie50439a010}}&lt;/ref&gt; The  addition  of  an  anti-foaming  agents such as arachis oil, lard oil and other fatty acids solved this problem.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=R. B.|last2=Harris|first2=G. C. M.|date=1949|title=The morphology of Penicillium chrysogenum in submerged fermentations|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007153649800106|journal=Transactions of the British Mycological Society|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=224–235|doi=10.1016/S0007-1536(49)80010-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; These anti-foaming agents further enhanced penicillin production.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Goldschmidt|first=Millicent C.|last2=Koffler|first2=Henry|date=1950|title=Effect of Surface-Active Agents on Penicillin Yields|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ie50489a035|journal=Industrial &amp; Engineering Chemistry|language=en|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1819–1823|doi=10.1021/ie50489a035}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chemical analysis ==
The [[w:chemical structure|chemical structure]] of penicillin was first proposed by Edward Abraham in 1942,&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot; /&gt; and three years later, [[w:Dorothy Hodgkin|Dorothy Hodgkin]], working at Oxford, determined the correct chemical structure using [[w:X-ray crystallography|X-ray crystallography]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hodgkin|first=D. C.|date=1949|title=The X-ray analysis of the structure of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18134678|journal=Advancement of Science|volume=6|issue=22|pages=85–89|pmid=18134678}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400874910-012/html|title=Chemistry of Penicillin|last=Crowfoot|first=D.|last2=Bunn|first2=C. W.|last3=Rogers-Low|first3=B. W.|last4=Turner-Jones|first4=A.|date=1949|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7491-0|editor-last=Clarke|editor-first=Hans T.|pages=310–366|chapter=XI. The X-Ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin|doi=10.1515/9781400874910-012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The same year, chemical analyses done at different universities, pharmaceutical companies and government research departments was published jointly by the US Committee on Medical Research and the British Medical Research Council in the journal ''[[w:Science (journal)|Science]]''. The report announced the existence of different forms of penicillin compounds that shared the same structural component called [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Committee on Medical Research|last2=Medical Research Council|date=1945|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17788243|journal=Science|volume=102|issue=2660|pages=627–629|doi=10.1126/science.102.2660.627|pmid=17788243|bibcode=1945Sci...102..627M}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the United Kingdom the penicillins were called penicillin I, II, III, and IV (Roman numerals were used according to the order of their discovery) while in the US scientists used letters such as F, G, K, and X that referred to their origins or sources as shown below:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!UK nomenclature
!US nomenclature
!Chemical name
|-
|Penicillin I
|Penicillin F
|2-Pentenylpenicillin
|-
|Penicillin II
|Penicillin G
|Benzylpenicillin
|-
|Penicillin III
|Penicillin X
|''p''-Hydroxybenzylpenicillin
|-
|Penicillin IV
|Penicillin K
|''n''-Heptylpenicillin
|}
The use of two different names for each penicillin caused confusion.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=F. A.|date=1947|title=Chemistry of penicillin|url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=an9477200274|journal=The Analyst|language=en|volume=72|issue=856|pages=274|doi=10.1039/an9477200274}}&lt;/ref&gt; As the chemical structures came to be known, the chemical names (based on the [[w:Side chain|side chains]] of the compounds&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;) further complicated their identification and application. Thus, penicillin literature became a mixture of three naming systems. Chemists mostly adhered to the chemical names,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=H. E.|last2=Ford|first2=J. H.|date=1950|title=Biochemistry of antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=487–516|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.19.070150.002415}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wintersteiner|first=O.|last2=Dutcher|first2=J. D.|date=1949|title=Chemistry of Antibiotics|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=18|issue=1|pages=559–594|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.18.070149.003015}}&lt;/ref&gt; while biologists preferred the classic numbered or lettered names.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ory|first=E. M.|date=1945|title=Penicillin X: Comparison with penicillin g with respect to sensitivity of pathogenic organisms and serum levels|url=http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|language=en|volume=129|issue=4|pages=257|doi=10.1001/jama.1945.02860380015004}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=W. H.|last2=Ward|first2=G. E.|last3=Coghill|first3=R. D.|date=1945|title=Penicillin: VI. Effect of dissociation phases of Bacillus subtilis on penicillin assay|url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|language=en|volume=49|issue=4|pages=411–412|doi=10.1128/jb.49.4.411-412.1945}}&lt;/ref&gt; To resolve the confusion, in 1948, Chain introduced the chemical names as standard nomenclature, remarking: &quot;To make the nomenclature as far as possible unambiguous it was decided to replace the system of numbers or letters by prefixes indicating the chemical nature of the side chain R.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chain|first=E|date=1948|title=The chemistry of penicillin|url=http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=657–704|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.17.070148.003301|pmid=18893607}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Further developments took place. In Austria, Hans Margreiter and Ernst Brandl of Biochemie (now [[w:Sandoz|Sandoz]]) developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, [[w:Phenoxymethylpenicillin|penicillin V]] in 1952.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Roehr|first=M.|date=2000|title=History of biotechnology in Austria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11036693|journal=Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology|volume=69|pages=125–149|doi=10.1007/3-540-44964-7_5|pmid=11036693}}&lt;/ref&gt; American chemist [[w:John C. Sheehan|John C. Sheehan]] at the [[w:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) completed the first chemical [[w:Total synthesis|synthesis]] of penicillin in 1957.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sheehan1957&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=H enery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=March 5, 1957|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=79|issue=5|pages=1262–1263|doi=10.1021/ja01562a063|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Sheehan1959&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Loganm|first2=Kenneth R.|date=June 20, 1959|title=The Total Synthesis of Penicillin V|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=81|issue=12|pages=3089–3094|doi=10.1021/ja01521a044|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NAPSheehan2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.nap.edu/readingroom.php?book=biomems&amp;page=jsheehan.html|title=Biographical Memoirs: John Clark Sheehan|last1=Corey|first1=E. J.|last2=Roberts|first2=John D.|publisher=The National Academy Press|access-date=January 28, 2013|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sheehan had started his studies into penicillin synthesis in 1948, and during these investigations developed new methods for the synthesis of [[w:peptide|peptides]], as well as new [[w:Protecting group|protecting groups]]—groups that mask the reactivity of certain functional groups.&lt;ref name=&quot;NAPSheehan2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nicolaou|first=K. C.|last2=Vourloumis|first2=Dionisios|last3=Winssinger|first3=Nicolas|last4=Baran|first4=Phil S.|date=2000|title=The Art and Science of Total Synthesis at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291521-3773%2820000103%2939%3A1%3C44%3A%3AAID-ANIE44%3E3.0.CO%3B2-L|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|language=en|volume=39|issue=1|pages=44–122|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000103)39:1&lt;44::AID-ANIE44&gt;3.0.CO;2-L|pmid=10649349}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although the initial synthesis developed by Sheehan was not appropriate for mass production of penicillins, one of the intermediate compounds in his synthesis was [[w:6-APA|6-aminopenicillanic acid]] (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Logan|first2=Kenneth R. Henery|date=1959|title=A general synthesis of the penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=81|issue=21|pages=5838–5839|doi=10.1021/ja01530a079|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Sheehan|first1=John C.|last2=Henery-Logan|first2=Kenneth R.|date=1962|title=The Total and Partial General Syntheses of the Penicillins|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|language=en|volume=84|issue=15|pages=2983–2990|doi=10.1021/ja00874a029|name-list-style=vanc}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An important moment in the history of penicillin was the discovery of 6-APA itself. In 1957, researchers at Surrey's Beecham Research Laboratories (now the [[w:Beecham Group|Beecham Group]]) isolated 6-APA from the culture media of ''P. chrysogenum''. As published in ''Nature'' (1959),&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Batchelor|first1=F. R.|last2=Doyle|first2=F. P.|last3=Nayler|first3=J. H.|last4=Rolinson|first4=G. N.|date=1959|title=Synthesis of penicillin: 6-aminopenicillanic acid in penicillin fermentations|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13622762|journal=Nature|volume=183|issue=4656|pages=257–258|bibcode=1959Natur.183..257B|doi=10.1038/183257b0|pmid=13622762|s2cid=4268993}}&lt;/ref&gt; 6-APA was found to constitute the core 'nucleus' of penicillin (in fact, all β-lactam antibiotics) and was easily chemically modified by attaching side chains through chemical reactions.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Molecular Modification in Drug Design|last=Sheehan|first=J.C.|vauthors=|date=1964|publisher=American Chemical Society|isbn=978-0-8412-0046-3|editor-last=Schueler|editor-first=F.W.|veditors=|series=Advances in Chemistry|volume=45|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=15–24|language=en|chapter=The Synthetic Penicillins|doi=10.1021/ba-1964-0045.ch002}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Hamilton-Miller|first=J.M.T.|date=2008|title=Development of the semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=31|issue=3|pages=189–92|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.010|pmid=18248798}}&lt;/ref&gt; This discovery paved the way for new and improved drugs as all semi-synthetic penicillins are produced from chemical manipulation of 6-APA.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Rolinson|first1=G. N.|last2=Geddes|first2=A. M.|date=2007|title=The 50th anniversary of the discovery of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17137753|journal=International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents|volume=29|issue=1|pages=3–8|doi=10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.09.003|pmid=17137753}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The second-generation semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. It is likely that [[w:Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant forms of ''Staphylococcus aureus'']] already existed at the time.&lt;ref name=&quot;Davies2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J.|last2=Davies|first2=D.|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Harkins|first=Catriona P.|last2=Pichon|first2=Bruno|last3=Doumith|first3=Michel|last4=Parkhill|first4=Julian|last5=Westh|first5=Henrik|last6=Tomasz|first6=Alexander|last7=de Lencastre|first7=Herminia|last8=Bentley|first8=Stephen D.|last9=Kearns|first9=Angela M.|date=2017|title=Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerged long before the introduction of methicillin into clinical practice|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724393|journal=Genome Biology|volume=18|issue=1|pages=130|doi=10.1186/s13059-017-1252-9|issn=1474-760X|pmc=5517843|pmid=28724393}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Outcomes ==

Penicillin patents became a matter of concern and conflict. Chain had wanted to apply for a patent but Florey and his teammates had objected arguing that penicillin should benefit all.&lt;ref name=&quot;:102&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gaynes|first=Robert|date=2017|title=The Discovery of Penicillin—New Insights After More Than 75 Years of Clinical Use|url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/23/5/16-1556_article.htm|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=23|issue=5|pages=849–853|doi=10.3201/eid2305.161556|pmc=5403050}}&lt;/ref&gt; He sought the advice of Sir [[w:Henry Hallett Dale|Henry Hallett Dale]] (Chairman of the [[w:Wellcome Trust|Wellcome Trust]] and member of the Scientific Advisory Panel to the Cabinet of British government) and John William Trevan (Director of the Wellcome Trust Research Laboratory). On 26 and 27 March 1941, Dale and Trevan met at Sir William Dunn School of Pathology to discuss the issue. Dale specifically advised that patenting penicillin would be unethical.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abraham|first=Edward Penley|date=1983|title=Ernst Boris Chain, 19 June 1906 - 12 August 1979|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society|language=en|volume=29|pages=42–91|doi=10.1098/rsbm.1983.0003|issn=0080-4606}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not giving up, Chain approached Sir Edward Mellanby, then Secretary of the Medical Research Council, who also objected on ethical grounds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Slinn|first=Judy|date=2008|title=Patents and the UK pharmaceutical industry between 1945 and the 1970s|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07341510701810963|journal=History and Technology|language=en|volume=24|issue=2|pages=191–205|doi=10.1080/07341510701810963|issn=0734-1512}}&lt;/ref&gt; As Chain later admitted, he had &quot;many bitter fights&quot; with Mellanby,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; but Mellanby's decision was accepted as final.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;

In 1945, Moyer patented the methods for production and isolation of penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite patent|country=US|number=2442141|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=25 March 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite patent|country=US|number=2443989|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=22 June 1948|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite patent|country=US|number=2476107|title=Method for Production of Penicillin|gdate=12 July 1949|inventor=Moyer AJ|assign1=US Agriculture}}&lt;/ref&gt; Moyer could not obtain a patent in the US as an employee of the NRRL, and filed his patent at the British Patent Office (now the [[w:Intellectual Property Office (United Kingdom)|Intellectual Property Office]]). He gave the license to a US company, [[w:Commercial Solvents Corporation|Commercial Solvents Corporation]]. Although completely legal, his colleague Coghill felt it was an injustice for outsiders to have the royalties for the &quot;British discovery.&quot; A year later, Moyer asked Coghill for permission to file another patent based on the use of phenylacetic acid that increased penicillin production by 66%, but as the principal researcher, Coghill refused.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Tyabji|first=Nasir|date=2004|title=Gaining Technical Know-How in an Unequal World: Penicillin Manufacture in Nehru's India|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/84236/1/MPRA_paper_84236.pdf|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=45|issue=2|pages=331–349|jstor=40060744|doi=10.1353/tech.2004.0097}}&lt;/ref&gt;

When Fleming learned of the American patents on penicillin production, he was infuriated and commented:&lt;blockquote&gt;I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?&lt;ref name=&quot;:072&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allison|first=V. D.|date=1974|title=Personal recollections of Sir Almroth Wright and Sir Alexander Fleming.|journal=The Ulster Medical Journal|volume=43|issue=2|pages=89–98|pmc=2385475|pmid=4612919}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the 1945 [[w:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] &quot;for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2020-07-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hodgkin received the 1964 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] &quot;for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1964/summary/|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US|access-date=2021-10-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Development of penicillin-derivatives ==
The narrow range of treatable diseases of the penicillins prompted further search for derivatives of penicillin. The isolation of 6-APA allowed preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements in terms of bioavailability, spectrum, stability, tolerance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kirby|first=W. M.|last2=Bulger|first2=R. J.|date=1964|title=The new penicillins and cephalosporins|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14133855|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|volume=15|pages=393–412|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.15.020164.002141|pmid=14133855}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first major development was the production of [[w:ampicillin|ampicillin]] by the Beecham Research Laboratories in London in 1961.&lt;ref name=&quot;acred&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Acred|first=P.|last2=Brown|first2=P.|last3=Turner|first3=D.H.|last4=Wilson|first4=M.J.|date=1962|title=Pharmacology and chemotherapy of ampicillin--a new broad-spectrum penicillin|journal=British Journal of Pharmacology and Chemotherapy|volume=18|issue=2|pages=356–69|doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.1962.tb01416.x|pmc=1482127|pmid=13859205|vauthors=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ampicillin had advantages over the original penicillin as it showed activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.&lt;ref name=&quot;acred&quot; /&gt; Further development yielded [[w:Β-lactam antibiotic|β-lactamase-resistant penicillins]], including [[w:flucloxacillin|flucloxacillin]], [[w:dicloxacillin|dicloxacillin]], and [[w:methicillin|methicillin]], which were specifically active against β-lactamase-producing bacterial species, but not against the methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' strains that subsequently emerged.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|date=March 1965|title=Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci in a General Hospital|journal=Lancet|language=en|volume=1|issue=7385|pages=595–7|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(65)91165-7|pmid=14250094|vauthors=Colley EW, Mcnicol MW, Bracken PM}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Another development in penicillin synthesis was the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as [[w:carbenicillin|carbenicillin]], [[w:ticarcillin|ticarcillin]], and [[w:piperacillin|piperacillin]], useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria. The penicillins and related β-lactams have become the most widely used antibiotics in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Sousa Coelho|first=F.|last2=Mainardi|first2=J.-L.|date=2021-01-05|title=The multiple benefits of second-generation β-lactamase inhibitors in treatment of multidrug-resistant bacteria|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33870896|journal=Infectious Diseases Now|volume=online|doi=10.1016/j.idnow.2020.11.007|pmid=33870896|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Amoxicillin|Amoxicillin]], a semisynthetic penicillin developed by Beecham Research Laboratories in 1970,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Croydon|first=E. A.|last2=Sutherland|first2=R.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: absorption and excretion in man|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5521362|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=427–430|pmid=5521362}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sutherland|first=R.|last2=Rolinson|first2=G. N.|date=1970|title=α-amino-p-hydroxybenzylpenicillin (BRL 2333), a new semisynthetic penicillin: in vitro evaluation|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5000265|journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy|volume=10|pages=411–415|doi=10.1128/AAC.10.3.411|pmid=5000265}}&lt;/ref&gt; is the single-most commonly used.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Burch|first=D. G. S.|last2=Sperling|first2=D.|date=2018|title=Amoxicillin-current use in swine medicine|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jvp.12482|journal=Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=356–368|doi=10.1111/jvp.12482|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Aberer|first=Werner|last2=Macy|first2=Eric|date=2017|title=Moving toward optimizing testing for penicillin allergy|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28483319|journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice|volume=5|issue=3|pages=684–685|doi=10.1016/j.jaip.2017.03.020|pmid=28483319|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the usefulness of these penicillins and later developed antibiotics, including the [[w:Mecillinam|mecillinams]], the [[w:Carbapenem|carbapenems]] and, most important, the [[w:Cephalosporin|cephalosporins]], is limited by the common structure, the [[w:β-lactam|β-lactam]] ring,&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=James|first=C.W.|last2=Gurk-Turner|first2=C.|date=2001|title=Cross-reactivity of beta-lactam antibiotics|journal=Proceedings|volume=14|issue=1|pages=106–7|doi=10.1080/08998280.2001.11927741|pmc=1291320|pmid=16369597}}&lt;/ref&gt; which is not only the antibiotic active part of the chemical compound, but also the target site of bacteria in drug resistance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lima|first=Lidia Moreira|last2=Silva|first2=Bianca Nascimento Monteiro da|last3=Barbosa|first3=Gisele|last4=Barreiro|first4=Eliezer J.|date=2020|title=β-lactam antibiotics: An overview from a medicinal chemistry perspective|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33002736|journal=European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry|volume=208|pages=112829|doi=10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112829|pmid=33002736}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Drug resistance ==
In his Nobel lecture, Fleming warned of the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions:&lt;blockquote&gt;The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.&lt;ref name=&quot;:30&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;In 1940, Chain and Abraham reported the first indication of [[w:antibiotic resistance|antibiotic resistance]] to penicillin, an ''E. coli'' strain that produced the [[w:penicillinase|penicillinase]] enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and completely negating its antibacterial effect.&lt;ref name=&quot;Davies2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lobanovska&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lobanovska|first=M.|last2=Pilla|first2=G.|date=2017|title=Penicillin's Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for the Future?|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=90|issue=1|pages=135–145|pmc=5369031|pmid=28356901}}&lt;/ref&gt; They worked out the chemical nature of penicillinase which they reported in ''[[w:Nature (journal)|Nature]]'':&lt;blockquote&gt;The conclusion that the active substance is an enzyme is drawn from the fact that it is destroyed by heating at 90° for 5 minutes and by incubation with [[w:papain|papain]] activated with potassium cyanide at pH 6, and that it is non-dialysable through '[[w:Cellophane|Cellophane]]' membranes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Abraham|first=E.P.|last2=Chain|first2=E.|date=1940|title=An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/146837a0|journal=Nature|volume=10|issue=4|pages=677–8|bibcode=1940Natur.146..837A|doi=10.1038/146837a0|pmid=3055168|vauthors=|s2cid=4070796}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;By 1942, some strains of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' had developed a strong resistance to penicillin. Eighteen years later, most of the strains were resistant to penicillin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Lowy|first=F.D.|date=2003|title=Antimicrobial resistance: the example of Staphylococcus aureus|journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation|volume=111|issue=9|pages=1265–73|doi=10.1172/JCI18535|pmc=154455|pmid=12727914|vauthors=}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1967, ''[[w:Streptococcus pneumoniae|Streptococcus pneumoniae]]'' was also reported to be penicillin resistant. Many other strains of bacteria have eventually developed, and continue to develop a resistance to penicillin.&lt;ref name=&quot;Davies&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Davies|first=J|last2=Davies|first2=D|date=2010|title=Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|volume=74|issue=3|pages=417–33|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-10|pmc=2937522|pmid=20805405|vauthors=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Lobanovska&quot;/&gt;

== Additional information ==

=== Acknowledgement ===
Literature access provided by the [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library|Wikipedia Library]].

=== Competing interests ===
The authors have no competing interests.

=== Ethics statement ===
No ethics approval applicable.

=== Funding ===
None.

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2409408</id>
      <parentid>2409407</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T08:59:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lana E. W. Jones</username>
        <id>2947109</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20614" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - U3214117
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2409409</id>
      <parentid>2409408</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3214117</username>
        <id>2947110</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20645" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:Username/Subpage|User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409411</id>
      <parentid>2409409</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T09:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3214117</username>
        <id>2947110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20623" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>mqq0ct7o98gj4vblg90uy8s71e9lolh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409415</id>
      <parentid>2409411</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T09:39:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20594" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - U3086459
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2409417</id>
      <parentid>2409415</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:08:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20612" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography B</title>
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      <text bytes="32297" xml:space="preserve">{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography}}
'''[[User:Jtwsaddress42/People_B|&lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;]]'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
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* {{cite book | last= Barbieri | first= Marcello | year= 2002 | title= The Organic Codes: An Introduction to Semantic Biology | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= December 2002 | isbn= 978-0-521-82414-9 | url= https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/life-sciences/evolutionary-biology/organic-codes-introduction-semantic-biology?format=HB&amp;isbn=9780521824149 }}
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* {{cite journal | last= Baudoin | first= Olivier | year= 2007 | title= New Approaches For Decarboxylative Biaryl Coupling | journal= Angewandte Chemie International Edition | volume= 46 | number= 9 | pages= 1373-1375 | publication-date= February 19, 2007 | pmid= 17387652 | doi= 10.1002/anie.200604494 | url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.200604494 }}
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography D</title>
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{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Daley, Allison}}
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* {{cite journal | last1= Dworkin | first1= Jason P. | last2= Lazcano | first2= Antonio | last3= Miller, | first3= Stanley L. | year= 2003 | title= The Roads To And From The RNA World&lt; | journal= Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume= 222 | number= 1 | pages= 127-134 | publication-date= May 7, 2003 | pmid= 12699739 | doi= 10.1016/s0022-5193(03)00020-1 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022519303000201?via%3Dihub }}
* {{cite AV media | last= Dyer | first= Jayme | year= 2015 | title= Knowing Where to Go: How Cells Drive Without Eyes | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) | publication-date= October 12, 2015 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oZWEWbvlVdE&amp;list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&amp;index=69 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]  (0:34:56)
* {{cite book | last= Dyson | first= Freeman J. | year= 1985 | title= Origins of Life | edition= 2 | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= 1999 | isbn=  978-0-511-54630-3 | doi= 10.1017/CBO9780511546303 | url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/origins-of-life/B0B8C13086C4DA8CF98A0A65E29BDB62#fndtn-information }}
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography E</title>
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* {{cite journal | last= Eakin | first= Robert E. | year= 1963 | title= An Approach to the Evolution of Metabolism | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA | volume= 49 | number= 3 | pages= 360-366 | publication-date= 1963 | pmid= 16591058 | pmc= 299833 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.49.3.360 | url= https://www.pnas.org/content/49/3/360 }}
* {{cite journal | last= Eberhard | first= William G. | year= 1980 | title= Evolutionary consequences of intracellular organelle competition  | journal= The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume= 55 | number= 3 | pages= 231-249 | publication-date= September 1980 | pmid= 7208806 | doi= 10.1086/411855 | url= https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/411855 }}
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* {{cite journal | last= Echols | first= William | year= 2022 | title= Chinese Professor Says All Ukrainians Fair Game After Bucha Massacre | journal= Polygraph.info | series= Politics | publication-date= April 5, 2022 | url= https://www.polygraph.info/a/fact-check-bucha-massacre-ukraine-china/31787255.html }}
* {{cite book | last= Eddington | first= Arthur S. | year= 1920 | title= Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory | publisher= Cambridge University Press | publication-date= March 1987 | isbn= 978-0-521-33709-0 | url= https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/physics/cosmology-relativity-and-gravitation/space-time-and-gravitation-outline-general-relativity-theory?format=PB&amp;isbn=9780521337090 }}
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* {{cite journal | last1= Edwards | first1= Heather E. | last2= Burnham | first2= W. McIntyre | year= 2001 | title= The Impact of Corticosteroids on the Developing Animal | journal= Pediatric Research | volume= 50 | number= 4 | pages= 433-440 | publication-date= October 1, 2001 | pmid= 11568284 | doi= 10.1203/00006450-200110000-00003 | url= https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2001199 }}
* {{cite journal | last= Edwards | first= Matthew R. | year= 1998 | title= From a Soup or a Seed? Pyritic Metabolic Complexes in the Origin of Life | journal= Trends in Ecology and Evolution | volume= 13 | number= 5 | pages= 178-181 | publication-date= May 1998 | pmid= 21238256 | doi= 10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01317-7 | url= https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/pdf/S0169-5347(97)01317-7.pdf?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0169534797013177%3Fshowall%3Dtrue }}
* {{cite book | last= Ege | first= Seyhan N. | year= 1999 | title= Organic Chemistry: Structure and Reactivity | publisher= Houghton Mifflin | isbn= 978-0-395-98273-0 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Organic_Chemistry/bJ0XMQAACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last= Ehrlich | first= Paul | year= 1908 | chapter= Partial Cell Functions (Nobel Lecture) | title= Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam | publication-date= 1967 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/ehrlich-lecture.pdf }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Eigen | first1= Manfred | last2= Gardiner | first2= William | last3= Schuster | first3= Peter | last4= Winkler-Oswtitsch | first4= Ruthild | year= 1981 | title= The Origin of Genetic Information | journal= Scientific American | volume= 224 | number= 4 | pages= 88-118 | publication-date= April 1981 | pmid= 6164094 | doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0481-88 | url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origin-of-genetic-information/ }}
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* {{cite AV media | last= Eisenhower | first= Dwight D. | year= 1953 | title= Cross of Iron - Address to the American Society of Newspaper Editors | series= Delivered at the Statler Hotel, Washington, D.C. | publisher= American Rhetoric Online Speech Bank | medium= .mp3 | publication-date= April 19, 1953 | url= https://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clips/politicalspeeches/dwighteisenhowerpeace.mp3 }} [https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/dwighteisenhowercrossofiron.htm (transcript)]  (0:25:46)
* {{cite journal | last1= Elder | first1= Sonia S. | last2= Emmerson | first2= Elaine | year= 2020 | publication-date= December 23, 2020 | title= Senescent cells and macrophages: key players for regeneration? | journal= Open Biology | volume= 10 | number= 12 | page= 200309 | doi= 10.1098/rsob.200309 | pmid= 33352064 | pmc= 7776574 }}
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* {{cite encyclopedia | author= Encyclopedia Britannica | encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Britannica | title= Gerald Maurice Edelman - American physical chemist | date= 2021 | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | access-date = October 28, 2021 | url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerald-Edelman }}
*{{cite encyclopedia | author= Encyclopedia of World Biography | encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of World Biography | title= Gerald M. Edelman Biography | date= 2021 | publisher=  Advameg, Inc.Inc. | access-date = October 28, 2021 | url= https://www.notablebiographies.com/supp/Supplement-Ca-Fi/Edelman-Gerald-M.html }}
* {{cite book | last= Eldredge | first= Niles | year= 1987 | title= Life Pulse: Episodes from the Story of the Fossil Record | publisher= Facts on File | isbn= 978-0-816-01151-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Life_Pulse/HJtmQgAACAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Elvidge | first1= J.A. | last2= Foster | first2= R.G. | year= 1964 | title= 191. Monomethyl-Indoles, -Benzofurans, And -Benzothiophens, Their Long-range And Other Proton-proton Couplings, And The Non-equivalence Of Methylene Protons In Some Intermediate Diethyl Acetals | journal= Journal Of The Chemical Society | number= 0 | pages= 981-991 | publication-date= 1964 | doi= 10.1039/JR9640000981 | url= https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/1964/jr/jr9640000981 }}
* {{cite journal | last= Ereira | first= Alan | year= 1991 | title= From The Heart Of Darkness - The Elder Brothers' Warning | publisher= Mystic Fire Video | publication-date= September 28, 1991 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hRgTtrQOiR0&amp;feature=emb_imp_woyt }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (1:26:53)
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* {{cite journal | last1= Essner Jr. | first1= Richard L. | last2=  Pereira | first2= Rudá E.E. | last3= Blackburn | first3= David C. | last4= Singh | first4= Amber L. | last5= Stanley | first5= Edward L. | last6= Moura | first6= Mauricio O. | last7= Confetti | first7= André E. | last8= Pie | first8= Marcio R. | year= 2022 | title= Semicircular canal size constrains vestibular function in miniaturized frogs | series= Research Article - Evolutionary Biology | journal= Science Advances | volume= 8 | number= 24| pages= abn1104 | publication-date= June 15, 2022 | pmid= 35704574 | doi= 10.1126/sciadv.abn110 | url= https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abn1104 }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Euzenat | first1= Lisenn | last2= Horhant | first2= David | last3= Ribourdouille | first3= Yann | last4= Duriez | first4= Christophe | last5= Alcaraz | first5= Gilles | last6= Vaultier | first6= Michel | year= 2003 | title= Monomeric (Dialkylamino)Boranes: A New And Efficient Boron Source In Palladium Catalyzed C-B Bond Formation With Aryl Halides | journal= Chemical Communications | number= 18 | pages= 2280-2281 | publication-date= 2003 | pmid= 14518874 | doi= 10.1039/b306874a | url= https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=B306874A }}
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography G</title>
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* {{cite AV media | last= Galambos | first= Robert | year= 1996 | title= History Of Neuroscience - Robert Galambos | publisher= Society For Neuroscience | medium= Recorded May 25, 1996 | publication-date= July 5, 2012 | url= https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-videos/galambos,-robert }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:57:03)
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Galis, Frietson}}
* {{cite journal | last= Gallagher | first= Richard B. | year= 1997 | title= Population biology of lymphocytes | journal= Science | volume= 276 | number= 5320 | pages= 1817 | publication-date= June 20, 1997 | pmid= 9206842 | doi= 10.1126/science.276.5320.1817 | url= https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.276.5320.1817?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed }}
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* {{cite book | last= Gould | first= James L. | year= 2002 | chapter= Can Honey Bees Create Cognitive Maps ? | title= The Cognitive Animal:  Empirical And Theoretical Perspectives On Animal Cognition | editor= Marc Bekoff, Colin Allen, and Gordon M. Burghardt | number= 6 | pages= 41-45 | publisher= MIT Press | publication-date= June 2002 | isbn= 978-0-262-52322-6 | url= https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/cognitive-animal }}
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* {{cite journal | last= Graber | first= B. | year= 1987 | title= A Thirteenth Cranial Nerve:  The Cloacal Nerve | journal= Medical Hypotheses | volume= 24 | number= 3 | pages= 231-240 | publication-date= November 1987 | pmid= 3320693 | doi= 10.1016/0306-9877(87)90069-7 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0306987787900697?via%3Dihub }}
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* {{cite journal | last1= Grailhe | first1= Regis | last2= Grabtree | first2= Gregg W. | last3= Hen | first3= Rene | year= 2001 | title= Human 5-HT Receptors: The 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;5A&lt;/sub&gt; Receptor Is Functional But The 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;5B&lt;/sub&gt; Receptor Was Lost During Mammalian Evolution | journal= European Journal of Pharmacology | volume= 418 | pages= 157-167 | pmid= 11343685 | doi= 10.1016/s0014-2999(01)00933-5 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0014299901009335?via%3Dihub }}
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* {{cite journal | last= Green | first= Beverly R. | year= 2001 | title= Was &quot;Molecular Opportunism&quot; a Factor in the Evolution of Different Photosynthetic Light-Harvesting Pigment Systems? | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA | volume= 98 | number= 5 | pages= 2119-2121 | publication-date= February 27, 2001 | pmid= 11226200 | pmc= 33384 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.061023198 | url= https://www.pnas.org/content/98/5/2119.long }}
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{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Greengard, Paul}}
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* {{cite AV media | last= Greenwald | first= Glen | year= 2022 | title= The War in Ukraine | publisher= Substack | medium= Recorded February 24, 2022 | publication-date= February 24, 2022 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnHo6JXxcQM&amp;t=5313s }} [https://greenwald.substack.com/p/the-war-in-ukraine?utm_source=url Rumble] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (1:29:44)
* {{cite book | last= Gregory | first= Richard L. | year= 1990 | title= Eye And Brain:  The Psychology Of Seeing | edition= 4th | publisher= Princeton University Press | isbn= 978-0-691-02456-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/zmqDQgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwifnNrpjJ3zAhXUMX0KHT2iA5cQre8FegQIAxA8 }}
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{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gurdjieff, Georges I.}}
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* {{cite book | last1= Kafatos | first1= Menas | last2= Nadeau | first2= Robert | year= 1990 | title= The Conscious Universe: Parts and Wholes in Physical Reality | publisher= Springer Verlag | isbn= 978-3-540-97262-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/B6b1mAEACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE_8vM7Kr0AhX3FjQIHWrSCxEQ8fIDegQIAxAk }}
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* {{cite journal | last1= Katz | first1= Paul S. | last2= Harris-Warrick | first2= Ronald M. | year= 1999 | title= The Evolution of Neuronal Circuits Underlying Species-specific Behavior | journal= Current Opinion in Neurobiology | volume= 9 | number= 5 | pages= 628-633 | publication-date= October 1, 1999 | pmid= 10508740 | doi= 10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00012-4 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959438899000124?via%3Dihub }}
* {{cite book | last= Kauffman | first= Stuart | year= 1995 | title= At Home In The Universe: The Search for the Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity | publisher= Oxford University Press | publication-date= 1996 | isbn= 978-0-195-11130-9 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/At_Home_in_the_Universe_The_Search_for_t/_xsu8LcKqy4C?hl=en }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Kazantsev | first1= V.B. | last2= Nekorkin | first2= V.I. | last3= Makarenko | first3= V.I. | last4= Llinás | first4= Rudulfo | year= 2003 | title= Olivo-cerebellar cluster-based universal control system | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA | volume= 100 | number= 22 | pages= 13064-13068 | publication-date= October 28, 2003 | pmid= 14551321| pmc= 240745 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.1635110100 | url= https://www.pnas.org/content/100/22/13064 }}
* {{cite journal | last= Kazimi | first= Mujid S. | year= 2003 | title= Thorium Fuel for Nuclear Energy: An Unconventional Tactic May Someday Reduce the Risk of Proliferation | journal= American Scientist | volume= 91 | number= 5 | pages= 408-415 | publication-date= September-October 2003 | url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/27858271 }}
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* {{cite book | last= Shettleworth | first= Sara J. | year= 2002 | chapter= Spatial Behavior, Food Storing, And The Modular Mind | title= The Cognitive Animal:  Empirical And Theoretical Perspectives On Animal Cognition | editor= Marc Bekoff, Colin Allen, and Gordon M. Burghardt | number= 16 | pages= 123-128 | publisher= MIT Press | isbn= 978-0-262-52322-6 | url= https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/cognitive-animal }}
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* {{cite journal | last1= Shu | first1= Weiguo | last2= Cho | first2= Julie Y. | last3= Jiang | first3= Yuhui | last4= Zhang | first4= Minhua | last5= Weisz | first5= Donald | last6= Elderd | first6= Gregory A. | last7= Schmeidlerd | first7= James | last8= De Gasperid | first8= Rita | last9= Gama Sosad | first9= Miguel A. | last10= Rabidouj | first10= Donald | last11= Santuccij | first11= Anthony C. | last12= Perld | first12= Daniel | last13= Morriseya | first13= Edward | last14= Buxbaum | first14= Joseph D. | year= 2005 | title= Altered Ultrasonic Vocalization in Mice with a Disruption in the Foxp2 Gene | journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA | volume= 102 | number= 27 | pages= 9643-9648 | publication-date= July 5, 2005 | pmid= 15983371 | pmc= 1160518 | doi= 10.1073/pnas.0503739102 | url= https://www.pnas.org/content/102/27/9643.long }}
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{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Szostak, Jack}}
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{{User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Gilbert, Scott F.}}
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    <title>UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science</title>
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      <comment>/* Assignments and Rubrics */ Corrected number of assignments from 3 to 4. (3 essays, a list, plus a final project)</comment>
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      <text bytes="21573" xml:space="preserve">This page contains an open syllabus, assignments--including interactive multiple choice self-check questions--and rubrics for a semester-long course teaching [[wikipedia:Open_science|open science]] through the lens of the [https://en.unesco.org/science-sustainable-future/open-science/recommendation UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science]. The syllabus and materials were created as part of the [https://oe4bw.org/ Open Education for a Better World] (OE4BW) program. The course is designed for early career researchers, defined as advanced undergraduates through tenure track faculty. 

The syllabus and course materials are also available on Zenodo. 

Miller, Jennifer. (2022). Open Syllabus: UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science (1.0). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5823531 

Miller, Jennifer. (2022). Question Bank for Open Syllabus UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science (1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5832063 

All readings from the syllabus are included in this [https://www.zotero.org/groups/4703897/open_syllabus_open_science/collections/GSR3PWWN Zotero bibliography for the Open Syllabus: UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science]. 

== Course learning outcomes ==
* Explain and identify examples of the human right to science as adopted in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
* Describe how the development of scientific institutions is essential to achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.
* Explain the concept of open science from multiple perspectives, including the UNESCO Recommendation of Open Science.
* Apply open science principles in personally relevant institutional, geographic, and disciplinary contexts.

== Expected preparation ==
Participants will get the most out of this course if they are already familiar with some of the practicalities of scientific work: 

* The publication of scientific research in peer-reviewed journals
* The structure of academic research careers, including terms such as graduate research assistants, postdocs, (non)tenure-track, and tenure.
* The role of grant funding in academic science
* Hypothesis testing

With the exception of hypothesis testing, much of this relevant preparatory knowledge is tacit. That is, it is mostly gained through experience rather than explicitly taught in a curriculum. 

For example, advanced undergraduates who have already begun to read some original reports of research from peer-reviewed journals will probably benefit more than first-year students who have been exposed to science mostly through introductory survey textbooks. Graduate students or more advanced undergraduates with some experience working in a lab are even more likely to benefit from and enjoy the course. The material will have the greatest impact on participants who have already begun to feel the tensions between open and traditional models of science. Although the course can be used in any modality, it is designed to support the formation of communities for students to engage with these issues in their local contexts.

== Weekly readings and materials ==
Weekly course materials including learning outcomes, readings, discussion questions, and interactive self-check questions. 

=== [[Open Science/Week 1: Introduction]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 2: Science in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 3: Science in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 4: UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 5: Common Understanding of Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 6: Diverse Paths to Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 7: Innovations Throughout the Scientific Process]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 8: Enabling Policy Environment for Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 9: Capacity Building for Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 10: Open Science Infrastructures]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 11: Incentives for Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 12: Scientific Culture for Quality, Integrity, and Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 13: International Cooperation in Open Science]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 14: Synthesis]] ===

=== [[Open Science/Week 15: Application, Feedback and Final Project]] ===

== Assignments and Rubrics ==
In addition to weekly graded discussions, the course includes four assignments and a final project:
*Essay: Goals for the Course
* Essay: Perspective on Open Science
* Essay: Comparing Open Science Contexts
* Annotated Resource List
* Final Project

There is an option to design your own individual or group  final project. Students wishing to explore this option should open discussion with the instructor early in the course.

Except as otherwise noted, assignment rubrics are adapted from CC Certificate: Final Project with Grading Rubrics, Creative Commons, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 

=== Discussion Rubrics ===

==== Synchronous Discussion Rubric ====
Suggested use: Grade each student on each criterion. A student’s average across the 3 criteria results in a grade of 1-3, with a grade of 0 for students who were not present for the discussion. If you will have a lot of graded synchronous discussions, consider allowing students to earn full points with a moderate number of absences. Contributions to the discussion may include asking students to submit potential discussion questions to you in advance.
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible&quot;
|+Synchronous Discussion Rubric
!Criteria
!Exceeds Expectations
!Meets Expectations
!Below Expectations
|-
|Points
!3
!2
!1
|-
|Insightful contributions
|Contributions to discussion demonstrate full and insightful understanding of material
|Contributions to discussion demonstrate basic understanding of material
|Contributions to discussion suggest student has not read or thought much about the material
|-
|Regularity of contributions
|Contributions to discussion are frequent
|Student sometimes offers contributions to discussion
|Student seldom (if ever) offers contributions
|-
|Application of Material
|Student demonstrates ability to apply material to personal, disciplinary or geographic research context
|Student demonstrates some ability to apply material to personal, disciplinary or geographic research context
|Student demonstrates little to no ability to apply material to personal, disciplinary or geographic research context
|}
Open Science Synchronous Discussion Rubric, Authored by: Jennifer Miller. License: CC BY: Attribution is an adaptation of Discussion Rubric.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-monroecc-collegecomp/chapter/discussion-rubric/|title=Discussion Rubric {{!}} College Composition|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|access-date=2021-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; Authored by: Elizabeth Johnston. License: [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY: Attribution]]

==== Asynchronous Discussion Rubric ====
Suggested use: Establish deadlines for original posts and replies. Grade each student on each criterion. A student’s average across the 3 criteria results in a grade of 1-3, with a grade of 0 for students who did not participate in the discussion. Depending on students’ levels of experience and goals for the course, you may choose to use only the quality criteria, or to use the more procedural criteria (organization, quantity, and timeliness) as scaffolding only for the first few discussions.
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Asynchronous Discussion Rubric
!Criteria
!Exceeds Expectations
!Meets Expectations
!Below Expectations
|-
|Points
!3
!2
!1
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |Quality of Initial Post
|Initial comment fully addresses all aspects of the discussion
|Initial comment addresses most aspects of the discussion
|Initial comment addresses part of the discussion or assigned readings
|-
|Comment includes two or more personal or professional experiences
|Comment includes some personal or professional experience
|Comment includes minimal or no personal or professional experience
|-
|Demonstrates excellent critical thinking skills through multiple examples and ideas
|Demonstrates adequate critical thinking through some examples and ideas
|Demonstrates minimal or no critical thinking with minimal examples and ideas
|-
|Excellent discussion of course readings or other resources if appropriate
|Good discussion of course readings or other resources if appropriate
|Minimal or no discussion of course readings or other resources if appropriate
|-
|Quality of Response Postings
|Responses are highly reflective, insightful and add to the discussion in a meaningful way
|Responses are reflective, insightful and add to the discussion in a meaningful way
|Responses are minimally reflective or insightful and do not significantly add to the discussion in a meaningful way
|-
|Organization of All Posts
|Information is exceptionally well-organized; There are no errors in grammar or language use that confuse the reader. Complete sentences are used. Proper citations are effectively used.
|Information is well-organized; Complete sentences are used. Proper citations are used.
|Organization is scattered; Some incomplete sentences used. Citations are used.
|-
|Posting Quantity and Timeliness of All Posts
|Initial posting and at least two responses. All postings made on at least two different days before the due date.
|Initial posting and at least one response. All postings made on at least two different days before the due date.
|Initial posting and/ or a response. All postings made on the same day on or before the due date.
|}
Open Science Asynchronous Discussion Rubric, Authored by: Jennifer Miller. License: [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY: Attribution]] is an adaptation of Discussion Rubric&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-pima-constitution/chapter/sample-discussion-rubric/|title=Sample: Discussion Rubric {{!}} State and Federal Constitution|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|access-date=2021-10-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Authored by: Mike Cook. Provided by: Pima Community College. License: [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY: Attribution]]

==== Student-Led Synchronous Discussion Rubric ====
Recommended use: Assign a small team of student facilitators for the week. Each person in the class completes the rubric. Average the scores from all rubrics. All students present for the discussion earn the same grade for the discussion. If you will have a lot of graded synchronous discussions, consider allowing students to earn full points with a moderate number of absences.
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Student-Led Synchronous Discussion Rubric
!Criteria
!Exceeds Expectations
!Meets Expectations
!Below Expectations
|-
|Points
!3
!2
!1
|-
|Subject matter coverage
|Speakers, including presenters and participants, collectively provide full, well- informed coverage of the topic.
|Speakers, collectively including presenters and participants, provide coverage of the topic sufficient for achievement of learning outcomes, with some minor gaps.
|Significant gaps in coverage of the topic left the discussion short of aiding achievement of some learning outcomes.
|-
|Clarity and Facilitation
|Material was clearly presented and facilitation, aided by both presenters and participants,  sustained conversation flow.
|Minor gaps in clarity of presentation and/or conversation flow
|Gaps in clarity of presentation and/or conversation flow limited the usefulness of the discussion.
|-
|Visual Aids
|Visual aids were relevant to the topic and added to rather than distracted from overall discussion, in part a function of quality. Participants engaged with visual aids. Avoided overuse.
|Visual aids were relevant to the topic. Some room for improvement in quality and level of engagement.
|Visual aids were absent, irrelevant, distracting, or ignored. 
|-
|Creativity
|Class discussion was engaging, informative, creative, and relevant
|Class discussion was relevant and informative with some effort to foster engagement and creativity
|Class discussion notably lacking in engagement and creativity, or sacrificed relevance to achieve those goals
|}
Student-Led Discussion Rubric, Authored by: Jennifer Miller. License: [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY: Attribution]] is an adaptation of  Discussion Rubric&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Authored by: Mike Cook. Provided by: Pima Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution. Discussion Peer Evaluation Rubric&lt;ref&gt;Discussion Peer Evaluation Rubric by Lisa Rodrigues https://www1.villanova.edu/content/dam/villanova/vital/pdfs/discussionpeerevalrubricrodrigues1114.pdf&lt;/ref&gt; by Lisa Rodrigues was also used as a source to develop this rubric.

=== Essay Rubrics ===
Communicate length, citation, and other expectations consistent with your course setting. Consider 250 words for the Goals for the Course Essay  and 500 words for the Perspective on Open Science and Comparing Open Science Contexts Essays.

==== Goals for the Course Essay Rubric ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Goals for the Course Essay Rubric
!Criteria 
!Total points available
!Points offered
|-
|Essay demonstrates a familiarity with course content and process as described in the syllabus.
|1
|
|-
|Essay expresses personal goals related to course content and learning outcomes.
|2
|
|-
|Essay expresses personal goals related to process, including attendance, feedback, grades, and classroom interactions.
|2
|
|}

==== Perspective on Open Science Essay Rubric ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Perspective on Open Science Essay Rubric
!Criteria
!Total points available
!Points offered
|-
|Essay shows your ability to explain the relationship of science to human rights and/ or the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
|2
|
|-
|Essay shows your ability to explain open science as presented in the UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science. 
|2
|
|-
|Essay shows your ability to connect the concepts of open science to a context with which you are familiar.
|2
|
|-
|Essay supports claims with evidence and cites sources using a standard citation format. 
|3
|
|-
|Apply a Creative Commons or other open license to your work, or provide a statement explaining why you are not doing so.
|1
|
|}

==== Comparing Open Science Across Contexts Rubric ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Comparing Open Science Across Contexts Rubric
!Criteria
!Total points available
!Points offered
|-
|Essay shows your ability to explain how open science concepts are found in at least two different contexts.
|4
|
|-
|Essay includes comparisons highlighting similarities and/ or differences between the contexts presented. 
|2
|
|-
|Essay supports claims with evidence and cites sources using a standard citation format. 
|3
|
|-
|Apply a Creative Commons or other open license to your work, or provide a statement explaining why you are not doing so.
|1
|
|}

==== Annotated Resource List Rubric ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Annotated Resource List Rubric
!Criteria
!Total points available
!Points offered
|-
|Submission includes at least five annotated resources relevant to open science. Please clarify if you are sharing a new resource or annotating a resource already listed on the syllabus.
|2
|
|-
|Submission includes title, author, and link to each suggested resource as well as licensing (e.g. CC BY, CC BY-SA) or copyright status (all rights reserved, public

domain) of each suggested resource.
|2
|
|-
|Submission includes an annotation of each resource that describes and evaluates the resource, including why each resource is relevant to the course subject matter.
|3
|
|-
|Submission includes the week number for the specific area of the course to which each resource is related
|1
|
|-
|The five (or more) suggested resources are summarized in a document. (In addition, you may choose to organize/arrange the resources in a blog, on a website, etc.)
|1
|
|-
|Apply a Creative Commons or other open license to your work, or provide a statement explaining why you are not doing so.
|1
|
|}

=== Final Project Description and Rubric ===
For your final project, you will create a renewable assignment that could be used in a classroom or workshop context to teach early career researchers about open science. Alternatively, you can propose an alternative final project using the instructions provided.

==== Renewable Assignment Rubric ====
Renewable assignments provide students with opportunities to engage in meaningful work, add value to the world, and provide a foundation for future students to learn from and build upon. Renewable assignments are possible because of the permission to engage in the 5R activities (Retain, Reuse, Revise, Remix and Redistribute) granted by open educational resources (OER). Renewable assignments are an alternative to traditional, disposable assignments, which students throw away after they are graded. A typical renewable assignment involves adding to or improving an existing open resource.

An example of a renewable assignment is: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/13eiiGful7YULVV7fJ9WX6WUyVGLmmprBbo6iBuBVBTY/edit?usp=sharing Creation of figures or diagrams to supplement “Biochemistry Free For All”] Emily Ragan, November 2020, licensed under [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY 4.0]] . 
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed&quot;
|+Renewable Assignment Rubric
!Criteria
!Total points available
!Points offered
|-
|Work includes and provides a pathway to achieve one or more learning outcomes relevant to early career researchers learning to practice open science.
|2
|
|-
|Work includes a set of clear and complete instructions for completing the renewable assignment. These instructions address the student or course participant directly.
|3
|
|-
|Work includes a rubric for grading the renewable assignment, including  three levels of performance and at least five criteria.
|2
|
|-
|Work includes guidance to those who have adopted the specific open resource regarding how to use the renewable assignment. This guidance is sometimes known as a teaching note.
|3
|
|-
|Work includes a sample completed assignment, together with a completed rubric for the assignment, on which the sample assignment receives the highest rating for each criterion.
|3
|
|-
|Work cites and treats other works relevant to the assignment in consistent with their licenses.
|1
|
|-
|Apply a Creative Commons or other open license to your work, or provide a statement explaining why you are not doing so.
|1
|
|}

==== Design Your Own Project ====
Propose your own project or co-produced project to your facilitator (by or before the end of Week 10). The project needs to demonstrate 1) your ability to explain open science as it is represented in the UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science and 2) that you are able to recognize open science practices, or opportunities to advance them, in a familiar context. That context can be a geographic location, an institution, a scientific discipline, or something else. 

Directions: Write a proposal (no longer than 150 words) for your independently-designed project. If you are proposing to submit a group project (a project you will complete with another person in the course), make sure to include this in the proposal. Create a proposed grading rubric for assessment of your project. Submit your proposal and grading rubric no later than Week 10.  Your instructor will reply to you no later than one week from the Week 10 deadline. Note that your instructor may suggest revisions to ensure parity in rigor across all submitted proposals.

== Licensing, Citation, and Acknowledgements ==
“[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1E8Y5RaEu6vpylSqFM-9eqh1mgNwQ-cr1Z5CaaOFgz6c/edit?usp=sharing Open Syllabus: UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science]” is an adaptation of the [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1pN7YuWyTuNah6rOnDSu_k4AP8hfBszFUiWNRBFQ8IR0/edit Creative Commons Certificate Template Syllabus and Final Project with Grading Rubrics New Options] published as of January, 2021 (the “Original Work”), licensed by Creative Commons under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]. This adaptation is made and published by Jennifer M. Miller as a participant in the Open Education for a Better World (OE4BW) program (the “Adapter”) under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The Adapter modified the Original Works in the following respects: adapted them to reflect new subject matter and adapted them for use in a semester-long for-credit course. Using the Original Work or the Adapted Work does not mean the individual doing so has earned a CC Certificate, nor may any organization or individual offer a “CC Certificate.” Note that the trademarks of Creative Commons and the Adapter are the property of their owners and require permission to reuse. Anyone who wants to take the CC Certificate is welcome to register here: https://certificates.creativecommons.org&lt;nowiki/&gt;.”


Recommended Citation:

“[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1E8Y5RaEu6vpylSqFM-9eqh1mgNwQ-cr1Z5CaaOFgz6c/edit?usp=sharing Open Syllabus: UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science]” by Jennifer M. Miller is licensed under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]].  

[[Category:Metascience]]
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Courses]]
[[Category:Open science]]
[[Category:SDG 17 - Partnership for the Goals]]
[[Category:UNESCO]]
[[Category:Open educational resources]]
[[Category:Higher education]]</text>
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    <title>Do copyrights and firewalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?</title>
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:''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- and raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|''''“Discuss”'''' page]].''  

What percent of authors of articles in refereed academic journals are motivated to write for the royalties they expect to receive from publication?

More specifically, is there any documentation of any refereed academic journal offering substantive payment for articles published?  In rare cases, the author of this article has seen prizes for, e.g., best paper of the year.  However, to the extent that this author's experiences are typical of academic publishing, no reasonable human would submit an article to a refereed academic journal expecting substantive income derived from copyright royalties.  Instead, researchers write to be read and cited, to contribute to the shared body of knowledge and culture of humanity, and to build their reputations.  Many also write in part because hiring and promotions for many positions are based in part on publication records, especially at major research universities in the US.  

In contrast, for many refereed academic journals, authors are required to assign the copyright to the journal as &quot;a work made for hire&quot;, even though it wasn't.  Prior to the Internet, that was justified to cover the costs of printing and distribution.  Those days are gone.  

== Copyright Clause of the US Constitution == 
 
The [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution says, &quot;The Congress shall have Power ... To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 8|US Constitution, Article I, Section 8, Clause 8]]. See also the discussion in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]]&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Moreover, the [[w:Preamble to the United States Constitution|Preamble to the United States Constitution]] says it was written in part to &quot;promote the general welfare&quot;.  

People who submit articles to refereed academic journals do so to be read and to build their reputations. To the extent that this is accurate:  

* ''Firewalls on academic journals are obstacles to &quot;the progress of science and the useful arts&quot;.  They are obstacles to promoting the general welfare, in apparent violation of the US Constitution.''

== Why is this still part of US and international law? ==

One reason why this is still part of US and international law is that the major media have an inherent conflict of interest in honestly reporting on anything relating to copyright law.  All revisions of US copyright and other law affecting the media in the last 100 years have been mostly written by and for the major media, approved by legislators, many and probably most of whom received &quot;campaign contributions&quot; from such media.  Most of those legislators also doubtlessly knew that it would likely be political suicide to oppose the mainstream media.&lt;ref&gt;e.g., &lt;!-- Robert McChesney (2004) The Problem of the Media: U.S. communications politics in the 21st century --&gt;{{cite Q|Q7758439}}.  See also &lt;!-- Guy Rolnik; Julia Cagé; Joshua Gans; Ellen P. Goodman; Brian G. Knight; Andrea Prat; Anya Schiffrin (2019-07-01), &quot;Protecting Journalism in the Age of Digital Platforms&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q106465358}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lawrence Lessig]], who led the plaintiff's team in [[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|''Eldred v. Ashcroft'']], said he lost that case, because he focused on the law and neglected the economics.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!-- How I Lost the Big One --&gt;{{cite Q|Q112663181}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Are there are other justifications for copyrights held by academic journals?

In particular, are copyrights and firewalls on academic journals accidents, failures of the US Congress to fully consider the ramifications of what they've enacted?  Or are they monuments to political corruption?

== What to do?  == 

To the extent that copyrights and firewalls on academic journals are obstacles to &quot;the progress of science and the useful arts&quot;, there are things that individual researchers, academic administrators, and the public can do to help overcome this problem: 

* RESEARCHERS can submit their work only to open-access journals and refuse to submit their work to journals that will put their work behind a paywall.  (No one who wants to be cited wants their work behind a paywall if there is a reasonable alternative, because the firewall would likely reduce their audience.)  

* ADMINISTRATORS managing research that produce articles for academic publications can insist that their researchers submit their work only to open-access journals. (Anyone wanting to build the reputation of their research wants their publications to be read.  Paywalls and copyrights are obstacles to that.)  

* CITIZENS should demand that their elected officials enact two reforms affecting copyrights:  

:- All government funded research should either be in the public domain or carry a license no more restrictive than Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 4.0 International license and should not appear behind a paywall.  

:- Copyright law should be changed to forbid restrictive copyrights on &quot;works for hire&quot; when they are not actually written with a plausible expectation of receiving income derived from copyright royalties.  This would leave in place all current practices for publications other than academic journals.

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:copyright]]
[[Category:copyright law]]
[[Category:Original research]]
[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Research projects]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Political economy]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2173" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite journal | last= Brown | first= Herbert C. | year= 1979 | title= From Little Acorns To Tall Oaks -  From Boranes Through Organoboranes (Nobel Lecture) | journal= Science | volume= 210 | number= 4469 | pages= 485-492 | publication-date= October 31, 1980 | pmid= 17841388 | doi= 10.1126/science.210.4469.485 | url= https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.210.4469.485}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Brown | first1= Herbert C. | last2= Ayyangar | first2= Nagaraj R. | last3= Zweifel | first3= George | year= 1962 | title= Diisopinocampheylborane as a Reagent for the Production of Optically Active Olefins and the Establishment of Their Configuration | journal= Journal Of The American Chemical Society | volume= 84 | number= 22 | pages= 4341–4342 | publication-date= November 1, 1962 | doi= 10.1021/ja00881a026 | url= https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja00881a026}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Brown | first1= Herbert C. | last2= Mead | first2= Edward J. | last3= Rao | first3= B.C. Subra | year= 1955 | title= A Study Of Solvents For Sodium Borohydride And The Effect Of Solvent And The Metal Ion On Borohydride Reductions | series= Organic and Biological Chemistry | journal= Journal Of The American Chemical Society | volume= 77 | number= 23 | pages= 6209-6213 | publication-date= December 5, 1955 | doi= 10.1021/ja01628a044 | url= https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja01628a044}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Brown | first1= Herbert C. | last2= Schwier | first2= John R. | last3= Singaram | first3= Bakthan | year= 1978 | title= Simple synthesis of monoisopinocampheylborane of high optical purity | journal= The Journal of Organic Chemistry | volume= 43 | number= 22 | pages= 4395–4397 | publication-date= October 1, 1978 | doi= 10.1021/jo00416a042 | url= https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jo00416a042 }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Brown | first1= Herbert C. | last2= Singaram | first2= Bakthan | year= 1987 | title= Organoboranes For Synthesis - Substitution With Retention | journal= Pure And Applied Chemistry | volume= 59 | number= 7 | pages= 879-894 | doi= 10.1351/pac198759070879 | url= https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac198759070879/html }}</text>
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= The Miracle of Absolutes. =


[[File:Absolute (4479045324).jpg|center|thumb]]


Everything is, and everything that is, is there to be examined, and that of necessity includes us.                                                                                                          Because each person is a microcosmic human entity we can know with certainty the basic necessities required for all of us to exist on this planet. Those basic necessities include Air - Food - Water.- Space.

Nature has endowed us with a commonality, and within that structure there are rules required for survival, which it is reasonable to suppose, are absolute.                                                                                  

With ‘correct’ knowledge one can assume that if 1+1 = 2 then it will follow that 2 = 1+1. It is only on the basis of correct alignment that there is predictability. If the above equations are correct, then all equations using the same principle in mathematics are correct. If Nature determines that all human beings must of necessity be delivered air, food, and water to live, we can reasonably presume that any beings that can live without these requirements are not human.  Any other construction anyone may put on this is outside our normal domain.                                                                                      

Universal principles or absolutes have a universal commonality, and we use them in abundance!

The only constructive information we ever have of Reality is only of this moment, but this moment can be the experience of Eternity, which encapsulates all Reality. It is only in the ‘moment’ that ‘completeness’ or the ‘whole’ can be recognized, contrary to the paradoxical nature of this sentence.

Through definitive language processes we can begin to understand the immediately available opportunities we have to recognize the constant properties that are implicit. The purpose of our presentations is to make the reader aware that there are principles involved, and they always have been. This in turn allows us to address the question of ‘who we are’. With principles we can comprehend the real qualities of existence – we can understand. Comprehension begins when principles are understood.                              

Consider the extent of human progression, and the use of principles (and how they were understood) in all human endeavours that are the foundation of evolutionary progress. That progress imposes obligations on us to further their transparency.   

Natural simplistic conclusions that are significant:

1. Centrifugal force goes from the center outwards.

2. Centripetal force goes inward toward a center.

3. A perfect wheel is a perfect circle.

4. A line is the joining of two points.

5. A point is the intersection of two lines.

By definition all factors are significant. We may conclude from that that combinations of factors would lead to significant conclusions.

Present = Immediate Reality                                                                                                 Reality = Immediate Present

Communication = Making Known                                                                                         Making Known = Communication

                                                                                                                           
Any ‘significant conclusion’ (no matter how simple) requires a ‘correct vision’ to validate its existence e.g., an Archimedes – Edison – James Watt etc, etc.

Simplistic ‘significant conclusions’ are enacted at every point in time through the simple process of ‘mutual agreement’ and they require no comprehensive analysis other than a common-sense acceptance of their Reality

Back to Archimedes, or any other human who has realized some of the factors that constitute exact evidence, and offer us identifiable laws that we can use as true standards. In effect they offer us proof of their existence through their realization of some of Nature's bounty!! It is at that point in time when there is realization of the factors that constitute reality that anyone can truly ‘know’ the form reality takes. When that form of realization is extended toward another human being then it is axiomatic that ‘knowledge’ of  ‘who we are’ is ‘complete’. We then experience the totality of ‘agreement’ that exists between us that forms the foundation of human existence.  A ‘true’ experience is not contingent on ‘a mind in a box’ knowledge of the experience. Experience has implicit within it the factors of Truth + Understanding = Knowledge. (Viz, Archimedes).                                               

Direct experience of Reality is not attained through thought processes, or the retrieval of historical knowledge. Our very existence necessarily depends on factors within the structure of Nature, and Reality.       

Conventional dichotomous thought processes attempt to ‘separate’ ‘individualize ‘categorize’. In essence it is an attempt to control ‘what is’. That process inevitably can never ‘experience’ the Reality of the object, or the person. The dichotomous thought process can only be overcome when direct ‘experience’ of ‘what is’ is attained, and we understand in part, or in whole, the nature of Reality.                                                                                                                                                                                A ‘true’ experience is not contingent on ’mind in a box’ knowledge of the experience. Experience has implicit within it the factors of Truth + Understanding = Knowledge  (viz, Archimedes experiences). Experiences of that which are ‘whole’ are experiences of an order beyond what we will call ‘conventional’ experience.

In a hypothetical ‘think’ tank which operates on the basis of comparative perspective (deals with dichotomies) it will always be unclear the fundamental factors that establish Reality, e.g., 

Where there is a verbal battle raging between two people, proponents of the comparative perspective will find it difficult to establish that ‘communication’ is being presented. Conventional wisdom would deny that it is communication, and would be unclear as to the reality that is being presented. At whatever level we find them, basic factors are all that we have to, or can, deal with. That must be established – that must be clear, before there is extension.

A doctor (who also deals in dichotomies) who finds a patient presenting with physical ailments, will address ‘disease’ in an attempt to have the patient return to health. When we learn to deal with health as the only reality then we have a stable foundation to extend from, and the medical profession may have a clearer direction to go in.

The ‘comparative perspective’ would presumably see dichotomies as an acceptable reality, with causal infinity, and infinite regression as bed-mates. The opposite of causal infinity could be construed as ‘completeness’, which if true, it would be wise to exercise our ability to recognize that which is whole, that which is complete. In so doing we conform to a reality that provides us with a strong foundation that is natural, and correct.

A ‘comparative incomplete perspective’ can be due, I would suggest, to the inability to see ‘wholes’. The cause is dichotomous thought, and the result is fragmentation, and division. It is not natural to hold the view that a ‘comparative perspective’ is the only activity we are capable of.  When there is the ability to observe (not from a comparative perspective, incomplete, or otherwise) that which is ‘whole’ ‘complete’ then it is a view of a microscopic reality. That view allows us to be where we are without the prospect of ‘causal infinity’ denying our immediate Reality. It also holds the potential that we can experience the totality of our Reality, of ‘who we are’.</text>
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= The Miracle of Absolutes. =


[[File:Absolute (4479045324).jpg|center|thumb]]

Absolute Beauty in Tme.


Everything is, and everything that is, is there to be examined, and that of necessity includes us.                                                                                                          Because each person is a microcosmic human entity we can know with certainty the basic necessities required for all of us to exist on this planet. Those basic necessities include Air - Food - Water.- Space.

Nature has endowed us with a commonality, and within that structure there are rules required for survival, which it is reasonable to suppose, are absolute.                                                                                  

With ‘correct’ knowledge one can assume that if 1+1 = 2 then it will follow that 2 = 1+1. It is only on the basis of correct alignment that there is predictability. If the above equations are correct, then all equations using the same principle in mathematics are correct. If Nature determines that all human beings must of necessity be delivered air, food, and water to live, we can reasonably presume that any beings that can live without these requirements are not human.  Any other construction anyone may put on this is outside our normal domain.                                                                                      

Universal principles or absolutes have a universal commonality, and we use them in abundance!

The only constructive information we ever have of Reality is only of this moment, but this moment can be the experience of Eternity, which encapsulates all Reality. It is only in the ‘moment’ that ‘completeness’ or the ‘whole’ can be recognized, contrary to the paradoxical nature of this sentence.

Through definitive language processes we can begin to understand the immediately available opportunities we have to recognize the constant properties that are implicit. The purpose of our presentations is to make the reader aware that there are principles involved, and they always have been. This in turn allows us to address the question of ‘who we are’. With principles we can comprehend the real qualities of existence – we can understand. Comprehension begins when principles are understood.                              

Consider the extent of human progression, and the use of principles (and how they were understood) in all human endeavours that are the foundation of evolutionary progress. That progress imposes obligations on us to further their transparency.   

Natural simplistic conclusions that are significant:

1. Centrifugal force goes from the center outwards.

2. Centripetal force goes inward toward a center.

3. A perfect wheel is a perfect circle.

4. A line is the joining of two points.

5. A point is the intersection of two lines.

By definition all factors are significant. We may conclude from that that combinations of factors would lead to significant conclusions.

Present = Immediate Reality                                                                                                 Reality = Immediate Present

Communication = Making Known                                                                                         Making Known = Communication

                                                                                                                           
Any ‘significant conclusion’ (no matter how simple) requires a ‘correct vision’ to validate its existence e.g., an Archimedes – Edison – James Watt etc, etc.

Simplistic ‘significant conclusions’ are enacted at every point in time through the simple process of ‘mutual agreement’ and they require no comprehensive analysis other than a common-sense acceptance of their Reality

Back to Archimedes, or any other human who has realized some of the factors that constitute exact evidence, and offer us identifiable laws that we can use as true standards. In effect they offer us proof of their existence through their realization of some of Nature's bounty!! It is at that point in time when there is realization of the factors that constitute reality that anyone can truly ‘know’ the form reality takes. When that form of realization is extended toward another human being then it is axiomatic that ‘knowledge’ of  ‘who we are’ is ‘complete’. We then experience the totality of ‘agreement’ that exists between us that forms the foundation of human existence.  A ‘true’ experience is not contingent on ‘a mind in a box’ knowledge of the experience. Experience has implicit within it the factors of Truth + Understanding = Knowledge. (Viz, Archimedes).                                               

Direct experience of Reality is not attained through thought processes, or the retrieval of historical knowledge. Our very existence necessarily depends on factors within the structure of Nature, and Reality.       

Conventional dichotomous thought processes attempt to ‘separate’ ‘individualize ‘categorize’. In essence it is an attempt to control ‘what is’. That process inevitably can never ‘experience’ the Reality of the object, or the person. The dichotomous thought process can only be overcome when direct ‘experience’ of ‘what is’ is attained, and we understand in part, or in whole, the nature of Reality.                                                                                                                                                                                A ‘true’ experience is not contingent on ’mind in a box’ knowledge of the experience. Experience has implicit within it the factors of Truth + Understanding = Knowledge  (viz, Archimedes experiences). Experiences of that which are ‘whole’ are experiences of an order beyond what we will call ‘conventional’ experience.

In a hypothetical ‘think’ tank which operates on the basis of comparative perspective (deals with dichotomies) it will always be unclear the fundamental factors that establish Reality, e.g., 

Where there is a verbal battle raging between two people, proponents of the comparative perspective will find it difficult to establish that ‘communication’ is being presented. Conventional wisdom would deny that it is communication, and would be unclear as to the reality that is being presented. At whatever level we find them, basic factors are all that we have to, or can, deal with. That must be established – that must be clear, before there is extension.

A doctor (who also deals in dichotomies) who finds a patient presenting with physical ailments, will address ‘disease’ in an attempt to have the patient return to health. When we learn to deal with health as the only reality then we have a stable foundation to extend from, and the medical profession may have a clearer direction to go in.

The ‘comparative perspective’ would presumably see dichotomies as an acceptable reality, with causal infinity, and infinite regression as bed-mates. The opposite of causal infinity could be construed as ‘completeness’, which if true, it would be wise to exercise our ability to recognize that which is whole, that which is complete. In so doing we conform to a reality that provides us with a strong foundation that is natural, and correct.

A ‘comparative incomplete perspective’ can be due, I would suggest, to the inability to see ‘wholes’. The cause is dichotomous thought, and the result is fragmentation, and division. It is not natural to hold the view that a ‘comparative perspective’ is the only activity we are capable of.  When there is the ability to observe (not from a comparative perspective, incomplete, or otherwise) that which is ‘whole’ ‘complete’ then it is a view of a microscopic reality. That view allows us to be where we are without the prospect of ‘causal infinity’ denying our immediate Reality. It also holds the potential that we can experience the totality of our Reality, of ‘who we are’.</text>
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= The Miracle of Absolutes. =


[[File:Absolute (4479045324).jpg|center|thumb]]

Absolute Beauty in Tme.


Everything is, and everything that is, is there to be examined, and that of necessity includes us.                                                                                                          Because each person is a microcosmic human entity we can know with certainty the basic necessities required for all of us to exist on this planet. Those basic necessities include Air - Food - Water.- Space.

Nature has endowed us with a commonality, and within that structure there are rules required for survival, which it is reasonable to suppose, are absolute.                                                                                  

With ‘correct’ knowledge one can assume that if 1+1 = 2 then it will follow that 2 = 1+1. It is only on the basis of correct alignment that there is predictability. If the above equations are correct, then all equations using the same principle in mathematics are correct. If Nature determines that all human beings must of necessity be delivered air, food, and water to live, we can reasonably presume that any beings that can live without these requirements are not human.  Any other construction anyone may put on this is outside our normal domain.                                                                                      

Universal principles or absolutes have a universal commonality, and we use them in abundance!

The only constructive information we ever have of Reality is only of this moment, but this moment can be the experience of Eternity, which encapsulates all Reality. It is only in the ‘moment’ that ‘completeness’ or the ‘whole’ can be recognized, contrary to the paradoxical nature of this sentence.

Through definitive language processes we can begin to understand the immediately available opportunities we have to recognize the constant properties that are implicit. The purpose of our presentations is to make the reader aware that there are principles involved, and they always have been. This in turn allows us to address the question of ‘who we are’. With principles we can comprehend the real qualities of existence – we can understand. Comprehension begins when principles are understood.                              

Consider the extent of human progression, and the use of principles (and how they were understood) in all human endeavours that are the foundation of evolutionary progress. That progress imposes obligations on us to further their transparency.   

Natural simplistic conclusions that are significant:

1. Centrifugal force goes from the center outwards.

2. Centripetal force goes inward toward a center.

3. A perfect wheel is a perfect circle.

4. A line is the joining of two points.

5. A point is the intersection of two lines.

By definition all factors are significant. We may conclude from that that combinations of factors would lead to significant conclusions.

Present = Immediate Reality                                                                                                 Reality = Immediate Present

Communication = Making Known                                                                                         Making Known = Communication

                                                                                                                           
Any ‘significant conclusion’ (no matter how simple) requires a ‘correct vision’ to validate its existence e.g., an Archimedes – Edison – James Watt etc, etc.

Simplistic ‘significant conclusions’ are enacted at every point in time through the simple process of ‘mutual agreement’ and they require no comprehensive analysis other than a common-sense acceptance of their Reality

Back to Archimedes, or any other human who has realized some of the factors that constitute exact evidence, and offer us identifiable laws that we can use as true standards. In effect they offer us proof of their existence through their realization of some of Nature's bounty!! It is at that point in time when there is realization of the factors that constitute reality that anyone can truly ‘know’ the form reality takes. When that form of realization is extended toward another human being then it is axiomatic that ‘knowledge’ of  ‘who we are’ is ‘complete’. We then experience the totality of ‘agreement’ that exists between us that forms the foundation of human existence.  A ‘true’ experience is not contingent on ‘a mind in a box’ knowledge of the experience. Experience has implicit within it the factors of Truth + Understanding = Knowledge. (Viz, Archimedes).                                               

Direct experience of Reality is not attained through thought processes, or the retrieval of historical knowledge. Our very existence necessarily depends on factors within the structure of Nature, and Reality.       

Conventional dichotomous thought processes attempt to ‘separate’ ‘individualize ‘categorize’. In essence it is an attempt to control ‘what is’. That process inevitably can never ‘experience’ the Reality of the object, or the person. The dichotomous thought process can only be overcome when direct ‘experience’ of ‘what is’ is attained, and we understand in part, or in whole, the nature of Reality.                                                                                                                                                                                A ‘true’ experience is not contingent on ’mind in a box’ knowledge of the experience. Experience has implicit within it the factors of Truth + Understanding = Knowledge  (viz, Archimedes experiences). Experiences of that which are ‘whole’ are experiences of an order beyond what we will call ‘conventional’ experience.

In a hypothetical ‘think’ tank which operates on the basis of comparative perspective (deals with dichotomies) it will always be unclear the fundamental factors that establish Reality, e.g., 

Where there is a verbal battle raging between two people, proponents of the comparative perspective will find it difficult to establish that ‘communication’ is being presented. Conventional wisdom would deny that it is communication, and would be unclear as to the reality that is being presented. At whatever level we find them, basic factors are all that we have to, or can, deal with. That must be established – that must be clear, before there is extension.

A doctor (who also deals in dichotomies) who finds a patient presenting with physical ailments, will address ‘disease’ in an attempt to have the patient return to health. When we learn to deal with health as the only reality then we have a stable foundation to extend from, and the medical profession may have a clearer direction to go in.

The ‘comparative perspective’ would presumably see dichotomies as an acceptable reality, with causal infinity, and infinite regression as bed-mates. The opposite of causal infinity could be construed as ‘completeness’, which if true, it would be wise to exercise our ability to recognize that which is whole, that which is complete. In so doing we conform to a reality that provides us with a strong foundation that is natural, and correct.

A ‘comparative incomplete perspective’ can be due, I would suggest, to the inability to see ‘wholes’. The cause is dichotomous thought, and the result is fragmentation, and division. It is not natural to hold the view that a ‘comparative perspective’ is the only activity we are capable of.  When there is the ability to observe (not from a comparative perspective, incomplete, or otherwise) that which is ‘whole’ ‘complete’ then it is a view of a microscopic reality. That view allows us to be where we are without the prospect of ‘causal infinity’ denying our immediate Reality. It also holds the potential that we can experience the totality of our Reality, of ‘who we are’.</text>
      <sha1>ra70djxd5wrqddccojncqgk9ykgkzr4</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Orbital platforms</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-25T16:53:02Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* STS-47 */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="152610" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

COSPAR ID: 1992-015A.

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992.

Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
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==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992.

Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="152738" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992.

Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
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==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
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==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
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==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="154597" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
{{clear}}

==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
{{clear}}

==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
{{clear}}

==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
{{clear}}

==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
{{clear}}

==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
{{clear}}

==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
{{clear}}

==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
{{clear}}

==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
{{clear}}

==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
{{clear}}

==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-45. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="154644" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-45. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
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==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
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==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
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==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
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==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
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==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
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==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
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==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
{{clear}}

==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
{{clear}}

==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
{{clear}}

==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
{{clear}}

==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
{{clear}}

==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
{{clear}}

==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
{{clear}}

==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
{{clear}}

==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
{{clear}}

==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
{{clear}}

==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
{{clear}}

==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
{{clear}}

==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
{{clear}}

==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="156410" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
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==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
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==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
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==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
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==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
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==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

==STS-48==

STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
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==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
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==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
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==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
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==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
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==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
{{clear}}

==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
{{clear}}

==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
{{clear}}

==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
{{clear}}

==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
{{clear}}

==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
{{clear}}

==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
{{clear}}

==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
{{clear}}

==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
{{clear}}

==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==

STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="158628" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="160134" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
File:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments including the Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A), for remote sensing of Earth's resources, environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST..

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay, which also included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p. 41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;Macknight, Nigel, Space Year 1991, p.&amp;nbsp;41 {{ISBN|0-87938-482-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=&quot;MacKnight 1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==

STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-49==

NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

==STS-50==

STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

COSPAR ID: 1992-061A.

==STS-51==
[[Image:STS 52 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-52 was a ''Space Transportation System'' (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', and was launched on 22 October 1992.&lt;ref name=Ryba&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-52|work=Space Shuttle - Mission Archives |publisher=NASA|accessdate=22 April 2021|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422171154/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-52.html|date=31 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

NSSDCA ID: 1992-070A, launch date: 1992-10-22. Names: Space Transportation System-51.

&quot;It carried the US Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) which contained several microgravity experimental packages. Among them were the growth of cadmium telluride crystals from vapor phase, growth of protein/enzyme crystals, and a number of high school experiments such as the clotting action of snake venom on blood plasma proteins, germination of Florida's official flower seeds, and microgravity effect on dry mustard seeds that were germinated after return. Also on-board were 6 rats that had been given anti-osteoporotic treatment with an experimental drug.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS52&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 52/USMP 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-070A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
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==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
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==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
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==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
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==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
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==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
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==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
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==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
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==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
      <sha1>kawab64qy372284puwv0pecpinoaop7</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Singaram, Bakthan</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409281</id>
      <parentid>2408388</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T17:30:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Singaram, Bakthan */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1687" xml:space="preserve">{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== [[w:Bakthan Singaram|Singaram, Bakthan]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Bakthan Singaram.jpg|thumb|Bakthan Singaram]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://campusdirectory.ucsc.edu/cd_detail?uid=singaram UCSC Physical &amp; Biological Sciences Division, Chemistry &amp; Biochemistry Department - Faculty Professor Emerti]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://singaram.chemistry.ucsc.edu/ Singaram Research Group]&lt;/u&gt; - Singaram Research Group (SRG) at the University of California, Santa Cruz is headed by Professor Singaram and specializes in Boron-based organic chemistry.  A primary goal of the Singaram lab is the development of novel chiral catalysts from terpenes, amino acids, and other biological and organic compounds.  Bakthan is an expert in organic synthesis, organoborane chemistry, heterocyclic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, asymmetric synthesis, biosensors, and natural products chemistry.
** [https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/collections/professor-product-portal/singaram Sigma Alrich Portal]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45bkmxE2srI 2012 BORAM-XIII Biennial Awards] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:08:02)
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Singaram et al.}}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center
|'''TarBX Reactions'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:TarBX Reactions.png|640px|TarBX Reactions]]
&lt;br /&gt;
|}
&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center
|'''LAB Reactions'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LAB Reagent.png|640px|LAB Reagent]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}
&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center
|'''Glucose Sensing Quencher-Dye System'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:BoronicAcidDye.png|640px|BoronicAcidDye]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Related'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Stephens, Tim}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>62xd66pc4eqfft2m3aim6dhtnvezu0l</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409222</id>
      <parentid>2408877</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:28:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Handling Series of Data */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9802" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.A.20220725.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.A.20180726.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.A.20220725.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20220418.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.11.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1App.Array.1.A.20220725.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series7.AppPoint.1.A.20200424.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3App.ArrayPointer.1.A.2022024.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>40pg122v0wnpbf1809ztx9ekrmmo9sp</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Workings of ELF files in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409308</id>
      <parentid>2408895</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:20:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Object Files */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2152" xml:space="preserve">=== Executable and Linkable Format ===

==== Object Files ====
* Introduction
* ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]])
* Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]])
* String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]])
* Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220725.pdf |pdf]])
* Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]])
* Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ====
* Introduction 
* Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
* Program Loading
* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]])

==== C Library ====
* C Library

=== ELF Study === 

==== ELF Relocations ====
* Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]])

* PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]])
* Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]])

==== Relocation Examples ==== 
* Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]])
* Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]])
* Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]])
* Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]])
* Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]])
* Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]])
* Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]])
* Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]</text>
      <sha1>s9jk619by0oswbdv4m8euz8asp17qdz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409405</id>
      <parentid>2409308</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T08:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Object Files */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2152" xml:space="preserve">=== Executable and Linkable Format ===

==== Object Files ====
* Introduction
* ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]])
* Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]])
* String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]])
* Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220726.pdf |pdf]])
* Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]])
* Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ====
* Introduction 
* Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
* Program Loading
* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]])

==== C Library ====
* C Library

=== ELF Study === 

==== ELF Relocations ====
* Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]])

* PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]])
* Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]])

==== Relocation Examples ==== 
* Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]])
* Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]])
* Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]])
* Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]])
* Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]])
* Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]])
* Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]])
* Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]</text>
      <sha1>i7ote0zimmk7835tgvjkovghnbwm4ow</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Peter.mlich</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>285490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409303</id>
      <parentid>2407958</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sorting Algorithms */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3267" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
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You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:02, 19 July 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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== Sorting Algorithms ==

Wikiversity is organized by learning project (more like Wikibooks) rather than by individual resource (such as Wikipedia). Would you like to create a learning project for Sorting Algorithms or would you prefer to have your recent contributions moved under the existing [[Algorithms]] learning project? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:05, 25 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>acfx418j79esl567fmk4h6v7ohy2ve8</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:GUS2Wiki</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>285491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409404</id>
      <parentid>2409186</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T07:21:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexis Jazz</username>
        <id>791434</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]])</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1412" xml:space="preserve">{{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}}
The following data is cached, and was last updated 2022-07-25T23:05:23Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache.
{| class=&quot;sortable wikitable&quot;
! Gadget !! data-sort-type=&quot;number&quot; | Number of users !! data-sort-type=&quot;number&quot; | Active users
|-
|CleanDeletions || 75 || 0
|-
|EnhancedTalk || 1304 || 3
|-
|HideFundraisingNotice || 749 || 7
|-
|HotCat || 816 || 9
|-
|LintHint || 71 || 1
|-
|ReferenceTooltips || data-sort-value=&quot;Infinity&quot; | Default || data-sort-value=&quot;Infinity&quot; | Default
|-
|Round Corners || 1108 || 4
|-
|contribsrange || 347 || 1
|-
|dark-mode || 14 || 0
|-
|dark-mode-toggle || 27 || 2
|-
|edittop || 457 || 5
|-
|popups || 788 || 3
|-
|purge || 664 || 5
|-
|sidebartranslate || 496 || 2
|-
|usurper-count || 75 || 0
|}
* [[Special:GadgetUsage]]
* [[w:en:Wikipedia:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]]
&lt;!-- data in CSV format:
CleanDeletions,75,0
EnhancedTalk,1304,3
HideFundraisingNotice,749,7
HotCat,816,9
LintHint,71,1
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Round Corners,1108,4
contribsrange,347,1
dark-mode,14,0
dark-mode-toggle,27,2
edittop,457,5
popups,788,3
purge,664,5
sidebartranslate,496,2
usurper-count,75,0
--&gt;</text>
      <sha1>90dsf13e85ph6j9dd8zu3dslkmjh1ah</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Alandmanson/Arthropoda of southern Africa</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409248</id>
      <parentid>2409095</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:37:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Hexapoda */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3317" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;


* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans</text>
      <sha1>l61lthudyn1gwlbsetvz6lqybx58bzo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409250</id>
      <parentid>2409248</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:48:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Hexapoda */ images added</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3491" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;


* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans</text>
      <sha1>05p602ji7n8riokcmqk1fh6q660zhrw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409270</id>
      <parentid>2409250</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T15:31:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Myriapoda */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3751" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
      <sha1>aaayqsq48c7r70efb3uzb6llc58axx5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409271</id>
      <parentid>2409270</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T15:35:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Myriapoda */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3781" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409272</id>
      <parentid>2409271</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T15:56:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Myriapoda */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3844" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
|[[w:|]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Millipede,_South_Africa_(40435620062).jpg|[[w:Chilognatha|Chilognatha]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409273</id>
      <parentid>2409272</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T16:10:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Myriapoda */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4081" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Very_pretty_centipede_that_fell_into_the_swimming_pool_yesterday._Beautiful_but_nasty,_Esther_got_stung_by_a_baby_and_it_was_not_nice,_I_suppose_this_one_could_have_an_interesting_bite._(8204823865).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Scolopendromorpha]]

&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Millipede,_South_Africa_(40435620062).jpg|[[w:Chilognatha|Chilognatha]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409274</id>
      <parentid>2409273</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T16:16:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subphylum Myriapoda */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4270" xml:space="preserve">The extant Arthropoda of Africa can be subdivided into four Subphyla (and about 15 Classes). This classification is that followed by iNaturalist (July 2022).


== Subphylum Chelicerata ==
* Class [[w:Arachnida|Arachnida]] — Arachnids
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;200&quot;&gt;
Velvet Christmas Spider by anagoria.jpg|[[w:Mite|Mites]]
Opiliones male IMG 9246s.jpg|[[w:Opiliones|Harvestmen]]
Solpugema00.jpg|[[w:Solifugae|Solifuges]]
Portia schultzi 57013020.jpg|[[w:Spider|Spiders]]
Damon annulatipes.jpg|[[w:Amblypygi|Tailless whip scorpions]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pycnogonida|Pycnogonida]] — Sea Siders or Pycnogonids
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Nymphon signatum 13403396.jpg|[[w:Sea spider|Sea Siders]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Crustacea ==

* Class [[w:Branchiopoda|Branchiopoda]] — Branchiopods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Branchiopoda Anostraca Branchipodopsis 2014 01 25 4802s.JPG|[[w:Anostraca|Fairy shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Hexanauplia|Hexanauplia]] — Barnacles and Copepods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Octomeris angulosa - inat 34781589.jpg|[[w:Barnacle|Barnacles]]
Cancerilla oblonga (10.3897-AfrInvertebr.57.9775) Figure 2.jpg|[[w:Copepoda|Copepods]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Malacostraca|Malacostraca]] — Malacostracans, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, prawns, woodlice, amphipods, and mantis shrimp
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Tuberculate crab (Plagusia depressa subsp. tuberculata).jpg|[[w:Decapoda|Crabs]]
Marioniscus spatulifrons.jpg|[[w:Isopoda|Isopods]]
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mantis shrimp at Sodwana Bay, South Africa (3059956183).jpg|[[w:Hoplocarida|Mantis shrimps]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ichthyostraca|Ichthyostraca]] — Includes [[w:Branchiura|Branchiura]], fish lice and [[w:Pentastomida|Pentastomida]], tongue worms
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Genus Argulus Fish Louse Rob Taylor.jpg|[[w:Branchiura|Fish lice]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Subclass [[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarida] — Mystacocaridans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Mystacocarida-scale250um.jpg|[[w:Mystacocarida|Mystacocarids]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Ostracoda|Ostracoda]] — Ostracods
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 c.jpg|[[w:Ostracoda|Ostracods]]
Ostracoda Botswana Robert Taylor 2020 e.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Hexapoda ==
* Class [[w:Entognatha|Entognatha]] — Entognathans, including springtails
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Slender Springtail iNat 105960417 a.jpg|[[w:Entomobryomorpha|Slender springtails]]
Plump Springtail iNat 105831052 -1.jpg|[[w:Poduromorpha|Plump springtails]]
Globular springtail iNat 112688442 a.jpg|[[w:Symphypleona|Globular springtails]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

* Class [[w:Insecta|Insecta]] — Insects
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
African_Monarch_(Danaus_chrysippus_aegyptius)_(17389277322).jpg|[[w:Lepidoptera|Butterflies and moths]]
Dicronorrhina derbyana subsp derbyana, wyfie, Pretoria, a.jpg|[[w: Coleoptera|Beetles]]
Peltophorum africanum 1DS-II 6699.jpg|[[w: Hymenoptera|Ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies]]
Cotton Stainer (Dysdercus nigrofasciatus) (13951713711).jpg|[[w: Hemiptera|True bugs, hoppers, aphids, and allies]]
Green blowfly.jpg|[[w: Diptera |Flies]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Subphylum Myriapoda ==
* Class [[w:Chilopoda|Chilopoda]] — Centipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Very_pretty_centipede_that_fell_into_the_swimming_pool_yesterday._Beautiful_but_nasty,_Esther_got_stung_by_a_baby_and_it_was_not_nice,_I_suppose_this_one_could_have_an_interesting_bite._(8204823865).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]]
Blue-legged Centipede (Ethmostigmus trigonopodus) (12681235843).jpg|[[w:Scolopendromorpha|Tropical centipedes]]
House centipede - Sri Lanka - 01.jpg|[[w:Scutigeromorpha|House centipedes]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Diplopoda|Diplopoda]] — Millipedes
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Millipede,_South_Africa_(40435620062).jpg|[[w:Chilognatha|Chilognatha]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Pauropoda|Pauropoda]] — Pauropodans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
Pauropodid (8701483114).jpg|[[w:Tetramerocerata|Tetramerocerata]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
* Class [[w:Symphyla|Symphyla]] — Symphylans
&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;
2022 04 23 Hanseniella Pietermaritzburg.jpg|[[w:Scutigerellidae|Scutigerellidae]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Resources/Peer-Reviewed Literature</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409284</id>
      <parentid>2408905</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T18:46:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2024" xml:space="preserve">'''Peer-Reviewed Literature Resources'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ National Center for Biological Information (NCBI)]&lt;/u&gt;
** [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ PubMed Central (PMC)] - (Open access) U.S. National Institutes of Health's National Library of Medicine (NIH/NLM) library of free full-text articles.
** [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ PubMed] - (Open &amp; subscription access) NIH/NCBI Library containing article citations, abstracts, and links to biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals, and online books.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.sciencedirect.com/ ScienceDirect]&lt;/u&gt; - (Open &amp; subscription access) Elsevier’s peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]&lt;/u&gt; - (Open &amp; subscription access) Digital library providing access to academic journal articles, books, and archived primary sources.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.pnas.org/toc/pnas/current The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)]&lt;/u&gt; - (Open &amp; subscription access) Peer-reviewed journal of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS).
** [https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus PNAS Nexus] - A sibling journal to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), PNAS Nexus is an open access scientific journal focused on the publication of high-quality original research from across the biological, medical, physical, social, and political sciences, and engineering and mathematics.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/all/home.html Thieme]&lt;/u&gt; - (Open &amp; subscription access) Books &amp; Journals Platform within Thieme Connect.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://escholarship.org/ University of California (UC) eScholarship]&lt;/u&gt; - Main Portal, publications from the University of California.
** [https://escholarship.org/uc/lbnl UC Journals] - Journals from the University of California.
** [https://escholarship.org/uc/lbnl Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory] - UC eScholarship portal to Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) publications.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Resources/Climate &amp; Ecology</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409283</id>
      <parentid>2408907</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T18:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2416" xml:space="preserve">'''Climate &amp; Ecology'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.nationalacademies.org/topics/climate Climate Resources at the National Academies]&lt;/u&gt; - Climate resources at The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NAS).
** [https://nap.nationalacademies.org/collection/34/climate-change Climate Change Collection] - NAS Climate Change Reports.
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL38EB9C0BC54A9EE2 Climate Change: Lines of Evidence - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.ipcc.ch/ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)]&lt;/u&gt; - The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations (UN) body for assessing science related to climate change. [https://www.youtube.com/c/IPCCGeneva YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar6/ IPCC Sixth Assessment Report] - The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) comprises three Working Group contributions and a Synthesis Report. [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8HWK0G9m3B6887rsOo8Z61u185QHR2kS YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
*** [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ Working Group I] - The Physical Science Basis - Climate Change 2021 (released August 9, 2021)
*** [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Working Group II] - Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability - Climate Change 2022 (released February 28, 2022)
*** [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Working Group III] - Mitigation of Climate Change - Climate Change 2022 (released April 4, 2022)
* &lt;u&gt;[https://climate.nasa.gov/ NASA: Global Climate Change - Vital Signs of the Planet]&lt;/u&gt; - Vital signs of the planet produced by the Earth Science Communications Team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. [https://www.youtube.com/c/nasaclimatechange/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/ Evidence] - Facts and evidence underlying our current understanding of global climate change.
** [https://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/ Scientific Consensus] - Current scientific consensus on global climate change.
** [https://climate.nasa.gov/resources/global-warming-vs-climate-change/ Global Warming Vs. Climate Change] - Overview: Weather, Global Warming, and Climate Change.
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Resources/Oral History Projects</title>
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* &lt;u&gt;[http://www.nasonline.org/programs/distinctive-voices/ Distinctive Voices] -  presented by the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering and National Institute of Medicine. [https://www.youtube.com/user/DistinctiveVoicesBC/featured YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-videos History of Neuroscience]&lt;/u&gt; - The Society for Neuroscience (SfN) interviews series, &quot;The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography&quot;. [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC9539B116147A98A YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-chapters The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography] - (PDF) SfN's collection of autobiographies.{{efn|edited by Tom Albright and Larry R. Squire.}}
* &lt;u&gt;[https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/ Profiles in Science]&lt;/u&gt; - National Institute of Health (NIH) stories spotlighting major scientific discoveries. Archived at the National Library of Medicine (NLM). [https://www.youtube.com/user/NLMNIH YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.rockefeller.edu/about/history/oral-history-project/ Rockefeller University Oral History Project]&lt;/u&gt; - Rockefeller scientists reflect on their careers, collaborations, and discoveries. [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBxkEI5pPIfsmn7ubU-hnQOMDd3EIaKoN YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/oral/index.html WUSM Oral History Project]&lt;/u&gt; - Washington University School of Medicine (WUSM).  Series of recorded interviews and transcripts dating from 1959.
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* &lt;u&gt;[http://www.nasonline.org/programs/distinctive-voices/ Distinctive Voices]&lt;/u&gt; -  presented by the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering and National Institute of Medicine. [https://www.youtube.com/user/DistinctiveVoicesBC/featured YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-videos History of Neuroscience]&lt;/u&gt; - The Society for Neuroscience (SfN) interviews series, &quot;The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography&quot;. [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC9539B116147A98A YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-chapters The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography] - (PDF) SfN's collection of autobiographies.{{efn|edited by Tom Albright and Larry R. Squire.}}
* &lt;u&gt;[https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/ Profiles in Science]&lt;/u&gt; - National Institute of Health (NIH) stories spotlighting major scientific discoveries. Archived at the National Library of Medicine (NLM). [https://www.youtube.com/user/NLMNIH YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.rockefeller.edu/about/history/oral-history-project/ Rockefeller University Oral History Project]&lt;/u&gt; - Rockefeller scientists reflect on their careers, collaborations, and discoveries. [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBxkEI5pPIfsmn7ubU-hnQOMDd3EIaKoN YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/oral/index.html WUSM Oral History Project]&lt;/u&gt; - Washington University School of Medicine (WUSM).  Series of recorded interviews and transcripts dating from 1959.
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      <text bytes="948" xml:space="preserve">'''Iconoclasts, Heretics &amp; Conscientious Objectors'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.gurdjieff-foundation-newyork.org/aboutG2.html G.I. Gurdjieff]&lt;/u&gt; - Russian philosopher, mystic, spiritual teacher, and composer.
** [https://archives.nypl.org/dan/22717 Howarth Gurdjieff Archive (1910 - 2010)] - At The New York Public Library:  Archives &amp; Manuscripts.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://chomsky.info/ Noam Chomsky]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky]] at Chomsky.info and Chomsky's Philosophy. 
** [https://www.youtube.com/user/chomskysphilosophy/featured Chomsky's Philosophy - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/ Jiddu-Krishnamurti]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Jiddu Krishnamurti|Jiddu Krishnamurti]] on human endeavors. [https://www.youtube.com/c/KFoundation YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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      <text bytes="1101" xml:space="preserve">'''Iconoclasts, Heretics &amp; Conscientious Objectors'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.gurdjieff-foundation-newyork.org/aboutG2.html G.I. Gurdjieff]&lt;/u&gt; - Russian philosopher, mystic, spiritual teacher, and composer.
** [https://archives.nypl.org/dan/22717 Howarth Gurdjieff Archive (1910 - 2010)] - At The New York Public Library:  Archives &amp; Manuscripts.
** [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNY5CTwvWhXkk3jD8tZf_FA Gurdjieff Audiobooks - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://chomsky.info/ Noam Chomsky]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky]] at Chomsky.info and Chomsky's Philosophy. 
** [https://www.youtube.com/user/chomskysphilosophy/featured Chomsky's Philosophy - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/ Jiddu-Krishnamurti]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Jiddu Krishnamurti|Jiddu Krishnamurti]] on human endeavors. [https://www.youtube.com/c/KFoundation YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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      <text bytes="1106" xml:space="preserve">'''Iconoclasts, Heretics &amp; Conscientious Objectors'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.gurdjieff-foundation-newyork.org/aboutG2.html G.I. Gurdjieff]&lt;/u&gt; - Russian philosopher, mystic, spiritual teacher, composer and bard.
** [https://archives.nypl.org/dan/22717 Howarth Gurdjieff Archive (1910 - 2010)] - At The New York Public Library:  Archives &amp; Manuscripts.
** [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNY5CTwvWhXkk3jD8tZf_FA Gurdjieff Audiobooks - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://chomsky.info/ Noam Chomsky]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky]] at Chomsky.info and Chomsky's Philosophy. 
** [https://www.youtube.com/user/chomskysphilosophy/featured Chomsky's Philosophy - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/ Jiddu-Krishnamurti]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Jiddu Krishnamurti|Jiddu Krishnamurti]] on human endeavors. [https://www.youtube.com/c/KFoundation YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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      <text bytes="1162" xml:space="preserve">'''Iconoclasts, Heretics &amp; Conscientious Objectors'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.gurdjieff-foundation-newyork.org/aboutG2.html G.I. Gurdjieff]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:George Gurdjieff|George Ivanovich Gurdjieff]] was a Russian philosopher, mystic, spiritual teacher, composer and bard.
** [https://archives.nypl.org/dan/22717 Howarth Gurdjieff Archive (1910 - 2010)] - At The New York Public Library:  Archives &amp; Manuscripts.
** [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNY5CTwvWhXkk3jD8tZf_FA Gurdjieff Audiobooks - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://chomsky.info/ Noam Chomsky]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky]] at Chomsky.info and Chomsky's Philosophy. 
** [https://www.youtube.com/user/chomskysphilosophy/featured Chomsky's Philosophy - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/ Jiddu-Krishnamurti]&lt;/u&gt; - Talks and interviews with [[w:Jiddu Krishnamurti|Jiddu Krishnamurti]] on human endeavors. [https://www.youtube.com/c/KFoundation YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Resources/Geopolitics</title>
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      <text bytes="1958" xml:space="preserve">'''Geopolitics'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]&lt;/u&gt; - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics]&lt;/u&gt; - Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgZg-9ZL0h85g1Jt3Aj5D-Ydj5t2Jcl1K On Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] - Podcast series hosted by Suzanne Raine and Ali Ansari. [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus Geopolitcus - YouTube Channel]&lt;/u&gt; [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]&lt;/u&gt; - Good Times Bad Times explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology, which shape the world of today. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche/about HistoryMarche]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia/about Knowledgia]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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      <text bytes="2049" xml:space="preserve">'''Geopolitics'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]&lt;/u&gt; - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics]&lt;/u&gt; - Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgZg-9ZL0h85g1Jt3Aj5D-Ydj5t2Jcl1K On Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] - Podcast series hosted by Suzanne Raine and Ali Ansari. [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus/about Geopoliticus] - Understanding Geopolitics, History and Theory. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]&lt;/u&gt; - Good Times Bad Times explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology, which shape the world of today. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche/about HistoryMarche]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia/about Knowledgia]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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      <text bytes="2626" xml:space="preserve">'''Geopolitics'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.csis.org/ Center for Strategic &amp; International Studies (CSIS)]&lt;/u&gt; - The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is a bipartisan, nonprofit policy research organization. [https://www.youtube.com/c/csisdc/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.csis.org/programs/brzezinski-institute-geostrategy Brzezinski Institute on Geostrategy] - Examines the unique interaction of history, geography, and strategy.
** [https://www.csis.org/podcasts CSIS Podcasts] - CSIS regularly produces original expert-guided podcasts on a range of critical issues.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]&lt;/u&gt; - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics]&lt;/u&gt; - Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgZg-9ZL0h85g1Jt3Aj5D-Ydj5t2Jcl1K On Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] - Podcast series hosted by Suzanne Raine and Ali Ansari. [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus/about Geopoliticus]&lt;/u&gt; - Understanding Geopolitics, History and Theory. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]&lt;/u&gt; - Explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche/about HistoryMarche]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia/about Knowledgia]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
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      <text bytes="6506" xml:space="preserve">'''Geopolitics, History &amp; International Relations'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.csis.org/ Center for Strategic &amp; International Studies (CSIS)]&lt;/u&gt; - The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is a bipartisan, nonprofit policy research organization. [https://www.youtube.com/c/csisdc/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.csis.org/programs/brzezinski-institute-geostrategy Brzezinski Institute on Geostrategy] - Examines the unique interaction of history, geography, and strategy.
** [https://www.csis.org/podcasts CSIS Podcasts] - CSIS regularly produces original expert-guided podcasts on a range of critical issues.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]&lt;/u&gt; - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics]&lt;/u&gt; - Centre for Geopolitics in the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgZg-9ZL0h85g1Jt3Aj5D-Ydj5t2Jcl1K On Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] - Podcast series hosted by Suzanne Raine and Ali Ansari. [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.eui.eu/en/academic-units/robert-schuman-centre-for-advanced-studies European University Institute (EUI) - Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS)]&lt;/u&gt; - The Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS) is an inter-disciplinary research centre at the heart of the European University Institute (EUI). [https://www.youtube.com/c/TheRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus/about Geopoliticus]&lt;/u&gt; - Understanding Geopolitics, History and Theory. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]&lt;/u&gt; - Explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche/about HistoryMarche]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.icrc.org/en International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)]&lt;/u&gt; - Founded in 1863, The ICRC works around the world helping people affected by conflict and armed violence, and promoting the rules of war.
** [https://www.icrc.org/en/who-we-are/history History of the ICRC] - The development of humanitarian action, the Geneva Conventions and the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
** [https://casebook.icrc.org/ How does law protect in war?] - The ICRC [https://casebook.icrc.org/About%20the%20Online%20Casebook Online Casebook] project on the legal aspects of modern warfare.
** [https://casebook.icrc.org/law/fundamentals-ihl Fundamentals of International Humanitarian Law (IHL)]  - The ICRC Casebook project on international humanitarian law.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia/about Knowledgia]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://nipp.org/ National Institute for Public Policy (Nipp)]&lt;/u&gt; - Founded in 1981, National Institute for Public Policy (Nipp) is a non-profit public education organization that focuses on a wide spectrum of rapidly evolving foreign policy and international issues.
** [https://nipp.org/information-series/ Information Series] - The ''Information Series'' focuses on contemporary strategic issues affecting U.S. foreign and defense policy. It is a forum for promoting critical thinking on the evolving international security environment and how the dynamic geo-strategic landscape affects U.S. national security.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/ National Security Archive (nsarchive)]&lt;/u&gt; - Founded in 1985 by journalists and scholars to check rising government secrecy, the National Security Archive combines a unique range of functions: investigative journalism center, research institute on international affairs, library and archive of declassified U.S. documents.
** [https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/index.html National Security Archive’s legacy site] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] [https://www.youtube.com/user/nsarchive/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://quincyinst.org/about/ Quincy Institute For Responsible Statecraft]&lt;/u&gt; - The Quincy Institute promotes ideas that move U.S. foreign policy away from endless war and toward vigorous diplomacy in the pursuit of international peace.
** [https://responsiblestatecraft.org/about/ Responsible Statecraft] - Responsible Statecraft is the online magazine of the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.rusi.org/ Royal United Services Institute (RUSI)]&lt;/u&gt; - Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) undertake research, encourage debate, and provide options on critical issues in national and international defence and security. [https://www.youtube.com/c/RusiOrg YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.state.gov/ U.S. Department of State]&lt;/u&gt; - The role of the U.S. Department of State is to protect and promote U.S. security, prosperity, and democratic values and shape an international environment. [https://www.youtube.com/c/StateDept YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://history.state.gov/ Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute] - The Office of the Historian is responsible, under law, for the preparation and publication of the official documentary history of U.S. foreign policy in the Foreign Relations of the United States series.
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      <id>2409322</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-25T23:23:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6489" xml:space="preserve">'''Geopolitics, History &amp; International Relations'''
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* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.csis.org/ Center for Strategic &amp; International Studies (CSIS)]&lt;/u&gt; - The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is a bipartisan, nonprofit policy research organization. [https://www.youtube.com/c/csisdc/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.csis.org/programs/brzezinski-institute-geostrategy Brzezinski Institute on Geostrategy] - Examines the unique interaction of history, geography, and strategy.
** [https://www.csis.org/podcasts CSIS Podcasts] - CSIS regularly produces original expert-guided podcasts on a range of critical issues.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/CaspianReport/about CaspianReport]&lt;/u&gt; - CaspianReport explores how geography influences politics, economics, and history. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwnKziETDbHJtx78nIkfYug YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD6AC8E04915265CA CaspianReport Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.cfg.polis.cam.ac.uk/ Centre for Geopolitics (CfG)]&lt;/u&gt; - In the Department of Politics and International Studies at the University of Cambridge. [https://www.youtube.com/c/CentreforGeopolitics/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLgZg-9ZL0h85g1Jt3Aj5D-Ydj5t2Jcl1K On Geopolitics - YouTube Playlist] - Podcast series hosted by Suzanne Raine and Ali Ansari. [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.eui.eu/en/academic-units/robert-schuman-centre-for-advanced-studies European University Institute (EUI) - Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS)]&lt;/u&gt; - The Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies (RSCAS) is an inter-disciplinary research centre at the heart of the European University Institute (EUI). [https://www.youtube.com/c/TheRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus/about Geopoliticus]&lt;/u&gt; - Understanding Geopolitics, History and Theory. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Geopoliticus YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/about Good Times Bad Times]&lt;/u&gt; - Explores global issues from the fields of geopolitics, international relations, economy, technology. [https://www.youtube.com/c/GoodTimesBadTimes/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche/about HistoryMarche]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/HistoryMarche YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.icrc.org/en International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)]&lt;/u&gt; - Founded in 1863, The ICRC works around the world helping people affected by conflict and armed violence, and promoting the rules of war.
** [https://www.icrc.org/en/who-we-are/history History of the ICRC] - The development of humanitarian action, the Geneva Conventions and the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
** [https://casebook.icrc.org/ How does law protect in war?] - The ICRC [https://casebook.icrc.org/About%20the%20Online%20Casebook Online Casebook] project on the legal aspects of modern warfare.
** [https://casebook.icrc.org/law/fundamentals-ihl Fundamentals of International Humanitarian Law (IHL)]  - The ICRC Casebook project on international humanitarian law.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia/about Knowledgia]&lt;/u&gt; - Animated videos about Geopolitical History. [https://www.youtube.com/c/Knowledgia YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://nipp.org/ National Institute for Public Policy (Nipp)]&lt;/u&gt; - Founded in 1981, National Institute for Public Policy (Nipp) is a non-profit public education organization that focuses on a wide spectrum of rapidly evolving foreign policy and international issues.
** [https://nipp.org/information-series/ Information Series] - The ''Information Series'' focuses on contemporary strategic issues affecting U.S. foreign and defense policy. It is a forum for promoting critical thinking on the evolving international security environment and how the dynamic geo-strategic landscape affects U.S. national security.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/ National Security Archive (nsarchive)]&lt;/u&gt; - Founded in 1985 by journalists and scholars to check rising government secrecy, the National Security Archive combines a unique range of functions: investigative journalism center, research institute on international affairs, library and archive of declassified U.S. documents.
** [https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/index.html National Security Archive’s legacy site] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] [https://www.youtube.com/user/nsarchive/featured YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://quincyinst.org/about/ Quincy Institute For Responsible Statecraft]&lt;/u&gt; - The Quincy Institute promotes ideas that move U.S. foreign policy away from endless war and toward vigorous diplomacy in the pursuit of international peace.
** [https://responsiblestatecraft.org/about/ Responsible Statecraft] - Responsible Statecraft is the online magazine of the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft.
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.rusi.org/ Royal United Services Institute (RUSI)]&lt;/u&gt; - Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) undertake research, encourage debate, and provide options on critical issues in national and international defence and security. [https://www.youtube.com/c/RusiOrg YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.state.gov/ U.S. Department of State]&lt;/u&gt; - The role of the U.S. Department of State is to protect and promote U.S. security, prosperity, and democratic values and shape an international environment. [https://www.youtube.com/c/StateDept YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://history.state.gov/ Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute] - The Office of the Historian is responsible, under law, for the preparation and publication of the official documentary history of U.S. foreign policy in the Foreign Relations of the United States series.
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Prigogine, Ilya</title>
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      <id>2409276</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-25T16:42:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prigogine, Ilya (1917 – 2003) */</comment>
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=== [[w:Ilya Prigogine|Prigogine, Ilya (1917 – 2003)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Ilya Prigogine 1977c.jpg|thumb|Ilya Prigogine 1977c]]
[[File:Bzr raum.jpg|thumb|Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction sequence in petri dish over time.]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1977/prigogine/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1977] “for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures.”
* Theory of Dissipative Structures
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center | width= 640px
|'''Entropy in Non-equilibrium Dissipative Systems'''
&lt;math&gt;T\,dS = \Delta Q - \sum_{j} \, \Xi_{j} \,\Delta \xi_j  + \sum_{\alpha =1}^k\, \eta_\alpha \, \Delta N_\alpha&lt;/math&gt;
where
* &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q&lt;/math&gt; represents a stream of thermal energy into the system.
* &lt;math&gt;\sum_{j} \, \Xi_{j} \,\Delta \xi_j&lt;/math&gt; depicts [[w:energy dissipation|Energy Dissapation]] due to the relaxation of internal variables &lt;math&gt; \xi_j&lt;/math&gt;.
* &lt;math&gt;\sum_{\alpha =1}^k\, \eta_\alpha \, \Delta N_\alpha.&lt;/math&gt; a stream of energy &lt;math&gt;h_\alpha&lt;/math&gt; entering the system with the stream of particles &lt;math&gt; \Delta N_\alpha &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; \eta_\alpha= h_\alpha- \mu_\alpha&lt;/math&gt;   
*&lt;math&gt;\mu_\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is [[w:chemical potential|chemical potential]] of substance &lt;math&gt; \alpha&lt;/math&gt;. 
|}
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Prigogine, Ilya}}
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      <parentid>2409276</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T16:48:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prigogine, Ilya (1917 – 2003) */</comment>
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=== [[w:Ilya Prigogine|Prigogine, Ilya (1917 – 2003)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Ilya Prigogine 1977c.jpg|thumb|Ilya Prigogine 1977c]]
[[File:Bzr raum.jpg|thumb|Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction sequence in petri dish over time.]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1977/prigogine/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1977] “for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures.”
* Theory of Dissipative Structures
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center | width= 640px
|'''Entropy in Non-equilibrium Dissipative Systems'''
&lt;math&gt;T\,dS = \Delta Q - \sum_{j} \, \Xi_{j} \,\Delta \xi_j  + \sum_{\alpha =1}^k\, \eta_\alpha \, \Delta N_\alpha&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
where&lt;br /&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;T\,dS&lt;/math&gt; is the variation in the system entropy at the constant volume and temperature T (in Kelvin)
and is a function of
* &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q&lt;/math&gt; represents a stream of thermal energy into the system.
* &lt;math&gt;\sum_{j} \, \Xi_{j} \,\Delta \xi_j&lt;/math&gt; depicts [[w:energy dissipation|Energy Dissapation]] due to the relaxation of internal variables &lt;math&gt; \xi_j&lt;/math&gt;.
* &lt;math&gt;\sum_{\alpha =1}^k\, \eta_\alpha \, \Delta N_\alpha.&lt;/math&gt; a stream of energy &lt;math&gt;h_\alpha&lt;/math&gt; entering the system with the stream of particles &lt;math&gt; \Delta N_\alpha &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; \eta_\alpha= h_\alpha- \mu_\alpha&lt;/math&gt;   
*&lt;math&gt;\mu_\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is [[w:chemical potential|chemical potential]] of substance &lt;math&gt; \alpha&lt;/math&gt;. 
|}
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Prigogine, Ilya}}
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&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Congruences</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Quadratic Residues */</comment>
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      <text bytes="9163" xml:space="preserve">=Congruences=
The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other.

Expressed mathematically:

:&lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

read as: A is congruent with B modulo N.

This means that:

* A modulo N equals B modulo N,
* the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or
* &lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

where p modulo N or &lt;code&gt;p % N&lt;/code&gt; is the remainder when p is divided by N.

For example: &lt;math&gt;23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{23-8}{5}&lt;/math&gt; is exact without remainder.

Similarly, &lt;math&gt;39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}&lt;/math&gt;
because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{39-29}{7}&lt;/math&gt; is not exact.

==Law of addition==
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
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==Law of Common Congruence==
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv B \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A \equiv C \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = B + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
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==Law of Multiplication==
===by a constant===
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
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===by another congruence===
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= B\cdot D + B\cdot   K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot  D + K_1\cdot N\cdot  K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= N( B\cdot  K_2  + K_1\cdot   D + K_1\cdot  K_2\cdot N )&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
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==Law of squares==
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
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==Law of Division?==
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A simple example shows that a &quot;law of division&quot; does not exist.

&lt;math&gt;24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.&lt;/math&gt;

However &lt;math&gt;\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;12 - 7 = 5&lt;/math&gt; is not exactly divisible by &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;
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=Quadratic Congruences=
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
==Quadratic Residues==
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
===Products===
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====of 2 residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of 2 non-residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of residue and non-residue====
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
      <sha1>mfsqdlzy72qw0ez7bn0ciqihf9oz20w</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409245</id>
      <parentid>2409231</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:30:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* of residue and non-residue */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9189" xml:space="preserve">=Congruences=
The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other.

Expressed mathematically:

:&lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

read as: A is congruent with B modulo N.

This means that:

* A modulo N equals B modulo N,
* the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or
* &lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

where p modulo N or &lt;code&gt;p % N&lt;/code&gt; is the remainder when p is divided by N.

For example: &lt;math&gt;23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{23-8}{5}&lt;/math&gt; is exact without remainder.

Similarly, &lt;math&gt;39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}&lt;/math&gt;
because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{39-29}{7}&lt;/math&gt; is not exact.

==Law of addition==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Common Congruence==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv B \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A \equiv C \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = B + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Multiplication==
===by a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===by another congruence===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= B\cdot D + B\cdot   K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot  D + K_1\cdot N\cdot  K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= N( B\cdot  K_2  + K_1\cdot   D + K_1\cdot  K_2\cdot N )&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of squares==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Division?==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
A simple example shows that a &quot;law of division&quot; does not exist.

&lt;math&gt;24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.&lt;/math&gt;

However &lt;math&gt;\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;12 - 7 = 5&lt;/math&gt; is not exactly divisible by &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Quadratic Congruences=
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
==Quadratic Residues==
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
===Products===
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====of 2 residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of 2 non-residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of residue and non-residue====
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=Links to related topics=</text>
      <sha1>pgvtqerv3k0m91crn0nmfusgru56imb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409247</id>
      <parentid>2409245</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:33:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Links to related topics */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9260" xml:space="preserve">=Congruences=
The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other.

Expressed mathematically:

:&lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

read as: A is congruent with B modulo N.

This means that:

* A modulo N equals B modulo N,
* the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or
* &lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

where p modulo N or &lt;code&gt;p % N&lt;/code&gt; is the remainder when p is divided by N.

For example: &lt;math&gt;23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{23-8}{5}&lt;/math&gt; is exact without remainder.

Similarly, &lt;math&gt;39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}&lt;/math&gt;
because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{39-29}{7}&lt;/math&gt; is not exact.

==Law of addition==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Common Congruence==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv B \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A \equiv C \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = B + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Multiplication==
===by a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===by another congruence===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= B\cdot D + B\cdot   K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot  D + K_1\cdot N\cdot  K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= N( B\cdot  K_2  + K_1\cdot   D + K_1\cdot  K_2\cdot N )&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
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==Law of squares==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Division?==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
A simple example shows that a &quot;law of division&quot; does not exist.

&lt;math&gt;24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.&lt;/math&gt;

However &lt;math&gt;\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;12 - 7 = 5&lt;/math&gt; is not exactly divisible by &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Quadratic Congruences=
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
==Quadratic Residues==
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
===Products===
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====of 2 residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of 2 non-residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of residue and non-residue====
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=Links to related topics=

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue &quot;Quadratic Residue&quot;]</text>
      <sha1>bx0mq24xws21hfm0rxrf8zyzjcsk0nd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409249</id>
      <parentid>2409247</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T14:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Links to related topics */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9333" xml:space="preserve">=Congruences=
The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other.

Expressed mathematically:

:&lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

read as: A is congruent with B modulo N.

This means that:

* A modulo N equals B modulo N,
* the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or
* &lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

where p modulo N or &lt;code&gt;p % N&lt;/code&gt; is the remainder when p is divided by N.

For example: &lt;math&gt;23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{23-8}{5}&lt;/math&gt; is exact without remainder.

Similarly, &lt;math&gt;39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}&lt;/math&gt;
because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{39-29}{7}&lt;/math&gt; is not exact.

==Law of addition==
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Common Congruence==
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv B \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A \equiv C \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = B + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Multiplication==
===by a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===by another congruence===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= B\cdot D + B\cdot   K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot  D + K_1\cdot N\cdot  K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= N( B\cdot  K_2  + K_1\cdot   D + K_1\cdot  K_2\cdot N )&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of squares==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Division?==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
A simple example shows that a &quot;law of division&quot; does not exist.

&lt;math&gt;24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.&lt;/math&gt;

However &lt;math&gt;\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;12 - 7 = 5&lt;/math&gt; is not exactly divisible by &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Quadratic Congruences=
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
==Quadratic Residues==
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
===Products===
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====of 2 residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of 2 non-residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of residue and non-residue====
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=Links to related topics=

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue &quot;Quadratic Residue&quot;]

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic &quot;Modular Arithmetic&quot;]</text>
      <sha1>qxy1h4tkdp8h4lr3hm30ry0tyipc7re</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409285</id>
      <parentid>2409249</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T19:09:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Law of addition */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9786" xml:space="preserve">=Congruences=
The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other.

Expressed mathematically:

:&lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

read as: A is congruent with B modulo N.

This means that:

* A modulo N equals B modulo N,
* the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or
* &lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

where p modulo N or &lt;code&gt;p % N&lt;/code&gt; is the remainder when p is divided by N.

For example: &lt;math&gt;23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{23-8}{5}&lt;/math&gt; is exact without remainder.

Similarly, &lt;math&gt;39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}&lt;/math&gt;
because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{39-29}{7}&lt;/math&gt; is not exact.

==Law of addition==
===Adding a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Law of Common Congruence==
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If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv B \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A \equiv C \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = B + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Multiplication==
===by a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===by another congruence===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= B\cdot D + B\cdot   K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot  D + K_1\cdot N\cdot  K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= N( B\cdot  K_2  + K_1\cdot   D + K_1\cdot  K_2\cdot N )&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of squares==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Division?==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
A simple example shows that a &quot;law of division&quot; does not exist.

&lt;math&gt;24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.&lt;/math&gt;

However &lt;math&gt;\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;12 - 7 = 5&lt;/math&gt; is not exactly divisible by &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Quadratic Congruences=
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
==Quadratic Residues==
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
===Products===
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====of 2 residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of 2 non-residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of residue and non-residue====
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=Links to related topics=

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue &quot;Quadratic Residue&quot;]

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic &quot;Modular Arithmetic&quot;]</text>
      <sha1>5o2ubib8bnl87wtu5j7jh4xxde11dv6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409307</id>
      <parentid>2409285</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:11:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThaniosAkro</username>
        <id>2805358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Congruences */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9884" xml:space="preserve">=Congruences=
The subject of congruences is a field of mathematics that covers the integers, their relationship to each other and also the effect of arithmetic operations on their relationship to each other.

Expressed mathematically:

:&lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt;

read as: A is congruent with B modulo N.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
&lt;math&gt;A,B,N&lt;/math&gt; are integers and &lt;math&gt;N &gt; 1.&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
This means that:

* A modulo N equals B modulo N,
* the difference, A-B, is exactly divisible by N, or
* &lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

where p modulo N or &lt;code&gt;p % N&lt;/code&gt; is the remainder when p is divided by N.

For example: &lt;math&gt;23 \equiv 8 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{23-8}{5}&lt;/math&gt; is exact without remainder.

Similarly, &lt;math&gt;39 \not\equiv 29 \,\pmod{7}&lt;/math&gt;
because division &lt;math&gt;\frac{39-29}{7}&lt;/math&gt; is not exact.

==Law of addition==
===Adding a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+q \equiv B+q \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+q) - (B+q) = B + K\cdot N + q - B - q = K\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===Adding 2 congruences===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N}, &lt;/math&gt; then:
&lt;math&gt;A+C \equiv B+D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A-B = K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;, therefore &lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;(A+C) - (B+D) = B + K_1\cdot N + D + K_2\cdot N  - B - D = N(K_1 + K_2)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Law of Common Congruence==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv B \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A \equiv C \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = B + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A - C = B + K_1\cdot N - B - K_2\cdot N = (K_1 - K_2)N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Multiplication==
===by a constant===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p \equiv B\cdot p \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot p - B\cdot p = p(A-B)&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
===by another congruence===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; and

&lt;math&gt;C \equiv D \pmod{N},&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C \equiv B\cdot D \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A = B + K_1\cdot N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C = D + K_2\cdot N.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;A\cdot C - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt; 
&lt;math&gt;= (B + K_1\cdot N)( D + K_2\cdot N) - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= B\cdot D + B\cdot   K_2\cdot N + K_1\cdot N\cdot  D + K_1\cdot N\cdot  K_2\cdot N - B\cdot D&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;= N( B\cdot  K_2  + K_1\cdot   D + K_1\cdot  K_2\cdot N )&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of squares==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
If &lt;math&gt;A \equiv B \pmod{N} &lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 \equiv B^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:

&lt;math&gt;A^2 - B^2 = (A+B)(A-B)&lt;/math&gt;
which is exactly divisible by N.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==Law of Division?==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
A simple example shows that a &quot;law of division&quot; does not exist.

&lt;math&gt;24 \equiv 14 \pmod{10}.&lt;/math&gt;

However &lt;math&gt;\frac{24}{2} \not\equiv \frac{14}{2} \pmod{10}&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;12 - 7 = 5&lt;/math&gt; is not exactly divisible by &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=Quadratic Congruences=
A quadratic congruence is a congruence that contains at least one exact square,
for example:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y^2 \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Initially, let us consider the congruence: &lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N,&lt;/math&gt; then:

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof: &lt;math&gt;x^2 - y  = x^2 - (x^2 - N) = N&lt;/math&gt; which is exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;N.&lt;/math&gt;

Consider an example with real numbers.

Let &lt;math&gt;N = 257&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;26 \ge x \ge 6.&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  6 | -221
  7 | -208
  8 | -193
  9 | -176
 10 | -157
 11 | -136
 12 | -113
 13 |  -88
 14 |  -61
 15 |  -32
 16 |   -1
 17 |   32
 18 |   67
 19 |  104
 20 |  143
 21 |  184
 22 |  227
 23 |  272
 24 |  319
 25 |  368
 26 |  419
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
A cursory glance at the values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; indicates that the value 
&lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

Proof:
&lt;math&gt;N \equiv 2 \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N - 2 = k5&lt;/math&gt; or 
&lt;math&gt;N = 5k + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

The table shows all possible values of &lt;math&gt;x\ %\ 5:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
   x   |       x^2       |        y = x^2 - N
------ | --------------- | -----------------------------------------------
5p + 0 | 25pp            | 25pp            - (5k+2) = 25pp       - 5k -  2
5p + 1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 | 25pp + 10p +  1 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 10p - 5k -  1
5p + 2 | 25pp + 20p +  4 | 25pp + 20p +  4 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 20p - 5k +  2
5p + 3 | 25pp + 30p +  9 | 25pp + 30p +  9 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 30p - 5k +  7
5p + 4 | 25pp + 40p + 16 | 25pp + 40p + 16 - (5k+2) = 25pp + 40p - 5k + 14
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
As you can see, the value &lt;math&gt;y = x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt;

If you look closely, you will see also that it is never exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;3.&lt;/math&gt;

Why is this? An interesting question that leads us to the topic of quadratic residues.
==Quadratic Residues==
Consider all the congruences for prime number &lt;math&gt;5:&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv y \pmod{5}&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;5 &gt; x \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
 x |   x^2   | (x^2) % 5
---|---------|-----------
 0 |    0    | 0
 1 |    1    | 1
 2 |    4    | 4
 3 |    9    | 4
 4 |   16    | 1
 &lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,4.&lt;/math&gt;

Values &lt;math&gt;2,3&lt;/math&gt; are not quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; These values are quadratic non-residues.

To calculate the quadratic residues of a small prime &lt;math&gt;p:&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# python code:
def quadResidues(p) :
    L1 = []
    for	v in range (p&gt;&gt;1, -1, -1) :
      	L1 += [(v*v) % p]
    return L1

print (quadResidues(11))
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
[3, 5, 9, 4, 1, 0]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;0,1,3,4,5,9.&lt;/math&gt;

The method presented here answers the question, &quot;What are the quadratic residues of p?&quot;

If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a very large prime, the question is often,
&quot;Is r a quadratic residue of p?&quot; The answer is found in advanced number theory.

Let us return to quadratic residues mod &lt;math&gt;N = 257.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 5 = 2,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is not a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;5.&lt;/math&gt; This is why &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; is never divisible by &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;
exactly.

&lt;math&gt;N\ %\ 11 = 4,&lt;/math&gt; therefore &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is a quadratic residue of
&lt;math&gt;11&lt;/math&gt; and a value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the congruence
&lt;math&gt;x^2 \equiv 4 \pmod{257}&lt;/math&gt; has form &lt;math&gt;11p \pm 2.&lt;/math&gt;

From the table above:

&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
N = 257
  x | x^2 - N
----|--------
  9 | -176
 13 |  -88
 20 |  143
 24 |  319
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

These &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt; values of &lt;math&gt;x^2 - N&lt;/math&gt; are exactly divisible by
&lt;math&gt;11.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 9&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 13&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 1 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 20&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 - 2.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;x = 24&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;11\cdot 2 + 2.&lt;/math&gt;
===Products===
This section uses prime number &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; as an example.

Using &lt;code&gt;quadResidues(p)&lt;/code&gt; quadratic residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qr41 = [0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 39, 40]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
Quadratic non-residues of &lt;math&gt;41&lt;/math&gt; are:
&lt;syntaxhighlight&gt;
qnr41 = [3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 38]
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
====of 2 residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qr41)) :
    	v2 = qr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of 2 non-residues====
A simple test to verify that the product of 2 non-residues is a residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
    v1 = qnr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (index1, len(qnr41)) :
	    v2 = qnr41[index2]
	    residue = (v1*v2) % 41
	    if residue not in qr41 : print ('residue',residue,'not quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of 2 non-residues is a residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

====of residue and non-residue====
A simple test to verify that the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue:
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=python&gt;
# Python code.
for index1 in range (1, len(qr41)) :
    v1 = qr41[index1]
    for index2 in range (0, len(qnr41)) :
        v2 = qnr41[index2]
        residue = (v1*v2) % 41
        if residue not in qnr41 : print ('residue',residue,'quadratic.')
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
This test shows that, at least for prime number &lt;math&gt;41,&lt;/math&gt; the product of residue and non-residue is non-residue. Advanced math proves that this is true for all primes.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
Some authors may consider &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; as not a legitimate residue.

&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is not included as a residue in the test above.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=Links to related topics=

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratic_residue &quot;Quadratic Residue&quot;]

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic &quot;Modular Arithmetic&quot;]</text>
      <sha1>mr6runjdycnx1v7bjn9i67916u5sa7q</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>InsertionSortMiddle</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409304</id>
      <parentid>2409189</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:07:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Subpage</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5165" xml:space="preserve">{{subpage|Algorithms}}

== Description ==
{{Aligned table
|cols=2|class=wikitable
|col1header=on
|col1align=left
| Category | Sorting algorithm
| Sub category | Insert sort
| Name | '''InsertionSortMiddle'''
| Data structure | Array
| Comparations | &lt;math&gt;O(n\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
| Timing | long for log array (base code need to do lot of moves)
| Spacing | (original array, input is output)
| Stability | Stable algorithm
}}


How it work? '''InsertionSortMiddle''' work as insert sort. Get next value (i+1) and insert to sorted array. 
Check possition from middle of sorted array, then middle of part...

Properties: Algoritm not need extra memory. Ist slow for large array (moving a large array takes a lot of time).
Have minimal comparation operations of all know algorithms (without counting sorts). Stable.

== Statistics from real code execution (average) ==

&lt;pre&gt;
n         = 1.024
value-min = 0
value-max = n/2     // 50% of array contain some repeating value
------------------
compares  ~ 8.825    (Tim-sort ~8.961)
cycles    ~ 273.362  (Tim-sort ~16.097)
moves     ~ 263.514  (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054)
stability = stable
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Schematic of work ==

&lt;pre style=&quot;overflow:auto; width:auto;&quot;&gt;
3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0    // input

3                  // is first sorted array, (left = 0), half = 0, mid = 0 + floor(half / 2) (first pos_b), ''' cmp = 0 '''
. 1                // next i = 1, value = array[i] = 1, mid = 0
3-1                // compare 3-1
1 3                // 13 is now output, half = i, mid = 0 + floor(half / 2), ''' cmp + 1 ''' 
.
.   2              // next i, array[i], mid = 0
1---2              // compare(array[i], array[mid]), compare&gt;=0, half = floor(half / 2), left = mid, mid = left + half
  3-2              // compare(array[i], array[mid]), compare&lt;0, end (because half = 0, cannot more divide), half = i, mid = 0 + round(half / 2), ''' cmp + 2 ''' 
1 2 3
  .                // ... note: for simplify, i remove lot of repeating text
      2            // next i, mid = 1
  2---2            // compare&gt;=0, mid = left + half
  . 3-2            // compare&lt;0, end, ''' cmp + 2 '''
1 2 2 3
  .
  .     0          // next i, mid = 1
  2-----0          // compare&lt;0, mid = left - half
1-------0          // compare&lt;0, end, ''' cmp + 2 '''
0 1 2 2 3
    .
          3        // next i, mid = 2
    2-----3        // compare&gt;=0, mid = left + half
    . 2---3        // compare&gt;=0, mid = left + half
    .   3-3        // compare&gt;=0, end, ''' cmp + 3 '''
0 1 2 2 3 3
    .
    .       1      // next i, mid = 2
    2-------1      // compare&lt;0, mid = left - half
  1---------1      // compare&gt;=0, end, ''' cmp + 2 ''' (my alg. code here compute cmp+3, because compare zero)
0 1 1 2 2 3 3
      .
              0    // next i, mid = 3
      2-------0    // compare&lt;0, mid = left - half
  1-----------0    // compare&lt;0, mid = left - half
0-------------0    // compare&gt;=0, end, ''' cmp + 3 '''
===============
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3    // output, suma(cmp) = 1+2+2+2+3+2+3 = 15
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Code (javascript) ==

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;JavaScript&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;script&gt;
// Created by Peter Mlich (2017)

// insert new item into sorted array, check position from middle of array
// note: algorithm code is differend from schema, but simplest
function sortInsertMiddle(cmp, start, end, n)
	{
	if (o.size&lt;2) {return o.n;}
	var i, i_start, i_end, left, right, mid, mid_sub;
	i_start = o.start + 1;
	i_end   = o.end;
	i       = i_start;
	while (i&lt;i_end)
		{
glob.cycles++;
		// find position
		left  = o.start - 1;
		right = i;
		mid_sub = right - left;
		while (true)
			{
glob.cycles++;
			mid = left + (mid_sub&gt;&gt;1);
			if (o.fn_cmp(arr[o.n][i], arr[o.n][mid])&gt;=0)
				{
				left    = mid;
				mid_sub = right - left;
				if (mid_sub&lt;=1) {mid++; break;}
				}
			else	{
				right   = mid;
				mid_sub = right - left;
				if (mid_sub&lt;=1) {break;}
				}
			}
		// move to position, shift array
		arrShift(arr[o.n], mid, i);
		i++;
		}
	return o.n;
	}

// ------

// note: code is not optimalized - draft version from my tester
function sortCompare (a, b)
	{
glob.cmps++;
	var c = a - b;
	return c&gt;0 ? 1 : (c&lt;0 ? -1 : 0);
	};

function arrShift(list, a, b)	// move last (b) on top (a), alternation: splice or copyWithin
	{
	if (b&lt;=a || a&lt;0 || b&lt;0) {return;}
	var tmp = list[b];
glob.cycles += b - a;
glob.moves += b - a;
	while (a&lt;b)
		{
        	list[b] = list[--b];
		}
	list[a] = tmp;
	}

var arr  = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]]
var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0};
var o    = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare};
var log = [], i=0, n;

log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1])

o.n = sortInsertMiddle(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n);

log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n])
log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob)
log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start)
document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('&lt;br&gt;')

/*
array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4]
array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7]
glob {&quot;moves&quot;:66,&quot;cycles&quot;:125,&quot;cmps&quot;:44}
n 16
*/
&lt;/script&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;</text>
      <sha1>crb7kvtqrak4efs1cw0sb6ag04jzqhb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>SortedListMergingSort</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409305</id>
      <parentid>2409192</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:07:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Subpage</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6187" xml:space="preserve">{{subpage|Algorithms}}

== Description ==

{{Aligned table
|cols=2|class=wikitable
|col1header=on
|col1align=left
| Category | Sorting algorithm
| Sub category | Merge sort
| Name | '''SortedListMergingSort'''
| Data structure | Array
| Comparations | &lt;math&gt;O(n\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
| Timing | &lt;math&gt;O(n\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
| Spacing | &lt;math&gt;2*n (+ n)&lt;/math&gt; (input + output (+ index table))
| Stability | Stable algorithm
}}

How it work? '''SortedListMergingSort''' merge sorted list. 
First, you must detect sorted sub-arrays (by compare values on positions 0-1, 1-2, 2-3...).
Or, we can say, always have sorted array size=1.
Then merge two arrays (best, arrays with the smallest size) to one. Repeat merging.
Trick lies in it, sorted array can compare from top, smaller value move to save, not need more compare with any value in any in this two arrays.

Properties: Algoritm need extra memory (copy from array 1 to array 2 and back). Ist fast. Stable. 
Can be modified to multi-thread.
Version with detect sorted sub-arrays can be modified, return ascendecy (asc), descendency (desc) array as &lt;math&gt;O(n)&lt;/math&gt;. Can save longer from one of asc or desc sub-arrays.

Note: Merging sorted arrays use TimSort, WikiSort.

== Statistics (average) ==

&lt;pre&gt;
n         = 1.024
value-min = 0
value-max = n/2     // 50% of array contain some repeating value
------------------
compares  ~ 8.886    (Tim-sort ~8.961)
cycles    ~ 11.273   (Tim-sort ~16.097)
moves     ~ 10.240   (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054)

stability = stable
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Schematic of work ==

&lt;pre style=&quot;overflow:auto; width:auto;&quot;&gt;
3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0          // input (array_1)

3-1   2-2   0-3   1-0    // compare top of sorted list A (list array-size = 1) with top of sorted list B (list length 1), C-D, E-F, G-H
1 3   2 2   0 3   0 1    // saved output at end in array_2, cmp = 4 (you still copy from array 1 to array 2 and back, need two array or two array with indexes)

1 3 | 2 2 | 0 3 | 0 1    // input (array_2; A-B, C-D, E-F, G-H is now new sorted array with array-size = 2)
1-----2                  // compare first from AB with first from CD, smaller save
1                        // save
  3---2                  // compare next from AB with first from CD, smaller save
      2                  // save
  3-----2                // compare from last AB with last from CD, smaller save
        2                // save
  3                      // save (copy)
1 2 2 3                  // saved output at end (in array_1), cmp + 3

            0-----0      // compare first (EF) with first (GH)
            0            // save
              3---0      // compare next (EF) with first (GH)
                  0      // save
              3-----1    // compare last (EF) with last (GH)
                    1    // save
              3          // save (copy)
            0 0 1 3      // saved output at end (in array_1), cmp + 3

1 2 2 3 | 0 0 1 3        // new sorted lists
1---------0              // compare first (ABCD) with first (EFGH)
          0              // save
1-----------0            // compare first (ABCD) with second (EFGH)
            0            // save
1-------------1          // compare first (ABCD) with third (EFGH)
1                        // save
  2------------1         // compare second (ABCD) with third (EFGH)
               1         // save
  2--------------3       // compare second (ABCD) with last (EFGH)
  2                      // save
    2------------3       // compare third (ABCD) with last (EFGH)
    2                    // save
      3----------3       // compare last (ABCD) with last (EFGH)
      3                  // save
                 3       // save (copy), cmp + 7
==================
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3          // output in array_2, return handle to array, suma(cmp) = 4+3+3+7 = 17
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Code (javascript) ==

&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;JavaScript&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;script&gt;
// Created by Peter Mlich (2013)
// note: code use too Honzik (? Jaroslav) from VUT Brno, but, i create code before seen his document

// merging part
function listMerging_bounds_part(cmp, i_start, i_end, j_end, m, n)
	{
var cycles = 0;
	var i,j,k;
	i = i_start;
	j = i_end;	// i_end = j_start
	k = i_start;	// k_start = i_start
	while (i&lt;i_end &amp;&amp; j&lt;j_end)
		{
cycles++;
		if (cmp(arr[m][i],arr[m][j])&gt;0)
			{arr[n][k] = arr[m][j]; j++; k++;}
		else	{arr[n][k] = arr[m][i]; i++; k++;}
		}
	while (i&lt;i_end)
		{
cycles++;
		arr[n][k] = arr[m][i]; i++; k++;
		}
	while (j&lt;j_end)
		{
cycles++;
		arr[n][k] = arr[m][j]; j++; k++;
		}
glob.cycles += cycles;
glob.moves  += cycles;
	return n;
	}

// Merge sorted list, first sorted lists have length 1 (or can detect sorted, compare(a,b), b-c, c-d...)
function sortedListMergingTop(cmp, start, end, n)
	{
	if (o.size&lt;2) {return o.n;}
	var step, stepmax, tmp, a,b,c, m, n;
	stepmax = ((o.size + 1) &gt;&gt; 1) &lt;&lt; 1;
	m = o.n;
	n = o.n==1 ? 2 : 1;
	for (step=1; step&lt;stepmax; step&lt;&lt;=1)	//bounds 1-1, 2-2, 4-4, 8-8...
		{
glob.cycles++;
		a = o.start;
		while (a&lt;o.end)
			{
glob.cycles++;
			b = a + step;
			c = a + (step&lt;&lt;1); // c = a + step + step;
			b = b&lt;o.end ? b : o.end;
			c = c&lt;o.end ? c : o.end;
			listMerging_bounds_part(o.fn_cmp, a, b, c, m, n);
			a = c;
			}
		tmp = m; m = n; n = tmp;
		}
	return m;
	}

// ------

// note: code is not optimalized - draft version from my tester
function sortCompare (a, b)
	{
glob.cmps++;
	var c = a - b;
	return c&gt;0 ? 1 : (c&lt;0 ? -1 : 0);
	};

var arr  = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]]
var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0};
var o    = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare};
var log = [], i=0, n;

log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1])

o.n = sortedListMergingTop(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n);

log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n])
log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob)
log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start)
document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('&lt;br&gt;')

/*
array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4]
array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7]
glob {&quot;moves&quot;:64,&quot;cycles&quot;:83,&quot;cmps&quot;:47}
n 16
*/
&lt;/script&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;</text>
      <sha1>872sly51amwwfdkd9fxsiqted2hi1pf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>PyramidSelectionSort</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409306</id>
      <parentid>2409194</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T21:08:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Subpage</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9907" xml:space="preserve">{{subpage|Algorithms}}

== Description ==

'''PyramidSelectionSort''' get first pair of values, compare it and save minimal value (index) to new array. Repeat for all pair, create row 0. Repeat for row 0, create row 1... Find minimal value. Create tournament table of winners. Then remove minimal and rebuild pyramid branch (where minimal figured) and again find minimal value.

{{Aligned table|cols=2|class=wikitable|col1header=on|col1align=left|Category|Sorting algorithm|Sub category|Selection sort|Name|'''PyramidSelectionSort'''|Data structure|Array|Comparations|&lt;math&gt;O(n\log n)&lt;/math&gt;|Timing|&lt;math&gt;O(n\log n)&lt;/math&gt;|Spacing|&lt;math&gt;2*n + n&lt;/math&gt; (input + output + index table)|Stability|Stable algorithm}}

== Statistics from real code execution (average) ==

&lt;pre&gt;
n         = 1.024
value-min = 0
value-max = n/2     // 50% of array contain some repeating value
------------------
compares  ~ 8.886    (Tim-sort ~8.961, Select-sort ~523.776)
cycles    ~ 11.262   (Tim-sort ~16.097)
moves     ~ 1.798    (Tim-sort ~13.659, Select-sort ~3.054)
stability = stable
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Schematic of work ==

&lt;pre style=&quot;overflow:auto; width:auto;&quot;&gt;
pavel vs. tomas    zdenek vs. michal
  |         |         |         |
  +----+----+         +----+----+
       |                   |
     tomas               zdenek
       |                   |
       +---------+---------+
                 |
               zdenek                 --- out: zdenek

pavel vs. tomas       -       michal  --- remove winner and find new winner in this branch
  |         |         |         |
  +----+----+         +----+----+
       |                   |
     tomas               michal
       |                   |
       +---------+---------+
                 |
               tomas                  --- out: zdenek, tomas

pavel       -         -       michal
  |         |         |         |
  +----+----+         +----+----+
       |                   |
     pavel               michal
       |                   |
       +---------+---------+
                 |
               pavel                  --- out: zdenek, tomas, pavel, michal


3 1 2 2 0 3 1 0    // input

3-1 2-2 0-3 1-0    // compare pair from input and create row 0 of minimal
  1-2   0-----0    // row 0, pyramid of minimal values / index of position (for scheme i use value, use position in alg. code)
  1-----0 . .      // row 1
        0 . .      // row 2, save minimal to out &quot;0&quot;, cmp = 7
          . .
  1 2     3---0    // rebuild branch (row[0][4,5,6,7], row[1][3,4], row[2][1]) and compare new winner in branch
  1-----------0
            . 0    // save &quot;0&quot;, cmp + 2
            . x
  1 2     3-1 x    // rebuild branch
  1---------1
  1                // save &quot;1&quot;, cmp + 2
  x
3---2     3 1      // rebuild branch
    2-------1
            1      // save &quot;1&quot;, cmp + 2
            x
3   2     3 x      // rebuild branch (when not even or odd value from input, use &quot;x&quot; (-1 in alg. code), when &quot;x&quot; copy second index to next level)
    2-----3
    2              // save &quot;2&quot;, cmp + 1
    x
3-----2   3        // rebuild branch (when &quot;x&quot;, copy index to next level)
      2---3
      2            // save &quot;2&quot;, cmp + 2
      x
3     x   3        // rebuild branch (when &quot;x&quot;, copy index to next level)
3---------3
3                  // save &quot;3&quot;, cmp + 1

          3        // save last &quot;3&quot;
===============
0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3    // output, suma(cmp) = 7+2+2+2+1+2+1 = 17
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Code (javascript) ==
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;JavaScript&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;script&gt;
// Created by Peter Mlich (2022)

// build first pyramid of minimal values
function pyramid_part1_buildPyramid(list, cmp, i_start, i_end, size)
	{
	var i,j,k, k_end, lvl, lvlp1;
	var pyramid = [];
	i   = i_start;
	j   = i_start+1;
	k   = 0;
	lvl = 0;
	pyramid[lvl] = [];

	while (j&lt;i_end)
		{
glob.cycles++;
		if (cmp(list[i], list[j])&gt;0)
			{swap(list, i, j);}
		pyramid[lvl][k] = i; i+=2; j+=2; k++;
		}
	if (i&lt;i_end)	// pokud je size liche cislo, pak pridej posledni prvek a preswapuj to (toho vyuziji pozdeji v part2)
		{
		if (cmp(list[i-2], list[i])&gt;0)
			{
			tmp = list[i];
			list[i  ] = list[i-1];
			list[i-1] = list[i-2];
			list[i-2] = tmp;
glob.moves += 4;
			pyramid[lvl][k] = i;
			}
		else {if (cmp(list[i-1], list[i])&gt;0)
			{
			tmp = list[i];
			list[i  ] = list[i-1];
			list[i-1] = tmp;
glob.moves += 3;
			}}
		}

	i_end = k;
	lvlp1 = lvl + 1;
	while (i_end&gt;1)
		{
glob.cycles++;
		pyramid[lvlp1] = [];
		k = 0;
		i = 0;
		j = 1;	// =i+1
		while (j&lt;i_end)
			{
glob.cycles++;
			if (cmp(list[ pyramid[lvl][i] ], list[ pyramid[lvl][j] ])&gt;0)
				{pyramid[lvlp1][k] = pyramid[lvl][j]; i+=2; j+=2; k++; continue;}
			else	{pyramid[lvlp1][k] = pyramid[lvl][i]; i+=2; j+=2; k++; continue;}
			}
		if (i&lt;i_end) {pyramid[lvlp1][k] = pyramid[lvl][i]; k++;}
		lvl++;
		lvlp1++;
		i_end = k;
		}
	return [pyramid, lvl, pyramid[lvl][0], (size&gt;&gt;1)&lt;&lt;1 != size];	// return pyramid, last lvl, last index, boolean for odd-size)
	}

function pyramid_part3_rebuildPyramidEven(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, pos)
	{
	var lvl, val2, empty = -1, a, b;
	val2 = pyramid[0][pos];
	for (lvl=0; lvl&lt;lvl_end; lvl++)
		{
glob.cycles++;
		if ((pos &amp; 0x01) == 0)
			{
			if (pos==pyramid[lvl].length-1)
				{
				pos = pos&gt;&gt;1;
				pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = val2; //val2 = val2;
				continue;
				}
			b = pyramid[lvl][pos+1];
			a = pyramid[lvl][pos];
			pos = pos&gt;&gt;1;
			if (b==empty)
				{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;}
			if (cmp(list[a], list[b])&gt;0)
				{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;}
			pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a;
			}
		else	{
			a = pyramid[lvl][pos-1];
			b = pyramid[lvl][pos];
			pos = pos&gt;&gt;1;
			if (a==empty)
				{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;}
			if (cmp(list[a], list[b])&gt;0)
				{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;}
			pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a;
			}
		}
	return [pyramid, lvl_end, pyramid[lvl_end][0], bool];
	}

// rebuild pyramid, rewrite branch by new value
function pyramid_part2_rebuildPyramid(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, i_endm3)
	{
	var cycles = 0;
	var lvl, pos, val, val2, a, b, empty=-1;
	val = pyramid[lvl_end][0];
	pos = val&gt;&gt;1;			// pozice zleva
	if (bool==true &amp;&amp; ((pos&lt;&lt;1)==i_endm3) &amp;&amp; ((val &amp; 0x01) == 0) )	// kdyz je size liche cislo a dojde k eliminaci n-2, tak posun posledni 2 cisla
		{
		bool = false;
		list[val]   = list[val+1];
		list[val+1] = list[val+2];
glob.moves += 2;
					// je sude, pak vymen za liche a prepocitej vsechna nutna porovnani
		pyramid[0][pos] = val;
		// pozn.: tento kod je prepsany na funkci, protoze by byl duplicitne
		return pyramid_part3_rebuildPyramidEven(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, pos);
		}
	else {if ((val &amp; 0x01) == 0)	// je sude, pak vymen za liche a prepocitej vsechna nutna porovnani
		{
		pyramid[0][pos] = val + 1;
		return pyramid_part3_rebuildPyramidEven(pyramid, lvl_end, bool, list, cmp, i_end, pos);
		}
	else	{			// je liche, pak odstran a prepocitej vsechna nutna porovnani
		val2 = empty;
		pyramid[0][pos] = val2;
		for (lvl=0; lvl&lt;lvl_end; lvl++)
			{
glob.cycles++;
			if ((pos &amp; 0x01) == 0)
				{
				if (pos==pyramid[lvl].length-1)
					{
					pos = pos&gt;&gt;1;
					pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = val2; //val2 = val2
					continue;
					}
				a = pyramid[lvl][pos];
				b = pyramid[lvl][pos+1];
				pos = pos&gt;&gt;1;
				if (a!==empty &amp;&amp; b!==empty)
					{
					if (cmp(list[a], list[b])&gt;0)
						{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;}
					else	{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;}
					}
				if (b!==empty)
					{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;}
				pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a;
				val2 = a;
				}
			else	{
				a = pyramid[lvl][pos-1];
				b = pyramid[lvl][pos];
				pos = pos&gt;&gt;1;
				if (a!==empty &amp;&amp; b!==empty)
					{
					if (cmp(list[a], list[b])&gt;0)
						{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b; val2 = b; continue;}
					else	{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;}
					}
				if (a!==empty)
					{pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = a; val2 = a; continue;}
				pyramid[lvl+1][pos] = b;
				val2 = b;
				}
			}
		}}
	return [pyramid, lvl_end, pyramid[lvl_end][0], bool];
	}

// princip: vyber minimum z kazdeho paru, pak porovnej minima, minima minim ... az ziskas nejmensi cislo
// pak vyrad nejmensi cislo z pyramidy a propocitej celou vetev, opet ziskej minimum
function PyramidSelectSort(cmp, start, end, n)
	{
	if (o.size&lt;2) {return o.n;}

	var pyramid_data, i, x, y, endm3 = o.end-3;
	x = o.n;
	y = o.n==1 ? 2 : 1;

	pyramid_data = pyramid_part1_buildPyramid(arr[x], o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.size);	// create pyramid of index from minimal values of pair
	i = o.start;
	arr[y][i] = arr[x][pyramid_data[2]];
glob.moves++;
	i++;

	while (i&lt;o.end)
		{
glob.cycles++;
		pyramid_data = pyramid_part2_rebuildPyramid(pyramid_data[0], pyramid_data[1], pyramid_data[3], arr[x], o.fn_cmp, o.end, endm3)
		arr[y][i] = arr[x][pyramid_data[2]];
glob.moves++;
		i++;
		}
	return y;
	}


// note: code is optimalized for my tester
function sortCompare (a, b)
	{
glob.cmps++;
	var c = a - b;
	return c&gt;0 ? 1 : (c&lt;0 ? -1 : 0);
	};

function swap (list, a, b)
	{
	if (a==b) {return;}
	var tmp = list[a];
	list[a] = list[b];
	list[b] = tmp;
glob.moves += 3;
	};

var arr  = [null, [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4], [-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1,-1]]
var glob = {moves: 0, cycles: 0, cmps: 0};
var o    = {start: 0, end: 16, size: 16 - 0, n: 1, moves: 0, cycles: 0, fn_cmp: sortCompare};
var log = [], i=0, n;

log[i++] = 'array-before ' + JSON.stringify(arr[1])

o.n = PyramidSelectSort(o.fn_cmp, o.start, o.end, o.n);

log[i++] = 'array-after ' + JSON.stringify(arr[o.n])
log[i++] = 'glob ' + JSON.stringify(glob)
log[i++] = 'n ' + JSON.stringify(o.end - o.start)
document.getElementsByTagName('DIV')[0].innerHTML = log.join('&lt;br&gt;')

/*
array-before [7,7,4,3,4,7,6,7,0,1,0,6,7,2,2,4]
array-after [0,0,1,2,2,3,4,4,4,6,6,7,7,7,7,7]
glob {&quot;moves&quot;:22,&quot;cycles&quot;:78,&quot;cmps&quot;:47}
n 16
*/
&lt;/script&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ttxq41opla3q1x4m4ab6yijfelmwv7m</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Notices for custodians/Archive/7</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>285692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409211</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:10:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Archive</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10798" xml:space="preserve">== Been Busy ==

Hi everyone, must apologize I have been very busy the last 6 months or so due to a severe publication schedule for a number of papers, also here on Wikimedia I have been added to the Ombuds Commission. I do try to visit here when I can but have not been very visible. Things should settle down in the next few months. Cheers [[User:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #004730&quot;&gt;Scott Thomson&lt;/span&gt;]] (&lt;small class=&quot;nickname&quot;&gt;Faendalimas&lt;/small&gt;) &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Faendalimas|&lt;span style=&quot;color: maroon&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:10, 18 February 2021 (UTC)

== Invitation to [[m:Talk:Universal Code of Conduct/2021 consultations/Discussion]] ==
Please move this note if incorrectly placed.

I am interested in [[m:Talk:Universal Code of Conduct/2021 consultations/Discussion|hearing the input of Wikiversity administrators and other users about the application of the Universal Code of Conduct]], especially from the perspective of interactions ''on Wikiversity'' at the linked page. [[User:Xeno (WMF)|Xeno (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Xeno (WMF)|talk]]) 23:20, 17 April 2021 (UTC)

:[[User:Xeno]] Since you said you are interested in &quot;hearing the input&quot;: 
:RE: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;Multiple times, I have woken up to discover that someone has been globally banned for an unspecified offence...I imagine that enforcement of the UCoC will increase the number of these unannounced global bans&lt;/blockquote&gt;
:Most global blocks and locks are executed by Stewards who are volunteers, not wmf employees. There are currently about 3 dozen Stewards, supposedly elected by the global community, however not many are aware of these elections and only a minute percentage of the global community votes. Members of the community who have been blocked globally (or at Meta) are unable to participate in these elections, even those with thousands of edits who have been part of the community for many years.
:The Stewards do not have a stewards noticeboard where community members can have questions answered. Some of the stewards have only been part of the community for a year or two, and many do not speak English well enough to understand the issues or communicate with fellow Stewards. It appears that Stewards are not accountable to members of the community, and those who are concerned are not permitted to ask questions, let alone encouraged to help others.
:There are a lot (hundreds if not more) of globally blocked (and locked) users, but I don't know where one could see who these users are or the why and who blocked  them. 
:&lt;small&gt; I posted here because I am one of the community members who are not permitted to participate in this global discussion on META . I sincerely hope that posting my input here will not be grounds for blocking me at wikiversity (its a long story, but I have been blocked for this type of &quot;offence&quot; before on another wmf-wiki, and have been threatened with further blocks since - look up editing by proxy if you don't believe this is a blockable offence). &lt;/small&gt;  [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:27, 22 April 2021 (UTC)
::Hi [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]]. I'd absolutely love to address your concerns, because, as usual, they're patently unfounded.
::1) Stewards are elected and confirmed in annual steward elections, and yes, they're volunteers. Hundreds of editors participate, and the requirements to participate are very minimal. Banners are shown to logged-in editors on practically every project and turnout is generally quite good. But yes, if you are locked or blocked on Meta you will not be able to vote, obviously. There are very few editors with your edit count who have caused enough problems on Meta-Wiki to necessitate an indefinite block from the project. You are one of them.
::2) Regarding the fact that your comment is a reply to that quote, Stewards do not impose global bans. Global community bans take weeks or months of RfC discussion on Meta-Wiki, where Foundation bans can be imposed overnight by the Foundation. So I assume the person is referring to Foundation bans. More often than not (aka basically every instance) these Foundation bans involve private information. It would be utterly asinine to expect the Foundation to make private information public to justify a ban. The point of T&amp;S is to handle such cases. And no, the UCoC would likely not have any effect on the frequency of Foundation-imposed bans.
::3) The stewards have about a dozen noticeboards which practically anyone (except you, of course, you're blocked on meta) can leave requests or questions on. There's also the Wikimedia Forum and various other pages. You have no idea what you're talking about.
::4) There are no stewards who have been around for that little amount of time, and all of them know English well enough to communicate on-wiki and with other stewards in English. Again, you have absolutely no idea what you're talking about.
::5) Stewards are accountable in elections and yearly confirmations. Concerned editors are obviously able to ask questions, whether it be on the talk pages of stewards, the various mailing lists, email queues, noticeboards, or forums. Again, you're making sweeping claims with absolutely no remote concept of what you're saying.
::6) There are tens of thousands of locked accounts. There's a public log, on Meta. Just because you failed to find it in 10 seconds of clicking doesn't mean there's an evil cabal keeping you from the truth.
::It's crap like this that got you blocked on Meta-Wiki. Here's my advice: stop making shit up. If you have a question, ask the damn question, don't assume the answer. I gave you three methods to contact me (talk page, email, IRC) on Meta, none of which you used before your block there became necessary. You even ignored talk page messages trying to help. Instead of asking questions and allowing more experienced contributors to clear things up, you decided to fabricate the answers to justify your crusade against perceived evildoers. Your comments here, based nearly entirely in personal fantasy, could very easily be confused for trolling. Regards, [[User:Vermont|Vermont]] ([[User talk:Vermont|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vermont|contribs]]) 14:13, 23 April 2021 (UTC)

== MediaWiki:Common.css Update ==

We need to update [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] to support [[Phabricator:T280766]], as noted in this week's [[Wikiversity:Newsletters/Tech News#Tech News: 2021-18|Tech News]]. Is anyone available to make the change? -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:07, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
:{{ping|Dave Braunschweig}} I can if given the rights (technically, as a global sysop I can already, but since I'm a member of the community I'd prefer not to use my GS access to go around local procedure for interface admin, though this might be worth starting a discussion about) --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 17:08, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
::{{At|DannyS712}} Rights granted. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 17:28, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
:::Copied to common.css as a temporary fix, per tech news, at some point I'll try to go through and see if these are actually needed anywhere. I'll remove the rights in a few days if nothing is broken --[[User:DannyS712|DannyS712]] ([[User talk:DannyS712|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DannyS712|contribs]]) 17:59, 3 May 2021 (UTC)

== Atcovi Custodianship ==

{{At|Bert Niehaus|Cody naccarato|DannyS712|Evolution and evolvability|Faendalimas|Green Giant|Guy vandegrift|Hasley|Juandev|Koavf|Lbeaumont|Mikael Häggström|RadiX}} Atcovi has been nominated for custodianship. It is important for active [[Wikiversity:STAFF]] to participate in these discussions. Please share your thoughts and vote. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:13, 23 May 2021 (UTC)
:Link for reference [[Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Custodianship#Atcovi_(talk_•_email_•_contribs_•_stats_•_logs_•_global_account)|Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Custodianship]]. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&amp;#65120;Evo)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 01:40, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

== [[Talk:Bell's theorem]] ==

Could someone semi-protect this page for a while, [[w:en:WP:LTA/GRP|george reeves person's]] at it again. Thanks in advance, [[User:Nigos|Nigos]] ([[User talk:Nigos|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Nigos|contribs]]) 14:15, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

:{{Done}} {{At|Nigos}} Thanks for your ongoing anti-vandalism efforts! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 16:09, 21 December 2021 (UTC)
::No problem, I was unfortunately sucked into this 2 years ago. [[User:Nigos|Nigos]] &lt;small&gt;([[User talk:Nigos|discuss]] | [[Special:Contribs/Nigos|contribs]])&lt;/small&gt; 16:10, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

== IP Editing ==

I'm posting this so Curators are aware of pending changes to anonymous editing. Custodians all received notice on their Talk pages. Please see [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation]]. There are two approaches being discussed. One will hash IP addresses. The other will implement session IDs based on cookies. If you have questions or concerns, please join the [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|discussion]] on Meta. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:43, 4 January 2022 (UTC)

:Per [[m:Checkusers, stewards and admins will be able to see complete IP addresses by opting-in to a preference where they agree not to share it with others who don't have access to this information.]] - &quot;Checkusers, stewards and admins will be able to see complete IP addresses by opting-in to a preference where they agree not to share it with others who don't have access to this information.&quot; Where is this opt-in in preferences? --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 00:12, 5 January 2022 (UTC)

::This is all in discussion. They're making a decision as to how to implement later this month. Then they code it, then they roll it out, then we'll see the opt-in preference. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:52, 5 January 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>rjasaoya9h1sf6rfw54o9l7yvxinsvl</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikiversity:Request custodian action/Archive/24</title>
    <ns>4</ns>
    <id>285693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409214</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-25T13:13:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Archive</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="19229" xml:space="preserve">== Moving mainspace pages into a project ==

''[[Binomial coefficients]]'' is a long and advanced page that gets about 3 pageviews per day.  ''[[Combinatorics]]'' is only a [[w:Wikipedia:Stub|stub]] of a project that also gets about three pages per day.  The situation on Wikiversity was so bad that I made several contributions on this topic on Wikibooks (see ''[[b:Probability/Conditional Probability]]'' and
''[[b:Probability/Combinatorics]]''.)  I also have a lot of images on commons (see for example most of the images on ''[[c:Category:Counting colored circles]]'') and ''[[c:Category:Combinations_(combinatorics)]]''.)

My plan is to develop ''[[Combinatorics]]'' as a project (meaning that it will be a short mainspace page on top of several subpages.) My two questions are:
#Should move the contents of ''[[Binomial coefficients]]'' into ''[[Combinatorics]]''? 
#If so, should I break ''[[Binomial coefficients]]'' up into two or three smaller subpages? I would think that our readers would prefer short articles that are well-linked to similar topics ... but I have absolutely no evidence to support that position.--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 13:34, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

:I don't know enough about the subject to answer question 1. But see [[Wikipedia:Chunking (psychology)]] for the answer to question 2. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:38, 29 December 2021 (UTC)
::Thanks.  I will make [[Combinatorics]] a top project page, and maybe &quot;chunk&quot; [[Binomial coefficients]] later.  Since [[Binomial coefficients]] is advanced, there is less reason to chunk it. IMHO, proper &quot;chunking&quot; takes a lot of work because each &quot;chunk&quot; should come out of a well written node that directs with carefully written abstracts.  But I have no doubt that the topic of [[Combinatorics]] deserves to be either a wikibook or a WV-project. Some of those topics have puzzled me since high school.--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

== Abuse 23 on Computer Networks/Introduction ==

Hello,

When I tried to publish my change I received an error saying my changes were potentially harmful, and to report it if I disagreed. The only change I am making is adding more &quot;Readings&quot; which are links to Wikipedia pages (IPv4, IPv6, and Subnetwork). 

-- [[User:Rprobotics|Rprobotics]] ([[User talk:Rprobotics|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rprobotics|contribs]]) 18:01, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Rprobotics}} Welcome to Wikiversity! I don't see anything wrong with your edits, but the filter it is triggering isn't ours. It's a global filter. I can only suggest that they are limiting linking by new accounts. Try working on a few more non-linking edits and give it a few days for your account to be &quot;auto confirmed&quot;. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 19:53, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

== unable to publish my page ==

hello,
when I click on 'publish' an error message pops up. I don't understand the reason.
best regards {{unsigned|Raoulpaleoeuro}}
:{{Ping|Raoulpaleoeuro}} Try putting your content at [[User:Raoulpaleoeuro/Sandbox]], then come back here and tell me that you've done it by starting off a post below mine comment &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;::{{Ping|Koavf}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot;. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 22:25, 1 February 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Raoulpaleoeuro}} New users aren't allowed to create pages with external links. Please learn more about Wikiversity and contribute to existing pages before linking to new external content. Let us know what additional questions you have. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:26, 1 February 2022 (UTC)

== LTA ==

Can you please block the range 184.96.128.0/17 or protect my talk page for vandalism? It's being abused by an LTA who has been at it since 2007. [[User:Wizzito|Wizzito]] ([[User talk:Wizzito|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wizzito|contribs]]) 18:01, 22 February 2022 (UTC)

:Protected. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:14, 22 February 2022 (UTC)

== Need help after importing a complicated template from Wikipedia ==

My understanding from [[Special:Log/Guy_vandegrift]] (16:49, 5 March 2022) is that I have a lot of pages to enter into  [[Category:Pages moved from Wikipedia]].  And, I need to add the prefix &quot;w:&quot; to any links that must be redirected back to WP.  Is that correct?  If so, it's a good thing I am retired and have time to do it ;-) --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 17:08, 5 March 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] You'll need to test the templates to make them functional. How much editing is required depends on the template. &quot;w:&quot; prefixes may be appropriate, or perhaps creating an equivalent page here that has local information or a soft redirect to Wikipedia may also work. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:07, 6 March 2022 (UTC)

::Is it possible to revert this action?  When I saw all the templates involved, I decided to instead place a permalink to the Wikipedia article that had almost what I wanted to create.  I am willing to go through with the move if you believe that importing this template is for the good of the WV community.--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 01:52, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]]: It's possible to revert, but I suspect not easy. I would first look at the history of the imported templates. If they have been imported before, you would need to revert back to the previous import. If they weren't imported before, you can delete. But if they aren't being used, there's not really an advantage either way.
:::Having the current version of Wikipedia templates may be a good thing. We just need to figure out if anything else was broken in the process and try to correct it. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:57, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
::::I am logging my efforts at [[User:Guy vandegrift/AAAListen]].  I chose this name so it appears at the to of my subpage list. I even made a weird talk page at [[User talk:Guy vandegrift/AAAListen]] --[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 15:16, 6 March 2022 (UTC)

Issues like this are what make me very hesitant to import any templates, especially from en.wp: they are ''far'' too complex and then they end up drifting out of sync and not working the same. It's a huge mess. If and when we finally have universal templates, then this will be resolved, but until then, I recommend against importing templates unless it's really necessary. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 05:11, 6 March 2022 (UTC)

== Is this a lint error? ==

I ask this question because in a draft I like to strike text before deleting it.  For example, I might write the following and tentatively delete it by striking it. for example: 

&lt;s&gt;I think &lt;math&gt;x=y&lt;/math&gt; is an equation.&lt;/s&gt; 

I also like to avoid lint errors, even in drafts.  Consider the two cases:

*Case 1 is labeled as a lint error (misnested tag s) because it contains a line break:

::&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;s&gt;I think &lt;math&gt;x=y&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;/nowiki&gt;
  
::&lt;nowiki&gt;an equation.&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

*Case 2 is not labeled a lint error:

::&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;s&gt;I think  &lt;math&gt;x=y&lt;/math&gt; is an equation.&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

My concern is that Case 2 might be a lint error that is not captured by your lintHint system.  Is it a lint error?--[[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 20:35, 17 April 2022 (UTC)

:See [https://www.w3schools.com/html/html_blocks.asp W3Schools: HTML Block and Inline Elements]. Paragraphs are blocks. Most formatting is inline. You must end inline elements before ending the block. You can use &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; to insert line breaks within a block. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:07, 17 April 2022 (UTC)

== Understanding error &quot;New User Created Page with External Link&quot; ==

Hello. I tried editing my user profile and got the following error &quot;New User Created Page with External Link&quot;. I was doing this with colleagues who were doing the same thing but did not receive that error, and I'm unsure of what I am doing wrong. The warning/error message directed me to this page and it seems like I'm supposed to post my question here? Thanks in advance for any guidance anyone can provide in understanding what I should be doing differently. --Zach April 22, 2022, 18:06 UTC

:{{At|Zdcohen}} Welcome! Wikiversity has issues with spam and vandalism and has had to restrict edit rights for new users. Your account has no edit history, so you aren't able to create pages with links yet. I'm not sure which colleagues you were working with, as no other new users have created pages today. The page you were trying to create has been added for you. You should be able to edit it now. Let us know whenever you have any questions. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:44, 22 April 2022 (UTC)

:Thanks so much! I'm very new to Wiki editing and am working with colleagues at [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science]] (have lots of reading to do to educate myself on Wiki's protocols before editing pages but was trying to set up my User page as a start). Thanks for your help! Should I delete this back-and-forth now that it's resolved? (I imagine the answer to that might be in some of this things I'll be reading...) -- [[User:Zdcohen]] 07:15, 27 April 2022 (UTC) [ reply ]
::@[[User:Zdcohen|Zdcohen]]:  In general, wiki conversations are forever. We archive them, but we typically don't delete them unless they are malicious, vandalism, created by blocked or banned editors, or are about something that no longer exists. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:21, 28 April 2022 (UTC)
:::
::: Hi! I am reading here for my own edification as well as reporting an issue (below). I read {{At|Zdcohen}}'s question as an offer to &quot;delete&quot; (= make not visible on the current version of the page) the thread here as a way of &quot;tidying up&quot; or marking it &quot;closed.&quot; Is there an etiquette or protocol for that? Or just leave it for The Custodians? Big thanks!!! [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 23:42, 22 June 2022 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] Anyone can hide something from the current version of the page. If you notice something, please address it. If there is something that should never be seen (inappropriate private, libelous, or extremely offensive content), let us know and we can delete the revision so it isn't visible to non-custodians.
::::And I know you have nothing better to do :), but you're involved enough at Wikiversity that you might want to consider Curator or Custodian status so you can help address these more advanced issues directly. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:48, 23 June 2022 (UTC)

== Suspicious looking account and inappropriate posts ==
Hi -- we are getting some malicious edits added to one of the pages we have been working on. Here's the link to one of the diff pages in history [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_assessment/Substance_use_disorder_(disorder_portfolio)&amp;diff=2402005&amp;oldid=2401994]. &quot;Educated Camel&quot; appears to have made two edits anywhere, per global, and both bad faith and poor taste. Thanks for your assistance! 
[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 23:22, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] Blocked. It looks like Hope has the malicious edits addressed, but check history just to make sure. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:42, 23 June 2022 (UTC)
::Thanks!!! Much appreciated! [[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 14:54, 23 June 2022 (UTC)


Hi! We have more inappropriate trolls on our pages... Detective Moose added a comment on [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_assessment%2FGeneralized_anxiety_disorder_%28assessment_portfolio%29&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2402270&amp;oldid=2402019 [1&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]. Thank you for your help! [[User:Hope Holloway|Hope Holloway]] ([[User talk:Hope Holloway|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hope Holloway|contribs]]) 23:33, 23 June 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]], @[[User:Hope Holloway|Hope Holloway]]: Also blocked. If you want, we can change the protection on these pages to only allow confirmed users. That requires 10 edits and four days of history to edit. There is a way we can manually confirm users (start of a new semester, for example). If you want to go this route, it will be easier if Eyoungstrom is a curator or custodian. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:29, 24 June 2022 (UTC)


Hello - we noticed another malicious edit on one of our pages in progress this morning. Here is a link to the page history where the edit in question took place [https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/2404966]. &quot;Cameron 4 studying&quot; appears to have made the edit, which has since been removed. Thank you for your continued assistance! 
[[User:Parodda|Parodda]] ([[User talk:Parodda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Parodda|contribs]]) 15:23, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Parodda|Parodda]] Now blocked. One option we have is to protect these pages by only allowing autoconfirmed users. This prevents drive-by vandalism, but it also would prevent new students from working on the page(s). Just something to consider. Also, would really like to see / add @[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] as a [[Wikiversity:Curator]] so you have someone who is familiar with the project that can add or remove protection as needed. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:28, 12 July 2022 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Thank you for blocking. I agree, it would be nice to have @[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] or someone in the HGAPS group as a curator to make these clean ups easier. Can we nominate him or does he need to be nominated by someone who is already a curator? [[User:Ncharamut|Ncharamut]] ([[User talk:Ncharamut|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ncharamut|contribs]]) 14:26, 12 July 2022 (UTC)
:::@[[User:Ncharamut|Ncharamut]] You can nominate him. Just make sure he agrees / is willing first. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:25, 12 July 2022 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] Thank you for that information. I will check with him. [[User:Ncharamut|Ncharamut]] ([[User talk:Ncharamut|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ncharamut|contribs]]) 14:37, 13 July 2022 (UTC)

== New subpage creation blocked by automod ==

Greetings. I've recently been revamping the [[Python Concepts]] course, with the most recent overhaul being [[Python Concepts/Introduction and Setup]]. For the sake of organization, I'm moving the installation instructions to sub-subpages depending on the operating system (e.g. [[Python Concepts/Introduction and Setup/Windows Installation]]). However, I've been blocked from creating the page because... drumroll please... ''it contains an external link to download Python.'' At first it tells you that you can submit it anyway by pressing create again, but after a second captcha, it just gave me the blocked message with ''no'' option to force-submit. [https://pastebin.com/7TqXXzuP Here is a pastebin] of the page I'm trying to create, what are my steps forward to get this (and eventually other) pages published? Cheers. -- [[User:Hjk321|hjk321]] ([[User talk:Hjk321|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hjk321|contribs]]) 13:03, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Hjk321|Hjk321]]: Please give it a few days. You need a few edits and a few days to automatically confirm your account. You can also try creating pages without links, but if that doesn't work yet, just give it some time and you'll be all set. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:23, 27 June 2022 (UTC)

== Regarding contributions by IP user 61.223.203.225 ==

Hello, I am LuciferianThomas, zhwikiversity (temp)sysop/custodian and zhwiki rollbacker. I am here to notify the enwikiversity custodians about the IP user 61.223.203.225, who lately has been blocked by our abuse filter at zhwikiversity and can be identified as [[:w:WP:LTA/X43]]. Their edits and page creations often include purely made-up content way past the line of original research and should be reviewed. Please help in looking into their behavior in enwikiversity and delete&amp;block if needed. With regards, '''[[User:LuciferianThomas|&lt;span style=color:#b00&gt;Luciferian&lt;/span&gt;]][[User talk:LuciferianThomas|&lt;span style=color:#e00&gt;Thomas&lt;/span&gt;]]''' 11:43, 13 July 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:LuciferianThomas|LuciferianThomas]] Done, thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 21:33, 13 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;	African records on iNat	 	7/25/2022	 Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	 Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	 Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	 Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874	 Order Diptera Flies	38453	 Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623	 Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887	 Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	 Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	 Order Neuroptera Antlio...&quot;</comment>
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	7/25/2022	
Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623	
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756	
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia</text>
      <sha1>s0twksqps3hz3yk6gblhbe9v555l2lw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409414</id>
      <parentid>2409246</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T09:32:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2007" xml:space="preserve">There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.

African records on iNat	
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>8ody2d29szcvkpfgfpkx2vcf1a539f0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409420</id>
      <parentid>2409414</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:21:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>table - no. resords</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3820" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Caption text
|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Header text
|-
| Lepidoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-

| Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|}
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.

African records on iNat	
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>azhdxcp0eqzq7qsveblu42fdfr1elw7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409421</id>
      <parentid>2409420</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:23:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved table</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3838" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Header text
|-
| Lepidoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-

| Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ofc2tjxs44lgy5g7mhnkk90tkshs8lq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409422</id>
      <parentid>2409421</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:25:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3919" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| Example || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| Example || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| Example || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-

| Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>3olbwzu4l9w5rve92hswjxk23ofp55k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409423</id>
      <parentid>2409422</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:28:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>table of orders</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3898" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Example || 36623 || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Example || 34887 || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Example || 10403 || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Example || 9138 || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Example || 5318 || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Example || Example || Example || Example
|-

| Example || Example || Example || Example || Example
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>i0z29budvco4tycfma8cmq703t9ffzg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409424</id>
      <parentid>2409423</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:35:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>table</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4096" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || Example || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || Example || Example || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>s36aymheoese9xgjlp23joqa2ihu8o8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409425</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-26T10:40:12Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Alandmanson</username>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || Example || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>2a342dlgchvm714pd7f29xnb2iykg9r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409426</id>
      <parentid>2409425</parentid>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || Example || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || Example || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || Example || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || Example || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || Example || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || Example || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || Example || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || Example || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || Example || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || Example || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || Example || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || Example || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || Example || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || Example || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || Example || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || Example || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| Example || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || Example || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || Example || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || Example || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || Example || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || Example || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || Example || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || Example || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || Example || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || Example || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || Example || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>0padhedzq3yk9y1nek25viikzobvf5a</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409427</id>
      <parentid>2409426</parentid>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 22 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 24 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 20 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 23 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 21 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 25 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 26 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 19 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 24 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 19 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2409430</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:22:08Z</timestamp>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on insect phylogeny
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>485ym35psa7ahgplag67pg6cl89f5y0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409431</id>
      <parentid>2409430</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:23:27Z</timestamp>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#internal phylogeny|insect phylogeny]]
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>sdv66b0gz0201lpsue0gmq6q2mfimv6</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <id>2409432</id>
      <parentid>2409431</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:24:01Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Alandmanson</username>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#internal_phylogeny|insect phylogeny]]
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>b4x1d1wg3fo3vampomv4ai2ebuadxt2</sha1>
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      <id>2409433</id>
      <parentid>2409432</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:26:13Z</timestamp>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#internal_phylogeny| insect phylogeny]]
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>feed8xluaxzoachpkpttaa8sk5qfptj</sha1>
    </revision>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#internal_phylogeny| insect phylogeny]
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>bbg1ujz88ty75g1021n8keefso1kqha</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409435</id>
      <parentid>2409434</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>table</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3966" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#Internal_phylogeny| insect phylogeny]
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>4fc96ir08zi83f5jga0f2yx3cfi0sa4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409436</id>
      <parentid>2409435</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:46:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3967" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of 
iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#Internal_phylogeny| insect phylogeny]
! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>kiv69bh577sv5d28kb7ieaym2chji8q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409437</id>
      <parentid>2409436</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:47:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3968" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of 
iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order
based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#Internal_phylogeny| insect phylogeny]
!! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>nc8szfsn7d6pcho1ugfaop1vj0kos7p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409438</id>
      <parentid>2409437</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:49:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3966" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect#Internal_phylogeny| insect phylogeny]!! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>4k8b012zdznzx3tw9bh1hjwga80djs0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409439</id>
      <parentid>2409438</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:49:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3882" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3 || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6 || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4 || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5 || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ciyj0fu6jfk69jodt436a8yuc8rjgk4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409441</id>
      <parentid>2409439</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:52:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3886" xml:space="preserve">
There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19 || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3a || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9 || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10 || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21 || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12 || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6b || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4a || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13 || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22 || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18 || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5b || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
      <sha1>60gu88xgu7asn7nxypa1bxsy4x0qz46</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409444</id>
      <parentid>2409441</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T11:57:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
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There are 27 orders of insects. Scientific estimates have been made of the number of species in the different orders, but how common are they in terms of numbers of organisms or biomass. This is more difficult to measure, and there are some scientists asking this question, especially now that there is some evidence of a world-wide decline in insect biomass.

From an informal learning point of view, however, the number of records (in iNaturalist) of organisms from each group gives an indication of how often people with cameras interact with that group. Here is the breakdown of the numbers of African records on iNaturalist for the different orders of insects.


{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ 	African records on iNaturalist on 25 July 2022	&lt;br&gt;

|-
! Order !! Common names !! Number of iNaturalist records !! Taxonomic order !! Number of described species
|-
| Lepidoptera || Butterflies and Moths || 226821 || 23 || Example
|-
| Coleoptera || Beetles|| 81584 || 19&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Hymenoptera || Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies || 55752 || 17 || Example
|-
| Hemiptera || True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies|| 41874 || 15 || Example
|-
| Diptera || Flies	|| 38453 || 25 || Example
|-
| Odonata || Dragonflies and Damselflies || 36623 || 3&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Orthoptera || Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids || 34887 || 8 || Example
|-
| Mantodea || Mantises || 10403 || 9&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Blattodea || Cockroaches and Termites || 9138 || 10&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Neuroptera || Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies || 5318 || 21&lt;sup&gt;f&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Phasmida || Stick Insects || 1845 || 12&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Dermaptera || Earwigs || 756 || 6&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Ephemeroptera  || Mayflies || 719 || 4&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Thysanoptera || Thrips || 477 || 16 || Example
|-
| Zygentoma || Silverfishes || 451 || 2 || Example
|-
| Trichoptera || Caddisflies || 425 || 24 || Example
|-
| Psocodea || Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice || 326|| 14 || Example
|-
| Archaeognatha || Bristletails || 109 || 1 || Example
|-
| Embiidina || Webspinners || 100 || 13&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Plecoptera || Stoneflies || 60 || 7 || Example
|-
| Megaloptera || Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies || 41 || 22&lt;sup&gt;f&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Mecoptera || Hangingflies, Scorpionflies, and Allies || 40 || 26 || Example
|-
| Siphonaptera || Fleas || 29 || 27 || Example
|-
| Notoptera || Heelwalkers and Ice Crawlers || 16 || 11 || Example
|-
| Strepsiptera || Twisted-wing Insects || 7 || 18&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; || Example
|-
| Raphidioptera || Snakeflies || 1 || 20 || Example
|-
| Zoraptera || Angel Insects || 0 || 5b || Example
|-
|}
	7/25/2022	&lt;br&gt;

Order Lepidoptera Butterflies and Moths	226821	&lt;br&gt;
Order Coleoptera Beetles	81584	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hymenoptera Ants, Bees, Wasps, and Sawflies	55752	&lt;br&gt;
Order Hemiptera True Bugs, Hoppers, Aphids, and Allies	41874&lt;br&gt;	
Order Diptera Flies	38453	&lt;br&gt;
Order Odonata Dragonflies and Damselflies	36623&lt;br&gt;
Order Orthoptera Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Katydids	34887&lt;br&gt;	
Order Mantodea Mantises	10403	&lt;br&gt;
Order Blattodea Cockroaches and Termites	9138	&lt;br&gt;
Order Neuroptera Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies	5318	&lt;br&gt;
Order Phasmida Stick Insects	1845	&lt;br&gt;
Order Dermaptera Earwigs	756&lt;br&gt;
Order Ephemeroptera Mayflies	719	&lt;br&gt;
Order Thysanoptera Thrips	477	&lt;br&gt;
Order Zygentoma Silverfishes	451	&lt;br&gt;
Order Trichoptera Caddisflies	425	&lt;br&gt;
Order Psocodea Barklice, Booklice, and Parasitic Lice	326	&lt;br&gt;
Order Archaeognatha Bristletails	109	&lt;br&gt;
Order Embiidina Webspinners	100	&lt;br&gt;
Order Plecoptera Stoneflies	60	&lt;br&gt;
Order Megaloptera Alderflies, Dobsonflies, and Fishflies	41	&lt;br&gt;
Order Mecoptera Scorpionflies, Hangingflies, and Allies	40	&lt;br&gt;
Order Siphonaptera Fleas	29	&lt;br&gt;
Order Notoptera Ice Crawlers and Heelwalkers	16&lt;br&gt;	
Order Strepsiptera Twisted-wing Insects	7&lt;br&gt;	
Order Raphidioptera Snakeflies	1	Palearctic (1 from Morocco)&lt;br&gt;
Order Zoraptera Angel Insects	0	Tropical Americas &amp; SE Asia&lt;br&gt;</text>
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      <comment>{{Information
|Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220725 - 20220723)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-07-25
|Author=Young W. Lim
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{{Information
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
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== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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      <comment>{{Information
|Description=ARM.2ASM: Vector Interrupt Controller (20220725 - 20220723)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-07-25
|Author=Young W. Lim
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== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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      <comment>{{Information
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{{Information
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-07-25
|Author=Young W. Lim
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== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-07-25
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Resources/News</title>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;'''News - National Public Broadcasters''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} * &lt;u&gt;[https://www.abc.net.au/ Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)]&lt;/u&gt; - The [[w:Australian_Broadcasting Corporation|Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)]] is Australia's national public broadcast. ** [https://www.abc.net.au/news/ ABC News] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/NewsOnABC/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] * &lt;u&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="5539" xml:space="preserve">'''News - National Public Broadcasters'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.abc.net.au/ Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)]&lt;/u&gt; - The [[w:Australian_Broadcasting Corporation|Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)]] is Australia's national public broadcast.
** [https://www.abc.net.au/news/ ABC News] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/NewsOnABC/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service BBC World Service]&lt;/u&gt; - The [[w:BBC World Service|BBC World Service]] is Great Britain's international public broadcast.
** [https://www.bbc.com/news/world BBC News] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/BBCNews YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.cbc.ca/ CBC]&lt;/u&gt; - The [[w:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|Canadian Broadcasting Company (CBC)]] is Canada's public broadcast.
** [https://www.cbc.ca/news/world CBC News] -  [https://www.youtube.com/c/CBCNews YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.dw.com/ Deutsche Welle (DW)]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:Deutsche Welle|Deutsche Welle (DW)]] is Germany's international public broadcast. 
** [https://www.youtube.com/c/dwnews/about DW News] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/dwnews YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.mediacorp.sg/ Mediacorp]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:Mediacorp|Mediacorp]] is Singapore's national public broadcaster. [https://www.youtube.com/c/mediacorpsg/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.channelnewsasia.com/ CNA News] - Channel News Asia (CNA). [https://www.youtube.com/user/channelnewsasia YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.channelnewsasia.com/cna-insider CNA Insider] - [https://www.youtube.com/cnaconnect/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/ NHK World]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:NHK|Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (NHK)]] is Japan's international public broadcast. [https://www.youtube.com/c/NHKWORLDJAPAN YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://pbcjamaica.org/ PBC Jamaica]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:Jamaica_Broadcasting_Corporation|Public Broadcasting Corporation of Jamaica (PBCJ)]] is Jamaica's public broadcaster. [https://www.youtube.com/user/pbcjamaica/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CM1_hqOsmF8&amp;list=PL77abdcxKCQ57lcQMsIpAsEYBug8gcFkS PBCJ News] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CM1_hqOsmF8&amp;list=PL77abdcxKCQ57lcQMsIpAsEYBug8gcFkS YouTube Playlist]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.pbs.org/ PBS]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:PBS|Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)]] is America's public broadcaster. [https://www.youtube.com/c/PBS/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.pbs.org/show/newshour/ PBS NewsHour] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/PBSNewsHour YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/ American Experience] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/AmericanExperiencePBS YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/ Frontline] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/frontline YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://tvpworld.com/ TVP World]&lt;/u&gt; - [[w:Telewizja Polska|Telewizja Polska (TVP)]] is Poland's public English-language broadcaster. [https://www.youtube.com/c/TVPWorld/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''News - Independent &amp; International'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.vice.com/en Vice News]&lt;/u&gt; - Vice News features independent investigative reporting and documentary films. [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCn8zNIfYAQNdrFRrr8oibKw YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.dailysabah.com/about-us Daily Sabah]&lt;/u&gt; - News from a Turkish perspective. [https://www.youtube.com/c/DailySabah YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.euractiv.com/ Euractiv]&lt;/u&gt; - News and EU policy from a Pan-European perspective. [https://www.youtube.com/c/EurActiv YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
* &lt;u&gt;[https://tldrnews.co.uk/ TLDR News]&lt;/u&gt; -TLDR News is a British independent news organization. [https://www.youtube.com/c/TLDRDaily/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://tldrnews.co.uk/category/tldr-global/ TLDR News Global] - [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC-uhvujip5deVcEtLxnW8qg YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] [https://tldrnews.co.uk/category/tldr-eu/ EU] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/TLDRNewsEU/featured YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] [https://tldrnews.co.uk/category/tldr-uk/ UK] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/TLDRNews YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] [https://tldrnews.co.uk/category/tldr-us/ US] - [https://www.youtube.com/c/TLDRNewsUS YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC85QlXFRdNTuW6Tj8zAfH-Q TLDR Podcasts - YouTube Channel]  [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Gurdjieff, George Ivanovich</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409346</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T01:26:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:George Gurdjieff|Gurdjieff, George Ivanovich (1866/1877 – 1949)]] === &lt;hr /&gt; [[File:Gurdjieff 1922.jpg|thumb|G.I. Gurdjieff]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Philosopher, mystic, spiritual teacher, composer and bard &lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt; '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gurdjieff, Georges I.}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} &lt;hr /&gt;&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="365" xml:space="preserve">{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== [[w:George Gurdjieff|Gurdjieff, George Ivanovich (1866/1877 – 1949)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Gurdjieff 1922.jpg|thumb|G.I. Gurdjieff]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Philosopher, mystic, spiritual teacher, composer and bard
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gurdjieff, Georges I.}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Daley, Allison</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409351</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T02:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Daley | first= Allison | year= 2016 | title= The Fossil Record &amp; Early Evolution of Arthropods | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ycs0lnDIr4&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="548" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Daley | first= Allison | year= 2016 | title= The Fossil Record &amp; Early Evolution of Arthropods | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ycs0lnDIr4&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=2 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:32:23)</text>
      <sha1>gwk6ndguus6q6h9kdibbjg5xub80o5p</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bottjer, David</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409357</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Bottjer | first= David | year= 2016 | title= The Paleogenomics of Echinoderms | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= University of Southern California (USC) / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDZbLzOLnIA&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="553" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Bottjer | first= David | year= 2016 | title= The Paleogenomics of Echinoderms | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= University of Southern California (USC) / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDZbLzOLnIA&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=3 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:29:34)</text>
      <sha1>e952byalrg60oa4pkln8gvidn986wtl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409361</id>
      <parentid>2409357</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:21:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="549" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Bottjer | first= David | year= 2016 | title= Paleogenomics of Echinoderms | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= University of Southern California (USC) / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDZbLzOLnIA&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=3 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:29:34)</text>
      <sha1>55uoqjl72ea52ck53wupu7nvef6fs3d</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Erwin, Douglas</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409365</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T03:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Erwin | first= Douglas | year= 2016 | title= The Role of Gene Regulatory Network Evolution in Novelty and Innovation of Animal Bodyplans | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrKi5ew8...&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="590" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Erwin | first= Douglas | year= 2016 | title= The Role of Gene Regulatory Network Evolution in Novelty and Innovation of Animal Bodyplans | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrKi5ew821U&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=4 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:30:47)</text>
      <sha1>0jxbxzfix31zeyjmyqtltx5vl8b6zfd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409374</id>
      <parentid>2409365</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T04:06:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="607" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Erwin | first= Douglas | year= 2016 | title= The Role of Gene Regulatory Network Evolution in Novelty and Innovation of Animal Bodyplans | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= National Museum of Natural History / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrKi5ew821U&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=4 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:30:47)</text>
      <sha1>9opvtezi2qt8eo2x8oipdy0qvm55btu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409392</id>
      <parentid>2409374</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T06:15:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="619" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Erwin | first= Douglas | year= 2016 | title= The Role of Gene Regulatory Network Evolution in Novelty and Innovation of Animal Bodyplans | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrKi5ew821U&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=4 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:30:47)</text>
      <sha1>45klcapsvgoxeaszyecptkqe1eq8clb</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Krumlauf, Robb</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409370</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T04:01:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Krumlauf | first= Robb | year= 2016 | title= Coupling HOX genes to Axial Patterning and Head Development in Chordate Evolution:  A Story in Segments | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watc...&quot;</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="602" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Krumlauf | first= Robb | year= 2016 | title= Coupling HOX genes to Axial Patterning and Head Development in Chordate Evolution:  A Story in Segments | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkDEFJAD7vw&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=5 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:32:06)</text>
      <sha1>bodcxto8vwym72efkkz69teaubvycsu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409373</id>
      <parentid>2409370</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T04:04:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="582" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Krumlauf | first= Robb | year= 2016 | title= Coupling HOX genes to Axial Patterning and Head Development in Chordate Evolution:  A Story in Segments | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkDEFJAD7vw&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=5 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:32:06)</text>
      <sha1>fpk5rvo1bdd6157ad5nyivyisgwh9dl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409375</id>
      <parentid>2409373</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T04:08:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="623" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Krumlauf | first= Robb | year= 2016 | title= Coupling HOX genes to Axial Patterning and Head Development in Chordate Evolution:  A Story in Segments | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Stowers Institute for Medical Research / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkDEFJAD7vw&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=5 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:32:06)</text>
      <sha1>r6d9ybxcdlb7253ygyxjiasoc1vj45p</sha1>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Buckingham, Margaret</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409377</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T04:26:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Buckingham | first= Margaret | year= 2016 | title= Different Origins and Gene Regulatory Networks That Underlie Skeletal Muscle Formation | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Pasteur Institute / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ycs0ln...&quot;</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="591" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Buckingham | first= Margaret | year= 2016 | title= Different Origins and Gene Regulatory Networks That Underlie Skeletal Muscle Formation | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Pasteur Institute / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ycs0lnDIr4&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=2 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:29:46)</text>
      <sha1>cq634n942qgfshjpyznep51dq0b3oq0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Kumar, Justin P.</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409384</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T05:19:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Kumar | first= Justin P. | year= 2016 | title= Homeotic Control of Eye Specification in Drosophila by Epigenetic Enzymes and Transcription Factors | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Indiana University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch...&quot;</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="601" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Kumar | first= Justin P. | year= 2016 | title= Homeotic Control of Eye Specification in Drosophila by Epigenetic Enzymes and Transcription Factors | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Indiana University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ytzv9ksxETo&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=7 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:31:31)</text>
      <sha1>hh9ttt6tlu8xbdfux7wgbmoc0v9n57t</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Shvartsman, Stanislav</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409387</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T05:30:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Shvartsman | first= Stanislav | year= 2016 | title= Making 3-D Structures | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Princeton University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26spOzHko6E&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=8 }} Fil...&quot;</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="530" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Shvartsman | first= Stanislav | year= 2016 | title= Making 3-D Structures | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Princeton University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26spOzHko6E&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=8 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:29:34)</text>
      <sha1>d4pon4kowlhz42d6dozqdosgqzsb51q</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gottgens, Berthold</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2409389</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T05:42:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite AV media | last= Gottgens | first= Berthold | year= 2016 | title= Regulatory Network Control of Blood Cell Development | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxdQlx30k14&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhH...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="556" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Gottgens | first= Berthold | year= 2016 | title= Regulatory Network Control of Blood Cell Development | series=  National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Gene Regulatory Networks and Network Models in Development and Evolution held on April 12-14, 2016 in Irvine, CA. | publisher= Oxford University / NAS Colloquia | publication-date= May 9, 2016 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxdQlx30k14&amp;list=PLGJm1x3XQeK2wnLVM6k5gAZhHS1EqLY_d&amp;index=11 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:31:10)</text>
      <sha1>mhg9gvgxg52g7i3rq4jhnze7d5r8bzi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2409391</id>
      <parentid>2409389</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-26T05:45:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="753" xml:space="preserve">Potentially part of an informal learning project - Life in Africa or Biodiversity in Africa.&lt;br&gt;

My thinking is that CC-BY and CC-0 records from iNaturalist, and their associated stories (in iNat Journal, facebook groups, etc.) can be captured or linked to in a project that can easily be referenced.

My interests include insects in general, and soil-dwelling arthropods. Within those, some groups are well represented on the web - Lepidoptera, ants, dragonflies, figs and their associated ecology are examples. However, other groups have little reference material that is easily understood by the layman. [[User:Alandmanson|Alandmanson]] ([[User talk:Alandmanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alandmanson|contribs]]) 09:13, 26 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="760" xml:space="preserve">== Potentially part of an informal learning project - Life in Africa or Biodiversity in Africa. ==
&lt;br&gt;

My thinking is that CC-BY and CC-0 records from iNaturalist, and their associated stories (in iNat Journal, facebook groups, etc.) can be captured or linked to in a project that can easily be referenced.

My interests include insects in general, and soil-dwelling arthropods. Within those, some groups are well represented on the web - Lepidoptera, ants, dragonflies, figs and their associated ecology are examples. However, other groups have little reference material that is easily understood by the layman. [[User:Alandmanson|Alandmanson]] ([[User talk:Alandmanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Alandmanson|contribs]]) 09:13, 26 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
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Hello! My name is Cassie, I am a part-time Psychology Student, majoring in Forensic and Legal studies. 

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 118 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Death Drive]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
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Hello! My name is Cassie, I am a part-time Psychology Student, majoring in Forensic and Legal studies. 

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 118 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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